Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus, 1758)

Sáfián, Szabolcs, 2021, The highly invasive Siam Weed, Chromolaena odorata (L.) King and Robinson (Asteraceae), as a seasonal prime nectar source for butterflies (Lepidoptera: Papilionoidea) and other insects (Insecta: Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Coleoptera) in West Africa, Metamorphosis 32 (1), pp. 49-57 : 49

Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus, 1758) – WOL, KPA, NIM

(Fig. 5)

Amauris niavius niavius (Linnaeus, 1758) – NIM, BIM Amauris tartarea tartarea Mabille, 1876 – NIM

Amauris damocles damocles (Fabricius, 1793) – NIM

SATYRINAE

Ypthima doleta Kirby, 1880 – NIM

NYMPHALINAE

Vanessa cardui (Linnaeus, 1758) – NIM

Antanartia delius delius (Drury, 1782) – WOL

Precis octavia octavia (Cramer, 1777) – WOL

Precis pelarga (Fabricius, 1775) – BIM

Precis sinuata sinuata Plötz, 1880 – NIM

Hypolimnas misippus (Linnaeus, 1764) – WOL, KPA, NIM

Hypolimnas salmacis salmacis (Drury, 1773) – BIM Protogoniomorpha cytora (Doubleday, [1847]) – NIM Protogoniomorpha parhassus (Drury, 1782) – NIM Junonia oenone oenone (Linnaeus, 1758) – KPA, NIM Junonia terea terea (Drury, 1773) – KPA, NIM Catacroptera cloanthe ligata Rothschild & Jordan, 1903 – NIM

CYRESTINAE

Cyrestis camillus (Fabricius, 1781) – NIM, BIM

HELICONIINAE

Acraea camaena (Drury, 1773) – KPA, NIM

Acraea endoscota Le Doux, 1928 – KPA, NIM

Acraea eugenia Karsch, 1893 – BIM

Acraea quirina (Fabricius, 1781) – WOL, KPA, NIM, BIM (Fig. 6)

Acraea abdera eginopsis Aurivillius, [1899] – PUT Acraea egina egina (Cramer, [1775]) – WOL, KPA, NIM, BIM

Acraea pseudegina Westwood, [1852] – BIM

Acraea kraka Aurivillius, 1893 – PUT (Fig. 7)

Acraea rogersi Hewitson, 1873 – NIM, BIM

Acraea consanguinea consanguinea (Aurivillius, 1893) – BIM

Acraea epaea epaea (Cramer, [1779]) – NIM, BIM Acraea macaria (Fabricius, 1793) – NIM

Acraea vestalis vestalis Felder & Felder, [1865] – NIM

(Fig. 8)

Telchinia alciope (Hewitson, [1852]) /

T. aurivillii aurivillii (Staudinger, 1896) – NIM, PUT, BIM

Telchinia bonasia (Fabricius, 1775) – NIM

Telchinia circeis (Drury, 1782) – WOL, NIM

Telchinia encedana (Pierre, 1976) – KPA

Telchinia jodutta jodutta (Fabricius, 1793) – WOL Telchinia lycoa (Godart, [1819]) – NIM, PUT, BIM Telchinia pharsalus (Ward, 1871) – NIM, BIM

Telchinia polis (Pierre, 1999) – PUT, BIM

Telchinia serena (Fabricius, 1775) – KPA

Telchinia vesperalis (Grose-Smith, 1890) – PUT Telchinia oberthueri (Butler, 1895) – BIM

Telchinia orestia (Hewitson, 1874) – BIM

Telchinia peneleos peneleos (Ward, 1871) – NIM, ATE, BIM

Telchinia penelope derubescens (Eltringham, 1912) – LAR

Telchinia perenna perenna (Doubleday, [1847]) – NIM, BIM

Lachnoptera anticlia (Hübner, [1819]) – KPA, NIM Phalanta eurytis eurytis (Doubleday, [1847]) –NIM

LIMENITINAE ( LIMENITIDINAE )

Cymothoe egesta (Cramer, [1775]) – NIM

Cymothoe sangaris sangaris (Godart, [1824]) – NIM Pseudacraea semire (Cramer, [1779]) – NIM

Neptis nemetes nemetes Hewitson, [1868] – KPA, NIM Neptis saclava marpessa Hopffer, 1855 – BIM

Neptis serena serena Overlaet, 1955 – WOL, NIM Neptis agouale Pierre-Baltus, 1978 – NIM

PIERIDAE

Catopsilia florella (Fabricius, 1775) – WOL, KPA, NIM Eurema senegalensis (Boisduval, 1836) – NIM

Eurema hecabe solifera (Butler, 1875) – KPA, NIM, BIM Nepheronia argia argia (Fabricius, 1775) – KPA, NIM Nepheronia thalassina thalassina (Boisduval, 1836) – KPA, NIM

Belenois calypso calypso (Drury, 1773) – KPA, NIM, BIM

Appias sylvia sylvia (Fabricius, 1775) – NIM

Appias perlucens (Butler, 1898) – BIM

Appias sabina sabina (Felder & Felder, [1865]) – NIM Leptosia alcesta alcesta (Stoll, [1782]) – NIM

Mylothris chloris chloris (Fabricius, 1775) – NIM, BIM Mylothris dimidiata Aurivillius, 1898 – NIM

Mylothris sulphurea sulphurea Aurivillius, 1895 – BIM Mylothris poppea (Cramer, [1777]) – NIM

Mylothris rhodope (Fabricius, 1775) – NIM

Mylothris schumanni schumanni Suffert, 1904 – BIM

LYCAENIDAE

APHNAEINAE

Aphnaeus orcas (Drury, 1782) – NIM

Axiocerses harpax harpax (Fabricius, 1775) – KPA, NIM Cigaritis crustaria ( Holland, 1890) – BIM

Cigaritis iza (Hewitson, [1865]) – GOL, NIM

POLYOMMATINAE

Anthene larydas (Cramer, [1780]) – KPA, NIM, BIM Anthene sylvanus (Drury, 1773) – BIM

Anthene irumu (Stempffer, 1948) – NIM

Anthene princeps (Butler, 1876) – NIM (Fig. 9)

Anthene amarah amarah (Guérin-Méneville, 1849) – NIM

Neurellipes lusones (Hewitson, 1874) – NIM

Neurellips juba (Fabricius, 1787) – NIM

Neurellipes lysicles lysicles (Hewitson, 1874) – BIM Triclema rufoplagata rufoplagata Bethune-Baker, 1910 – KPA

Triclema lamias lamias (Hewitson, [1878]) – NIM Cupidesthes jacksoni Stempffer, 1969 – BIA

Lampides boeticus (Linnaeus, 1767) – KPA

Leptotes pirithous pirithous (Linnaeus, 1767) – NIM, BIM

Tuxentius carana kontu (Karsch, 1893) – NIM Eicochrysops hippocrates (Fabricius, 1793) – NIM Azanus isis (Drury, 1773) – KPA, NIM

THECLINAE (Fig. 10)

Hypolycaena philippus philippus (Fabricius, 1793) – NIM Hypolycaea liara liara Druce, 1890 – NIM

Hypolycaena lebona -group – NIM, BIM

Hypolycaena antifaunus antifaunus (Westwood, [1851]) – NIM

Deudorix lorisona lorisona (Hewitson, 1862) – NIM, LAR

Deudorix kayonza Stempffer, 1956 – NIM, BIA Deudorix dinomenes diomedes Jackson, 1966 – BIA Pilodeudorix camerona camerona (Plötz, 1880) – BIA Pilodeudorix diyllus diyllus (Hewitson, [1878]) – BIA Pilodeudorix caerulea (Druce, 1890) – LAR Pilodeudorix leonina (Bethune-Baker, 1904) – NIM Pilodeudorix virgata (Druce, 1891) – KPA

Pilodeudorix kiellandi (Congdon & Collins, 1998) – NIM Pilodeudorix violetta (Aurivillius, 1897) – NIM, LAR

The butterflies observed nectaring on C. odorata represent the five major African families, Papilionidae , Hesperiidae , Nymphalidae , Pieridae and Lycaenidae , excluding only Riodinidae , members of which are generally very scarce in West Africa and tend to stay inside closed canopy forest in good condition ( Larsen 2005). Although all species are known to be nectar-feeders, members of Papilionidae represent only 4 % of all recorded species, as the family is rather species-poor in West Africa. Pieridae are also generally nectar-feeders and tend to seek food in open areas and forest edges rather than in the darker forest interior (except for a few species of Leptosia and the unique Pseudopontia ) ( Larsen 2005), but the family is not particularly species-rich in West Africa with only 11 % of the recorded species belonging to Pieridae . Many of them are common, with good dispersal abilities, and with tolerance for habitat degradation. Lycaenidae make up 22 % of all species recorded, dominated by the subfamilies Polyommatinae and Theclinae and are only exceeded by Hesperiidae , representing 27 % and Nymphalidae 36 % of all species recorded.

Moths observed nectaring on C. odorata

Only diurnal moths were recorded during the observations, but nocturnal groups are also expected to visit the flowers. Most often two common species of Synthomiini were observed nectaring on C. odorata ; a species near Amata alicia (Butler, 1876) / A. francisa (Butler, 1876) (Fig. 11) and Euchromia folletii (Guérin-Méneville, 1832) (= formosa (Boisduval, 1833)) ( Fig. 12 ). A number of Crambidae also frequently visit C. odorata flowers, including Bocchoris inspersalis (Zeller, 1852) and Phostria hesusalis (Walker, 1859) as observed in the Nimba Mountains. They are normally nocturnal and are attracted to artificial light ( Poltavsky et al., 2019), but it seems that the availability of the food-source may also influence their general feeding habits. Day-flying Hyblaeidae also feed on the nectar of C. odorata as observed on a few occasions (Fig. 13). A single clearwing specimen in the tribe Synanthedonini ( Sesiidae , Sesiinae ) was collected on C. odorata in January 2001 by the author in Bia National Park, Ghana and a single pterophorid was observed on the flowers at Kpatawee Waterfalls, Liberia. Other micromoths were also seen on the flowers during the day, but only occasionally.

Other insects and predators observed on C. odorata

C. odorata flowers attract an incredible variety of nectar/sugar/pollen-feeding insects, often also a great number of individuals. Of Hymenoptera, Africanized Honey Bee ( Apis mellifera scutellata ) workers are among the most frequent visitors (Fig. 14), but various groups of solitary bees and other wild bees (Apoidea) are also attracted. However, passing Carpenter Bees (Xylocopinae) seem to largely avoid C. odorata . Several wasp ( Vespidae ) species were observed feeding on the flowers (Fig. 15). Observations on Diptera were relatively few and were restricted to species of Hoverflies ( Syrphidae ). Of beetles ( Coleoptera ), members of Scarabaeidae : Cetoniinae, were the most frequent visitors, such as Pachnoda cordata obsoleta Schaum, 1844 and Oxythyrea (Stichothyrea) guttifera (Afzelius, 1817) (Figs 16–17).

Predators also seem to adapt very quickly to the newly established rich food source. Visiting insects are often caught by crab-spiders ( Araneae , Thomisidae ) (Fig. 18), and species of African Flower Mantis ( Pseudocreobotra spp. ) regularly hide among C. odorata flowerheads, waiting for prey (Fig. 19).

Figures

Figure 12 – Mating pair of Euchromia folletii (Guérin-Méneville, 1832) (=formosa (Boisduval, 1833)) is probably the most frequently observed moth species nectaring on C. odorata flowers; Figure 13 – Members of the moth family Hyblaeidae are often diurnal and they often visit flowers, including those of C. odorata; Figure 14 – Africanised Honey Bees (Apis mellifica scutellata) workers are the most frequent visitors and potential pollinators of C. odorata flowers; Figure 15 – A wide range of wasps (Hymenoptera, Vespidae, Eumeninae) also visit C. odorata flowers; Figure 16 – Chafers, like Pachnoda cordata obsoleta Schaum, 1844 (Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae, Cetoniinae) are equally attracted to fermented fruit and nectar; Figure 17 – Others are mainly nectar-feeders, like the small chafer Oxythyrea (Stichothyrea) guttifera (Afzelius, 1817); Figure 18 – Crab spiders (Araneae, Thomisidae) can easily hide among the lobed corollae until a prey, in this case a honey bee, is within reach; Figure 19 – Flower Mantises (Pseudocreobotra spp.) (Mantodea, Mantidae) frequently hide between the flowers of C. odorata, waiting for a prey. It is fine example of adaptation, a change of habitat, induced by the availability of newly established food source.