taxonID	type	description	language	source
03D18783E02608745355F98A47BDE7EA.taxon	distribution	DISTRIBUTION: Vampyrodes is known from southern Mexico southward to Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Trinidad and Tobago, northern, eastern, and western Brazil, Ecuador, eastern Peru, and northern Bolivia (fig. 6). EMENDED DIAGNOSIS: Vampyrodes is a genus of medium to large-sized fruit-eating bats (FA 47.3 – 58.6 mm, GLS 25.1 – 29.1 mm, CCL 22.0 – 25.7 mm; tables 4 – 5). Dorsal fur pale brown to dark brown, with individual hairs bicolored with pale base and darker tip; ventral fur slightly grayer than dorsal fur, with individual hairs tricolored, with a basal pale brownish band that makes up some 70 % to 80 % of the total length of each hair, a short dark brown (~ 10 % of the total length of each hair) subterminal band, and a tiny pale brownish terminal band; dorsal stripe brilliant white and wide; conspicuous facials stripes, supraorbital facial stripes extend from the lateral margin of the noseleaf to the top of the head between the ears, malar stripes extend from the corner of the mouth to the base of the ears; folds in the pinnae are not well marked but are distinguishable; enamel surface of the upper and lower dentition with periky- a The sample mean plus or minus one standard deviation, the observed range (in parentheses), and the sample size are provided for each sex. b Holotype of V. caraccioli, a subadult of unknown sex. c Holotype of V. ornatus, an adult female. mata (fig. 7, top); sulcus mesial to P 4 absent; lingual cingulae absent at the bases of the metacones of M 1 and M 2; M 3 absent; p 4 lingual accessory cuspule present; lingual cingulid absent on m 1; stylid cusp mesial of the protoconid of m 1 absent. Vampyrodes is easily distinguished from Chiroderma by the presence of nasal bones (absent in Chiroderma) and mesiodistally broad and buccolingually compressed upper incisors (slender and pointed in Chiroderma); from Platyrrhinus and Uroderma by the absence of M 3 (present in Platyrrhinus and Uroderma); and from Vampyressa and Vampyriscus by its greater skull length (shorter in Vampyressa and Vampyriscus: GLS <24 mm).	en	Velazco, PaúL M., Simmons, Nancy B. (2011): Systematics and Taxonomy of Great Striped-Faced Bats of the Genus Vampyrodes Thomas, 1900 (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae). American Museum Novitates 2011 (3710): 1-36, DOI: 10.1206/3710.2, URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1206/3710.2
03D18783E02608745355F98A47BDE7EA.taxon	discussion	REMARKS: Perikymata or “ waves around the tooth ” seen on some mammalian teeth are transverse lines on the enamel that are external manifestations of incremental lines of Retzius (Moss-Salentijn et al., 1997). Perikymata present in Vampyrodes can be directly observed with the aid of a dissecting scope as long they have not been completely eroded by tooth wear. Poorly developed perikymata can be observed in species of Artibeus (A. jamaicensis: AMNH 177758; A. lituratus: AMNH 260239) and Dermanura (D. anderseni: AMNH 210822; D. cinerea: AMNH 29689; D. glauca: AMNH 24393). Perikymata have been reported in Artiodactyla (Kierdorf et al., 2000), Carnivora (present in Hyaenidae [Ferretti, 2007] but absent in Canis and Felis [Skobe et al., 1985]), = Notoungulata (Gelfo et al., 2008), Perissodactyla (Hillson, 2005; von Koenigswald et al., 2011), most Primates (including fossil and recent Hominidae; Beynon and Wood, 1987; Maas and Dumont, 1999; Guatelli-Steinberg et al., 2004), Proboscidea (Ferretti, 2008), and some Rodentia (Flynn and Morgan, 2005). This is the first record of perikymata in Chiroptera to our knowledge (Lester and Hand, 1987; Lester et al., 1988).	en	Velazco, PaúL M., Simmons, Nancy B. (2011): Systematics and Taxonomy of Great Striped-Faced Bats of the Genus Vampyrodes Thomas, 1900 (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae). American Museum Novitates 2011 (3710): 1-36, DOI: 10.1206/3710.2, URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1206/3710.2
03D18783E023086E50EDFBCC454CE67C.taxon	description	Figures 1, 2, 8, 9, and 10	en	Velazco, PaúL M., Simmons, Nancy B. (2011): Systematics and Taxonomy of Great Striped-Faced Bats of the Genus Vampyrodes Thomas, 1900 (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae). American Museum Novitates 2011 (3710): 1-36, DOI: 10.1206/3710.2, URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1206/3710.2
03D18783E023086E50EDFBCC454CE67C.taxon	materials_examined	TYPE MATERIAL: The holotype of V. caraccioli is BMNH 89.6.10.2, a subadult of undetermined sex prepared as a skin and skull. The skin is in good condition, but the skull is damaged. The braincase was removed, a distal section of the parietals are missing, and there is a hole on the right parietal. The occipital bone is mostly missing, although the proximal section of the basioccipital is present; the left squamosal and zygomatic arch are missing. The mandibles are intact but were separated at some point and glued together afterward. V. caraccioli was collected by Henry Caracciolo in Trinidad at an unspecified locality.	en	Velazco, PaúL M., Simmons, Nancy B. (2011): Systematics and Taxonomy of Great Striped-Faced Bats of the Genus Vampyrodes Thomas, 1900 (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae). American Museum Novitates 2011 (3710): 1-36, DOI: 10.1206/3710.2, URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1206/3710.2
03D18783E023086E50EDFBCC454CE67C.taxon	distribution	DISTRIBUTION: Vampyrodes caraccioli is known from eastern Colombia, eastern Ecuador, Peru, northern Bolivia, Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, and Brazil (fig. 6). EMENDED DIAGNOSIS: Dorsal fur pale brown to dark brown, 7 – 9 mm long; two genal vibrissae present; uropatagium with inverted U-shaped posterior margin fringed with short (<2 mm) dense hair along its free edge; metacarpal III longer than metacarpal V; rostrum slender; well-developed anterior notch present in nasals; parietal foramina well separated from nuchal crest; weakly developed groove present between occipital condyle and paracondylar process; paraoccipital processes well developed; perikymata present on all upper and lower teeth; I 1 broad and bilobed but appears single lobed in older individuals with worn teeth; M 1 postentoconule absent or poorly developed; M 2 parastyle absent or poorly developed; M 2 postentoconule absent or weakly developed; lower incisors robust and bilobed; lingual accessory cuspule present on p 4; cuspule on m 1 and m 2 paracristid absent.	en	Velazco, PaúL M., Simmons, Nancy B. (2011): Systematics and Taxonomy of Great Striped-Faced Bats of the Genus Vampyrodes Thomas, 1900 (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae). American Museum Novitates 2011 (3710): 1-36, DOI: 10.1206/3710.2, URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1206/3710.2
03D18783E023086E50EDFBCC454CE67C.taxon	description	DESCRIPTION AND COMPARISONS: A medium-sized Vampyrodes (FA 47.28 – 55.98 mm; GLS 25.14 – 27.97 mm; CCL 21.98 – 24.98 mm; table 4). All linear measurements of V. caraccioli show a slight overlap with those of V. major, with V. caraccioli being the smaller of the two species (tables 4 – 5). Dorsal pelage in V. caraccioli is long (7 – 9 mm) and brown, with individual hairs bicolored with darker tips. Compared with V. major, the pelage tends to be slightly lighter and the hairs shorter (9 – 10 mm in V. major). The ventral pelage is similar but slightly darker, with individual hairs tricolored, with a basal pale brownish band that makes up some 70 % to 80 % of the total length of each hair. Each hair also has a short dark brown (~ 10 % of the total length of each hair) subterminal band, and a tiny pale brownish terminal band. The uropatagium in V. caraccioli has an inverted U-shaped posterior margin with dense and short hair (<2 mm) along the trailing edge (V-shaped posterior margin in V. major with dense and long hair (> 2 mm) along the trailing edge). The width of uropatagium in V. caraccioli is 5 – 9 mm at midline (6 – 10 mm in V. major). The proximal half of forearm is covered with dense, short hair. Metacarpal III is longer than metacarpal V in V. caraccioli (the metacarpal III is shorter than metacarpal V in V. major). The plagiopatagium inserts onto the tarsal bones. Two genal vibrissae are present in V. caraccioli (three genal vibrissae are present in V. major). V. caraccioli has six vibrissae surrounding the margin of the noseleaf in a single array; two vibrissae on each side of upper lip below the vibrissae surrounding the noseleaf; four submental vibrissae on each side of chin; and two interramal vibrissae. The noseleaf is longer than it is wide and the inferior border of the nasal horseshoe is completely free of upper lip. The skull of V. caraccioli has a slender rostrum (broad and robust in V. major) and a welldeveloped anterior notch in the nasals (absent or weakly developed in V. major). Two infraorbital foramina usually present (three infraorbital foramina are present on one specimen examined: USNM 405129). The parietal foramina are well separated from the nuchal crest in V. caraccioli (USNM 405129; figs. 8 A, 10 A) whereas in V. major (FMNH 127114; figs. 8 C, 10 B) these foramina are closer to the nuchal crest. The groove between the occipital condyle and paracondylar process is weakly developed (USNM 405129; FMNH 139776; fig. 10 A). Compared with V. major, the groove between the occipital condyle and paracondylar process is well developed (FMNH 58263; fig. 10 B). The paraoccipital processes are well developed (moderately developed in V. major). Perikymata are present on all upper and lower teeth (fig. 7, top). The upper inner incisors are broad; both the outer and inner incisors are bilobate (USNM 361711), but may appear single lobed in older individuals with worn teeth (USNM 528341). By comparison, in V. major the upper inner incisors are slender. P 3 is more than half the size of P 4 in V. caraccioli, and two stylar cuspules are present on posterior cristid of P 4. The M 1 lacks a parastyle but both a mesostyle and metastyle are present, and a stylar cuspule is present on the labial cingulum of the metacone. A sulcus is present on the posterior cristid of the M 1 paracone, the protocone is well developed, and a postentoconule is absent or poorly developed on M 1. On M 2 the parastyle is absent or poorly developed (FMNH 139776) (well developed in V. major), the labial cingulum on the paracone is absent or poorly developed, and the postentoconule is absent or poorly developed (well developed in V. major). The lower incisors are robust and bilobed (small in V. major). A p 4 lingual accessory cuspule is present. A cuspule on the m 1 paracristid is absent in V. caraccioli (present in V. major). A cuspule on the m 2 paracristid is always absent in V. caraccioli. In V. major, this cuspule is sometimes present (AMNH 186381) and sometimes absent (USNM 314717). NATURAL HISTORY: Vampyrodes caraccioli is a frugivorous bat that has been reported to feed on at least six plant species representing three genera in two families: Spondias mombin (Anacardiaceae) and Ficus insipida, F. obtusifolia, F. yoponensis, F. sp, and Poulsenia armata (Moraceae) (Foster et al., 1986; Kalko and Handley, 2001; Lobova et al., 2009). Lobova et al. (2009) reported an epizoochorous dispersal by V. caraccioli of Cyathula prostrata (Amaranthaceae), a terrestrial herb with diaspores that adhere to the fur of its dispersal agents. Very few reports of roosts of Vampyrodes caraccioli have been published. Day roosts include foliage, branches, and palm fronds where groups of two to four have been recorded (Husson, 1954; Goodwin and Greenhall, 1961). Two species of ectoparasite (Periglischrus iheringi: Spinturnicidae; Speleochir brasiliensis: Ereynetidae) have been reported from V. caraccioli from a Brazilian specimen (Confalonieri, 1976; Fain and Aitken, 1969) and one from a Venezuelan specimen (Paratrichobius sp., salvini complex: Streblidae) (Wenzel, 1976). Nogueira et al. (2004) reported that 66 % of V. caraccioli captured in western Amazonia of Brazil were infested with trematode Hasstilesia tricolor in their small intestines. Like other stenodermatines, Vampyrodes caraccioli has a litter size of one (Tuttle, 1970; Graham, 1987). Reproductive data suggest possible seasonal polyestry; pregnant females have a The sample mean plus or minus one standard deviation, the observed range (in parentheses), and the sample size are provided for each sex. b Holotype of V. major, an adult female. been captured in July, September, October, November, December, and January (Tuttle, 1970; Davis and Dixon, 1976; Graham, 1987; Moya and Arteaga, 2007). Lactating females have been captured in October (Moya and Arteaga, 2007). KARYOLOGY: Vampyrodes caraccioli has a diploid chromosome number (2 n) of 30 and a fundamental number (FN) of 56. The X chromosome is subtelocentric and the Y chromosome is submetacentric (Baker and Hsu, 1970; Baker, 1973).	en	Velazco, PaúL M., Simmons, Nancy B. (2011): Systematics and Taxonomy of Great Striped-Faced Bats of the Genus Vampyrodes Thomas, 1900 (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae). American Museum Novitates 2011 (3710): 1-36, DOI: 10.1206/3710.2, URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1206/3710.2
03D18783E023086E50EDFBCC454CE67C.taxon	discussion	REMARKS: The holotype of Vampyrodes ornatus BMNH 24.3.1.63, is an adult female with a hole on the right parietal, missing the right tympanic bula and both m 3. Measurements of this holotype are shown in table 4. Forman and Genoways (1979) reported that the head morphology of the sperm of V. caraccioli is unique in being long and having an unusually narrow apex and base.	en	Velazco, PaúL M., Simmons, Nancy B. (2011): Systematics and Taxonomy of Great Striped-Faced Bats of the Genus Vampyrodes Thomas, 1900 (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae). American Museum Novitates 2011 (3710): 1-36, DOI: 10.1206/3710.2, URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1206/3710.2
03D18783E039086250B3FD3C40A0E52C.taxon	description	Figures 8 – 10	en	Velazco, PaúL M., Simmons, Nancy B. (2011): Systematics and Taxonomy of Great Striped-Faced Bats of the Genus Vampyrodes Thomas, 1900 (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae). American Museum Novitates 2011 (3710): 1-36, DOI: 10.1206/3710.2, URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1206/3710.2
03D18783E039086250B3FD3C40A0E52C.taxon	materials_examined	TYPE MATERIAL: The holotype MCZ 6756, an adult female, preserved in alcohol with the skull removed and cleaned, was collected by Allen Lesley at San Pablo, Isthmus of Panama, Canal Zone, Panama. The body and skull are in good condition. The type locality is now covered by the waters of Gatún Lake (Goldman, 1920).	en	Velazco, PaúL M., Simmons, Nancy B. (2011): Systematics and Taxonomy of Great Striped-Faced Bats of the Genus Vampyrodes Thomas, 1900 (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae). American Museum Novitates 2011 (3710): 1-36, DOI: 10.1206/3710.2, URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1206/3710.2
03D18783E039086250B3FD3C40A0E52C.taxon	distribution	DISTRIBUTION: Vampyrodes major is known from southern Mexico (Chiapas and Oaxaca), Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, western Colombia and Ecuador (fig. 6). V. major is expected to occur in El Salvador, but has not been reported yet (Burt and Stirton, 1961; Owen et al., 1991). EMENDED DIAGNOSIS: Dorsal fur is dark brown, 9 – 10 mm long; three genal vibrissae present; inverted V-shaped posterior margin of the uropatagium; uropatagium fringed with long (> 2 mm), dense hair along trailing edge; metacarpal III shorter than metacarpal V; rostrum broad and robust; parietal foramina close to nuchal crest; absent or weakly developed anterior notch in the nasals; well-developed groove present between the occipital condyle and paracondylar process; paraoccipital processes moderately developed; perikymata present on all upper and lower teeth; I 1 slender and bilobed but appears single lobed in older individuals with worn teeth; M 1 postentoconule absent or poorly developed; M 2 parastyle well developed; M 2 postentoconule well developed; lower incisors small and bilobed; lingual accessory cuspule present on p 4; cuspule on m 1 paracristid present; cuspule on m 2 paracristid sometimes present and sometime absent.	en	Velazco, PaúL M., Simmons, Nancy B. (2011): Systematics and Taxonomy of Great Striped-Faced Bats of the Genus Vampyrodes Thomas, 1900 (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae). American Museum Novitates 2011 (3710): 1-36, DOI: 10.1206/3710.2, URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1206/3710.2
03D18783E039086250B3FD3C40A0E52C.taxon	description	DESCRIPTION AND COMPARISONS: A medium-sized Vampyrodes (FA 51.36 – 58.64 mm; GLS 26.26 – 29.06 mm; CCL 23.09 – 25.71 mm; table 5). All linear measurements of V. major show a small overlap with those of V. caraccioli with V. major being the larger of the two species (tables cioli (USNM 405129; male); the stylohyal was reconstructed from USNM 582872. Lateral views of the skulls and lower jaw of (B) V. major (FMNH 127114; male). 4 – 5). The dorsal pelage in V. major is long (9 – 10 mm) and brown, with individual hairs bicolored with darker tips. Compared with V. caraccioli, the pelage tends to slightly darker and the hairs longer (7 – 9 mm in V. caraccioli). The ventral pelage is similar but slighty darker than in the latter species, with individuals hairs tricolored, with a basal pale brownish band that makes up some 70 % to 80 % of the total length of each hair, a short dark brown (~ 10 % of the total length of each hair) subterminal band, and a tiny pale brownish terminal band. The uropatagium in V. major has an inverted V-shaped posterior margin with dense and long hair (> 2 mm) along the trailing edge (U-shaped posterior margin, with dense and short hair (<2 mm) along the trailing edge in V. caraccioli). The width of uropatagium in V. major is 6 – 10 mm long at midline (in V. caraccioli the uropatagium tends to be slightly shorter, 5 – 9 mm). The proximal half of forearm in V. major is covered with dense, short hair. Metacarpal III is shorter than metacarpal V in V. major (metacarpal III is longer than metacarpal V in V. caraccioli). The plagiopatagium inserts onto the tarsal bones in both species. Three genal vibrissae are present in V. major (two genal vibrissae are present in V. caraccioli). V. major has six vibrissae surrounding the margin of the noseleaf in a single array; two vibrissae on each side of upper lip below the vibrissae surrounding the noseleaf; four submental vibrissae on each side of chin; two interramal vibrissae. The noseleaf is longer than wide and the inferior border of nasal horseshoe is completely free of upper lip. The skull of V. major has a broad and robust rostrum (slender in V. caraccioli) and the anterior notch in the nasals is absent or weakly developed (well developed in V. caraccioli). Two infraorbital foramina are usually present (multiple infraorbital foramina [> 4] are present on one specimen examined: USNM 309833). The parietal foramina are close to the nuchal crest (FMNH 127114; fig. 10 B), whereas they are located much further from the nuchal crest in V. caraccioli (USNM 405129; fig. 10 A). The groove between the occipital condyle and paracondylar process is well developed (FMNH 58263; fig. 10 B); in comparison, in V. caraccioli the groove between the occipital condyle and paracondylar process is weakly developed (USNM 405129; FMNH 139776; fig. 10 A). The paraoccipital processes are moderately developed in V. major (well developed in V. caraccioli). Perikymata are present in all upper and lower teeth in V. major. The upper inner incisors are slender; both outer and inner incisors are bilobate (FMNH 127114; USNM 539812), but appear single lobed in older individuals with worn teeth (AMNH 186381). Within comparison, in V. caraccioli, the upper inner incisors are mesiodistally broad. P 3 is more than half the size of P 4, and there are two stylar cuspules present on posterior cristid of P 4 in V. major. The M 1 parastyle is absent, but both a mesostyle and metastyle are present, and a stylar cuspule is present on the labial cingulum of the M 1 metacone. A sulcus is present on the posterior cristid of the M 1 paracone, the protocone is well developed, and the postentoconule is absent or poorly developed on M 1. On M 2 the parastyle is well developed (FMNH 127114) (absent or poorly developed in V. caraccioli), the labial cingulum on the paracone is absent or poorly developed, and the postentoconule is well developed (absent or poorly developed in V. caraccioli). The lower incisors are small and bilobed (robust and bilobed in V. caraccioli). A p 4 lingual accessory cuspule is present. A cuspule on the m 1 paracristid is present in V. major (absent in V. caraccioli). A cuspule on the m 2 paracristid is sometimes present (AMNH 186381) and sometimes absent (USNM 314717) in V. major. In V. caraccioli, this cuspule is always absent. NATURAL HISTORY: The natural history of Vampyrodes major has been extensively studied (under the name V. caraccioli) Barro Colorado Island, Panama (Bonaccorso, 1979; Giannini and Kalko, 2004). V. major is a frugivorous bat that has been reported to take fruits / infrutescences of 13 species representing five genera in four families: Spondias mombin, Spondias radlkoferi (Anacardiaceae); Calophyllum longifolium (Clusiaceae); Ficus dugandii, F. insipida, F. maxima, F. obtusifolia, F. pertusa, F. trigonata, F. yoponensis, F. sp. and Poulsenia armata (Moraceae), and Piper sp. (Piperaceae) (Bonaccorso, 1979; Morrison, 1980; Handley et al., 1991; Kalko et al., 1996; Medellín and Gaona, 1999; Wendeln et al., 2000; Giannini and Kalko, 2004). Four species of ectoparasites have been obtained from Panamanian specimens of Vampyrodes major: Chirnyssoides caparti (Sarcoptidae), Parichoronyssus sp. (Macronyssidae), Strebla vespertilionis (Streblidae), and Periglischrus iheringi (Spinturnicidae) (Furman, 1966; Wenzel et al., 1966).	en	Velazco, PaúL M., Simmons, Nancy B. (2011): Systematics and Taxonomy of Great Striped-Faced Bats of the Genus Vampyrodes Thomas, 1900 (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae). American Museum Novitates 2011 (3710): 1-36, DOI: 10.1206/3710.2, URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1206/3710.2
03D18783E039086250B3FD3C40A0E52C.taxon	description	The X chromosome is subtelocentric and the Y chromosome is submetacentric (Baker, 1973).	en	Velazco, PaúL M., Simmons, Nancy B. (2011): Systematics and Taxonomy of Great Striped-Faced Bats of the Genus Vampyrodes Thomas, 1900 (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae). American Museum Novitates 2011 (3710): 1-36, DOI: 10.1206/3710.2, URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1206/3710.2
