taxonID	type	description	language	source
03F48795FFD1FFAC37A6F94FFC9DA4B0.taxon	diagnosis	Diagnosis. Medium-sized, colourful pachybolid (Fig. 1 A, B): male and female nearly equal in length and thickness. Mature individuals with 50 body rings. No apodous rings in front of telson (Fig. 2 C, E). Scobinae absent. Tarsal pads on male legs lacking. Body ring 6 in males greatly enlarged ventrally, protecting the gonopod pouch (Fig. 2 A). Anterior gonopods massive (Fig. 5 A, B), not completely retractable into pouch; sternite with a median process (Figs 5 A, 6 A); coxite anteriorly with a slender mesal process (Figs 5 A, B, 6 A, B); telopodite anteriorly with a narrow mesal process (Figs 5 A, B, 6 A, B). Posterior gonopods with a narrow sternite (Fig. 6 E); coxite unmodified; telopodite consisting of two branches, both bent mesad (Figs 5 C, D, 6 D, E), main branch with an apical fringe directed towards mesal branch (Fig. 6 D – F), mesal branch anteriorly with lateral processes (Fig. 6 D – F). Neither membranous folds nor a connection between mesal and main branches (Fig. 6 D). Relationship. Carl (1919) treated Xenobolus as a member of Trigoniulidae Attems, 1909 and related it with Trigoniulus Pocock, 1894. Verhoeff (1936) included Xenobolus in Spiromimidae Brölemann, 1913. Hoffman (1962), who rejected both of these views, proposed its inclusion in the Pachybolidae and suggested informally a close relationship with Stenobolus Carl, 1918 and Mystalides Attems, 1910 (now a synonym of Aphistogoniulus Silvestri, 1897). A recent phylogenetic treatment based on morphological characters alone suggested a relationship of Xenobolus with the Malagasy genus Spiromimus de Saussure & Zehntner, 1901 (Wesener & Enghoff 2009). Even though Xenobolus was found to be sister to Spiromimus, these authors hesitated to accept its inclusion in Spiromiminae Brölemann, 1913 and argued that both these genera were close. Subfamily inclusion. Currently Xenobolus is not assigned to any of the four subfamilies of Pachybolidae viz., Centrobolinae Hoffman, 1980, Pachybolinae, Spiromiminae and Trigoniulinae Attems, 1909 (Wesener et al. 2008). Irrespective of its weak relationship with Spiromimus, Wesener and Enghoff (2009) excluded it from Spiromiminae. Species included. Only Xenobolus carnifex (Fabricius, 1775)	en	Sankaran, Pradeep M., Sebastian, Pothalil A. (2020): A redescription and a synonym in the South Asian millipede genus Xenobolus Carl, 1919 (Spirobolida, Pachybolidae). Zootaxa 4780 (1): 165-179, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4780.1.8
03F48795FFD2FFA737A6FC6AFC60A089.taxon	description	(Figs 1 – 9)	en	Sankaran, Pradeep M., Sebastian, Pothalil A. (2020): A redescription and a synonym in the South Asian millipede genus Xenobolus Carl, 1919 (Spirobolida, Pachybolidae). Zootaxa 4780 (1): 165-179, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4780.1.8
03F48795FFD2FFA737A6FC6AFC60A089.taxon	materials_examined	Type materials. Type (? ♂ / ♀) of Iulus (recte: Julus) carnifex from INDIA; D. Koenig leg.; date unknown; voucher number unknown; repository Zoological Museum, University of Copenhagen, not examined as the type material is lost (Enghoff, pers. comm.) [the original illustrations of X. carnifex given in Carl (1919) and the illustrations and SEM images of non-type material of X. carnifex presented by Wesener and Enghoff (2009) are diagnosable and were used for comparative purposes]. Type (♂) of Xenobolus acuticonus from INDIA: Madras; F. H. Gravely leg.; 22 August; voucher number unknown; repository possibly Indian Museum, Kolkata, not examined as the type is currently not in the myriapod collection kept in the National Zoological Collection, Kolkata (Sankaran, pers. obs.). Topotype material (X. acuticonus) examined. INDIA, Tamil Nadu: Chennai, Tambaram, Madras Christian College campus (12 o 55 ’ 16.05 ’’ N, 80 o 07 ’ 19.42 ’’ E), 41 m alt., 9 December 2018, M. S Pradeep leg., from ground, by hand: 1 subadult ♀ (MILLI-ADSH 0010). Chennai, Nungambakkam, Loyola College campus (13 o 03 ’ 48.14 ’’ N, 80 o 14 ’ 04.36 ’’ E), 15 m alt., 10 December 2018, M. S Pradeep leg., from ground, by hand: 1 ♀ (MILLI-ADSH 0011). Chennai, Tambaram (12 o 55 ’ 29.75 ’’ N, 80 o 06 ’ 00.01 ’’ E), 19 m alt., 21 September 2019, M. S Pradeep leg., from ground, by hand: 6 ♀♀ (MILLI-ADSH 0012). Other material (X. carnifex) examined. INDIA, Kerala: Palakkad, Thrippalur, Pullodu (10 o 38 ’ 16.58 ’’ N, 76 o 33 ’ 52.87 ’’ E), 70 m alt., 30 July 2017, M. S. Pradeep leg., from walls, by hand: 7 ♂♂, 5 ♀♀ (MILLI-ADSH 0007). Ernakulam, Aluva, Thottakkattukara aqueduct (10 o 07 ’ 10.35 ’’ N, 76 o 20 ’ 34.62 ’’ E), 11 m alt., 23 July 2017, Jimmy Paul leg., from ground, by hand: 1 ♂, 1 ♀ (MILLI-ADSH 0008). Ernakulam, Tripunithura, Hill Palace (9 o 57 ’ 09.32 ’’ N, 76 o 21 ’ 50.13 ’’ E), 29 m alt., 21 July 2018, Jithin Johnson leg., from bark, by hand: 1 ♀ (MILLI-ADSH 0009). Andhra Pradesh: Vijayawada, near railway station (16 o 30 ’ 54 ’’ N, 80 o 37 ’ 22 ’’ E), 30 m alt., 10 October 2019, M. S. Pradeep leg., from walls, by hand: 2 ♀♀ (MILLI-ADSH 0013).	en	Sankaran, Pradeep M., Sebastian, Pothalil A. (2020): A redescription and a synonym in the South Asian millipede genus Xenobolus Carl, 1919 (Spirobolida, Pachybolidae). Zootaxa 4780 (1): 165-179, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4780.1.8
03F48795FFD2FFA737A6FC6AFC60A089.taxon	diagnosis	Diagnosis. As in the generic diagnosis.	en	Sankaran, Pradeep M., Sebastian, Pothalil A. (2020): A redescription and a synonym in the South Asian millipede genus Xenobolus Carl, 1919 (Spirobolida, Pachybolidae). Zootaxa 4780 (1): 165-179, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4780.1.8
03F48795FFD2FFA737A6FC6AFC60A089.taxon	description	Redescription. Measurements: male with 50 body rings, circa 76 mm long, 5.4 mm wide. Female with 50 body rings, circa 76 mm long, 5.8 wide. Colour. Aposematic colour pattern consisting blood-red (male) / orange (female) and black (Fig. 1 A – B). Head, antennae, collum, ring 2, pre-anal ring, anal valves, legs blood-red / orange. Vertex between eyes black. Body rings except ring 2 laterally black, latero-basally and ventrally with a blood-red / orange stripe interrupted at posterior margin of metazonites with irregular creamy and black patches. Metazonites dorsally with a median blood-red / or- ange stripe consisting of an hour glass-shaped pattern (Fig. 1 A – B). Colouration of preserved material: parts with blood-red / orange colour faded to yellowish red / yellowish orange. Metazonites greyish with irregular creamy-white markings. Head. Head micropunctate, vertex prominent. Each eye patch with circa 48 – 50 ommatidia arranged in 7 or 8 vertical rows. Axial sulcus prominent, discontinued at frons. Labrum with four irregular teeth and a single row of 8 or 9 short marginal setae (Fig. 2 G). Clypeus with four setiferous foveolae, two on each side. Antennal cavity present, slightly extending below eyes. Antennae short (Fig. 2 F), protruding back to ring 2. Relative length of antennomeres: 1 <2> 3> 4 <5 <6. Terminal antennomere with four large sensory cones located together inside a membranous area (Fig. 4 A). Antennomere 5 apico-laterally with a field of 3 or 4 rows, antennomere 6 with 2 or 3 rows, of sensilla basiconica (Fig. 4 A, arrow). Gnathochilarium. Usual for spirobolidans. Each lamella lingualis with two setae, located obliquely behind one another. Stipites with a slightly wavy lateral margin, each stipes with three stout apical setae (Fig. 2 G) and an oblique transverse ridge directed towards mentum (Fig. 2 G). Basal 2 / 3 mentum with several transverse ridges (Fig. 2 G). Palpi with numerous sensilla (Fig. 2 G). Hypopharyngeal crest with a field of spine-like structures (Fig. 4 B). Central pads of endochilarium divided by a groove and a ridge into two separate regions (Fig. 4 B; CP, Endo), distomesally with a group of circa 7 or 8 sensilla arranged in a circle (Fig. 4 B, inset), basally with more than 22 sensilla arranged in oblique vertical rows (Fig. 4 B). Mandible. Slim and elongated. External tooth simple, squarish (Fig. 4 C; ET); inner tooth with three cusps (Fig. 4 C, 1, 2, 3; 3 IT), laterally an additional, isolated, simple tooth (Fig. 4 C; LT). Pectinate lamellae arranged in 5 or 6 rows (Fig. 4 C; PL). Mesal margin of pectinate area with a single row of small, slender spines continued with circa 4 or 5 rows of small spines baso-mesally (Fig. 4 C); basal margin with 3 or 4 transverse rows of small spines (Fig. 4 C). Molar plate long with> 10 transverse furrows (Fig. 4 C; MP). Collum. Lateral margin rounded, not reaching the tips of ring 2, surface weakly punctate (Fig. 2 A, D). Body rings. Divided by sutures in three transverse zones, pro-, meso- and metazona. Meso- and metazonae dorsally micropunctate, ventrally with numerous weak longitudinal and oblique striations. Ozopore located on mesozona, starting with ring 6, located close to, but not touching suture between meso- and metazona. Pre-anal ring / epiproct sharp-edged, slightly extending beyond anal valves / paraprocts, more prominent in female (Fig. 2 C, E). Anal valves with well-developed lips and micropunctuations, but with neither grooves nor setae (Fig. 2 C, E). Subanal scale / hypoproct inconspicuous, widely triangular. Legs. Coxae 1 and 2 elongated and fused with sternites. Coxae 1 unfused together, following ones remain adjacent (Fig. 3 A). Leg-pair 2 longer than 1 st (Fig. 3 B); each podomere with apical / ventral / mesal stout and slender setae. Length of midbody legs circa 4.9 mm in males, circa 4.92 mm in females. Leg-pair 8 onwards in male and all legs in female, podomeres from coxa to tibia subdistally or distally with a single ventral spine. Tarsus with one stout dorso-apical and 3 or 4 ventral / ventro-mesal stout / slender spines in males, 4 or 5 ventral / ventro-mesal ones in females. Claw large, curved. Male sexual characters. Coxae 3 – 7 modified, in particular 3 rd and 4 th with long, flat, rod-shaped, antero-mesal processes, 5 th with a short, flat process, 6 th and 7 th with narrow, flat prominences (Fig. 3 C – G). Podomeres from prefemur to tibia of leg-pairs 1 – 6 and prefemur to postfemur of 7 th modified with flat ventral excrescences (Fig. 3 A – G). Only body ring 7 conspicuously enlarged (Fig. 2 A). Tips of gonopods visible in ventral view. Legs without tarsal pads. Anterior gonopod. Sternite inverted V-shaped, with a median spatula-shaped process (Figs 5 A, 6 A; ST, msST). Coxite broad, with a thumb-shaped mesal process, flat in lateral view (Figs 5 A, B, 6 A – C; CO, mCO). Telopodite medio-laterally with paired globular processes (Figs 5 B, 6 B; gT 1, gT 2); retrorse process short, with a flat proximal half, distal half with a downwards directed, broad, conical process and a finger-shaped, laterally oriented, mesal process with apical bifurcations (Figs 5 A, B, 6 A, B; RT, cRT). Posterior gonopod. Sternite narrow (Fig. 6 E; ST). Main branch slender; tip broad, semi-circular in outline, fringed with numerous tiny conical processes, with a short, claw-shaped, mesal process, with a short branched process lying adjacent to the claw-shaped process, with a short conical process (Fig. 6 D – F, arrows 1, 2, 3; MnB). Mesal branch broad, proximo-laterally with a broad, semi-circular, membranous lamella, ridged disto-laterally, mesally with a membranous, trapezoid process and a sharp hook (Fig. 6 D; MsB, lmMsB, tMsB, hMsB). Female copulatory organ (vulva). Simple, bivalve-like (Fig. 7 A, C), consisting of two simple, subequally-sized, sclerotised valves (Fig. 7 A – D; AV, PV). Each valve proximo-laterally bearing 2 or 3 rows of short setae located towards opening (Fig. 7 E). ‘ Operculum’ membranous, roughly circular with an anterior projection (Fig. 7 A – D; O). Variations. Males (n = 8): 47 – 50 body rings; length 74 – 76 mm; width 5.1 – 5.4 mm; length of midbody legs 4.71 – 4.9 mm. Females (n = 16, excluding the subadult one): 49 – 50 body rings; length 75 – 76 mm; width 5.6 – 5.8 mm; length of midbody legs 4.81 – 4.92.	en	Sankaran, Pradeep M., Sebastian, Pothalil A. (2020): A redescription and a synonym in the South Asian millipede genus Xenobolus Carl, 1919 (Spirobolida, Pachybolidae). Zootaxa 4780 (1): 165-179, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4780.1.8
03F48795FFD2FFA737A6FC6AFC60A089.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Currently known only from India (Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal) and Sri Lanka (Colombo, Kandy, Maha Iluppalama) (Fig. 9). Introduced populations are recorded in Australia (Newport 1844 a, 1844 b) and Europe (Dublin, Ireland) (Barber 2015). The record of X. carnifex in Borneo (Matang) (Tömösváry 1885) is uncertain (Pocock 1892). Records of X. carnifex in the U. S. A. (Georgia) (Koch 1847, 1863) are certainly wrong, even though Koch (1863) illustrated the species correctly (Pocock 1892; Golovatch & Wesener 2016). Natural history. Xenobolus carnifex is a synanthropic species and is mostly prevalent during the rainy season (June-July) (Bhakat 2014; Sankaran, pers. obs.). It can be seen in open soils rich in organic matter, on fallen logs, on damp bricks and stones, as well as on wall surfaces and trunks of trees, all covered with bryophytes and fungi (Bhakat 2014; Sankaran, pers. obs.). Rarely the species can be observed resting on the branches of shrubs (Sankaran, pers. obs.). During the rainy season, large numbers of individuals invade inside and on the roofs of buildings, thus becoming a nuisance pest (Bai & Indra 1997; Alagesan & Muthukrishnan 2005 b; Sankaran, pers. obs.). Justification of the synonymy of X. acuticonus: Attems (1936) described X. acuticonus from Madras. It was characterised by a black body colouration, coupled with a row of hour-glass-shaped reddish spots on the dorsum, each male coxa 3 has a long process, an inverted V-shaped sternite of the anterior gonopods possesses a median spatula-shaped lamella, the anterior gonopod is with a broad coxite showing a short thumb-like mesal process, the telopodite medio-laterally has a globular process, the retrorse process of the telopodite features a downwards oriented flat and an antero-mesally oriented, finger-shaped process, the mesal branch of the posterior gonopod is with lateral ridges and a mesal hook and the main branch of the posterior gonopod has an apical fringe and a short, claw-shaped, lateral extension (Attems 1936: fig. 87 a – d). All these features are actually characteristic of X. carnifex (see Carl 1919: figs 25, 28 – 31; Wesener & Enghoff 2009: Fig. 25 A – C). The topotype female genitalia of X. acuticonus match exactly in their structural details the female genitalia of X. carnifex (compare Fig. 7 C with Wesener & Enghoff 2009: fig. 23 D and herein Fig. 7 A). The generic distance analysis revealed that X. acuticonus differs from X. carnifex by a p-distance of 0.02 % or mutations at 16 basepair positions (Table 1). All these indicate, in agreement with Hoffman (1962), that in fact both X. carnifex and X. acuticonus belong to the same taxon. The species X. acuticonus is thus to be regarded as a junior synonym of X. carnifex.	en	Sankaran, Pradeep M., Sebastian, Pothalil A. (2020): A redescription and a synonym in the South Asian millipede genus Xenobolus Carl, 1919 (Spirobolida, Pachybolidae). Zootaxa 4780 (1): 165-179, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4780.1.8
