taxonID	type	description	language	source
03F48A48FF915D49FF2DF937DD9D32EE.taxon	diagnosis	Diagnosis. Colonies of upright polyps arising from stolons that may coalesce into small or extensive basal membranes. Polyp bodies, basal membranes and stolons are covered by a cuticle. Polyp tentacles snake­like, without pinnules, able to be withdrawn by a process of invagination. Sclerites absent. Zooxanthellate.	en	Alderslade, Philip, S, Catherine (2007): Pinnule­less polyps: a new genus and new species of Indo­Pacific Clavulariidae and validation of the soft coral genus Acrossota and the family Acrossotidae (Coelenterata: Octocorallia). Zootaxa 1400: 27-44, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200377
03F48A48FF915D49FF2DF937DD9D32EE.taxon	materials_examined	Type species. Clavularia amboinensis Burchardt, 1902, here designated = Acrossota amboinensis n. comb.	en	Alderslade, Philip, S, Catherine (2007): Pinnule­less polyps: a new genus and new species of Indo­Pacific Clavulariidae and validation of the soft coral genus Acrossota and the family Acrossotidae (Coelenterata: Octocorallia). Zootaxa 1400: 27-44, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200377
03F48A48FF925D40FF2DFF72D98835E3.taxon	materials_examined	Material examined: Holotype: Musée Zoologique, Strasbourg, # 158, Ambon, Indonesia. Other material: NTM C 13618, Indonesia, May 1997, purchased from a dealer by Julian Sprung; NTM C 13626, same data except October, 1999; NTM C 15379, Indonesia, September 2002, purchased from a dealer by Daniel Knop; NTM C 15380, same data except November 2002; NTM C 15381, Kapikan, Semporna Islands, 04 ° 38.843 ' N, 118 ° 49.813 ' E, depth 10 – 20 m, F. Dipper, 28 March 2000; NTM C 15506, Indonesia, August 2003, purchased from a dealer by Daniel Knop.	en	Alderslade, Philip, S, Catherine (2007): Pinnule­less polyps: a new genus and new species of Indo­Pacific Clavulariidae and validation of the soft coral genus Acrossota and the family Acrossotidae (Coelenterata: Octocorallia). Zootaxa 1400: 27-44, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200377
03F48A48FF925D40FF2DFF72D98835E3.taxon	description	Description: Holotype. The colony described by Burchardt is shown in Figures 1 – 2. Virtually all of the polyps are on one valve of an oyster, situated on one side of the base of a syntype colony of Nephthea amboinensis. There is also much sponge and some bryozoan material on the shell. The two clusters of polyps that Burchardt thought were two colonies are joined by a few flat stolons that pass under a clump of sponge and the folded edge of the Nephthea colony. Very little of the network of stolons is visible without prising away the overgrowing sponge. The few main strands that are visible are about 0.8 mm wide, and these may be cross­linked by short, much narrower, strands. Wider portions, where the stolons are expanded into wider mats, can be uncovered, but their extent is unknown. Burchardt said that “ Eine Hornscheide ” was missing, but the stolons and the polyps are covered with a thin cuticle. It is not easy to detect on the polyps, but on some broken ones it can be seen to be peeling off as a very thin transparent sheet. The polyps in the small cluster (Fig. 2 B) are mostly 2.5 – 5.0 mm tall, wider at the oral end, and mostly c. 0.9 – 1.6 mm in diameter. Those in the larger cluster (Fig. 2 A) that are not surrounded by sponge are longer, at least up to 9 mm. Polyps that are growing through the sponge can be even longer; one measured 14.25 mm long and 1.37 mm diameter at the oral end. The protective cuticle on the lower part of these polyps where they pass though the sponge is much thicker than elsewhere and easily seen. It is yellowish brown against the yellowish white of the upper part of the polyps. The polyps are moderately translucent and the mesenterial insertions can be seen through the walls of many of them. Quite a number of polyps have the distal ends missing, perhaps as a consequence of Burchardt’s research. Of those that remain, all but a few have no tentacles visible. Burchardt’s account indicates that some polyps had the tentacles fully unfolded when he examined the specimen, but in the material now, where tentacles are visible, they protrude only by very small amounts (Fig. 1 B); there are no signs of pinnules. Through the body wall of many polyps, the withdrawn tentacles appear as an opaque cylinder or a cluster of opaque fingers in the distal part of the body (Fig. 1 B). Dissection confirmed Burchardt’s observation that the tentacles withdraw by invagination. They protrude into the gastric cavity of the polyp between the pharynx and the body wall. There are no sclerites in any part of the colony. NTM C 13618. The specimen is shown in Figure 3. It consists of a dense cluster of polyps attached to a piece of coral rock. Narrow colonial stolons can be seen at the margins of the polyp cluster. They are flattened, c. 0.3 – 0.9 mm wide, and anastomose with, or cross, other stolons. The stolons disappear beneath the dense mass of polyps, where they may join to form broad membranous expansions. The fact that some stolons cross other stolons without anastomosing may indicate that there is more than one colony here. Stolons and polyp bodies are covered by a thin cuticle. The polyps are greyish yellow; a couple with the tips of the tentacles exposed are mostly opaque. Some are more inflated and the mesenterial insertions and withdrawn tentacles can be seen within. These tentacles lie outside the pharynx and are invaginated. Polyp sizes vary from juveniles, 0.9 mm tall and 1.4 mm in diameter, to the largest c. 7.5 mm tall and 2.4 mm in diameter. There are a number of tubular, sinuous, stolonic outgrowths that rise free from the substratum, and have a very wrinkled cuticle. The outgrowths appear to be the vegetative parts of the colony that were involved in increasing colony size. They are up to 9 mm in length and they end in a polyp of reduced dimensions. Several similar­looking structures occur on the type specimen of Clavularia amboinensis — up to c. 7 mm long — but they stand erect and may not be analogous. Several polyps had had the head and tentacles removed while the colony was still alive and expanded. They are up to 4.4 mm long and 0.2 – 0.3 mm broad. A polyp head and close­up of the tentacles are shown in Figure 3 B – C. A living colony is shown in Figure 8 B. NTM C 13626. The lot consists of three parts — a cluster of polyps on a small fragment of coral rock, a large number of polyps on a larger piece of coral rock (Fig. 4 A), and an unattached section of stolons and polyps (Fig. 4 B). Many of the polyps in the unattached specimen have the smooth, highly contracted tentacles everted and there are several vegetative stolonal outgrowths (Fig. 4 B, arrowed), some of which have small swellings where autozooid polyps were developing. Stolons and polyp bodies have a thin covering of cuticle. There are no stolons on the larger piece of coral rock, and all of the polyps arise from a broad basal membrane. The polyps are quite long, up to c. 10 mm long and 1.1 – 1.8 mm in diameter, and many have c. 1.5 mm of everted tentacles exposed. There is a cuticle covering the membrane and the polyp bodies, particularly noticeable on the transversely wrinkled proximal third of each polyp. The third rock fragment has slightly more than 20 polyps on it that arise from a spreading membranous base. Many of the polyps have smooth tentacles protruding from the oral end. The dissected polyp shown in Figure 4 C, taken from the large rock, reveals the contortions involved in the process of retraction. Whole, or portions of, invaginated tentacles are free in the gastric cavity. They lie mostly alongside the pharynx, which has been pulled down by the muscles in those parts of the mesenteries proximal to it. The cylindrical region distal to the pharynx and the invaginated tentacles is that part of the body wall, now turned inside out, that was previously outside of and adjacent to the pharynx in the expanded polyp. This region is attached to the pharynx by mesenteries that must undergo considerable stretching during the invagination process. Some of these mesenteries, torn during the dissection, are labelled at the right of the figure. Those parts of the mesenteries remaining attached to the invaginated body wall pass down between the invaginated tentacles, along the length of the pharynx and down to the base of the colony. When the invaginated, upper body wall cylinder was opened, portions of three tentacles that had not completely invaginated were lying longitudinally within. At the proximal end of the cylinder, the peristome lay like a domed membrane across the top of the pharynx. If the invaginated parts of the tentacles are magnified they can be seen to be covered in a thick layer of zooxanthellae — presumably that which was previously inside the expanded tentacle prior to polyp retraction. The oral aspect of a polyp with the tentacles preserved in the process of invagination or evagination is shown in Figure 3 D. Clefts can be seen in the tip of each tentacle stub. NTM C 15379. This lot consists of two small clumps of fine gravel held together by a gelatinous substance. These support few polyps but many vegetative stolonic outgrowths with very little internal structure visible. The samples are portions of a colony initially obtained from a dealer in aquarium animals. The colony had been kept in an aquarium for some time, and its morphology is likely to have been affected by this. NTM C 15380. This lot consists of two small fragments of coral and coralline algae. There are 13 polyps on the largest fragment, and only one on the smallest piece. The largest piece has a number of anastomosed, narrow, flattened stolons supporting the polyps. Smooth tentacles protrude from a number of the polyps and can be seen within the gastric cavities of others. Polyps and stolons are of the same size range as the specimens described above. The live parent colony is shown in Figure 8 A. The tentacles are clearly of a simple, pinnule­less construction. This material was also from a colony obtained from a marine animal dealer, but it had spent very little time in captivity. NTM C 15381. This specimen consists of a piece of thin coral rock, about 47 x 43 mm in size, supporting a large number of polyps almost all of which have the tentacles withdrawn. Unusually, this specimen has polyps typical of both Acrossota amboinensis and the new taxon described below. The retracted polyps of the two different species look more or less identical, but those polyps with portions of the tentacles visible reveal that there are two forms present. Upon cursory examination it can appear that the two different forms are actually united on the same basal stolons, but careful tracing of the intermixed stolons proves this is not the case. NTM C 15506. There are over 40 polyps making up this specimen, all closely arising from a more or less complete basal membrane encrusting a near­triangular coralline tile about 2 cm 2 in area. Most polyps are about 4 mm tall and 2.3 in diameter, one has the tentacles extended, and one is inflated to a height of 7 mm and a width of 3 mm. The cuticle covering the polyps and membrane is quite conspicuous in many places owing to its dark greenish­brown colouring, which result from a fine covering of marine turf.	en	Alderslade, Philip, S, Catherine (2007): Pinnule­less polyps: a new genus and new species of Indo­Pacific Clavulariidae and validation of the soft coral genus Acrossota and the family Acrossotidae (Coelenterata: Octocorallia). Zootaxa 1400: 27-44, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200377
03F48A48FF925D40FF2DFF72D98835E3.taxon	discussion	Remarks: The main morphological characteristics used to distinguish between species within similar stolonate genera are sclerite position, arrangement, and architecture, and the number of pinnules on the tentacles. The fact there are no sclerites or pinnules in Acrossota presents an interesting challenge to the taxonomist. The material described above, extra to the holotype, serves to confirm the validity of the existence of a pinnule­less genus of soft coral, but we are unable to establish with certainty whether they are conspecific with each other or whether they represent the same species as A. amboinensis. An identical situation pertains to Acrossota liposclera. The polyps of Bourne’s specimen are described as being about 5 mm tall and 1.75 – 2.00 mm in diameter, connected by flat stolons, and all covered in a thin cuticle. The tentacles are invaginable and without pinnules, and there are no sclerites (liposclera). “ From place to place a branch of the main stolon or a stolonar outgrowth of one of the zooids projects for some distance from the support as a long, free, thin­walled tube, near the end of which a zooid is developed ... ” (Bourne 1914: 263). “ (2) The portion of the body of the zooid immediately below the tentacles. This portion is invaginated in retracted specimens ... ” (ibid.: 267). Bourne’s specimen from the D’Entrecasteaux Islands of the eastern end of Papua New Guinea, could possibly be the same species as all or any of the above specimens.	en	Alderslade, Philip, S, Catherine (2007): Pinnule­less polyps: a new genus and new species of Indo­Pacific Clavulariidae and validation of the soft coral genus Acrossota and the family Acrossotidae (Coelenterata: Octocorallia). Zootaxa 1400: 27-44, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200377
03F48A48FF985D40FF2DFE98D90F31B3.taxon	diagnosis	Diagnosis. Colonies of upright polyps arising from stolons that may coalesce but do not form extensive basal membranes. Polyp bodies and stolons covered with thin cuticle. Polyps retractile. Tentacles lacking free pinnules; instead, the margins of the tentacle are very broad and divided into a series of finger­like caeca as if a single row of closely appressed pinnules had become fused side­to­side along the length of the tentacle. Sclerites, present only on the introvert and tentacles, are minute platelets and small scales that are constructed from sinuous, dendritic, calcite rods that are more or less radially arranged. Zooxanthellate.	en	Alderslade, Philip, S, Catherine (2007): Pinnule­less polyps: a new genus and new species of Indo­Pacific Clavulariidae and validation of the soft coral genus Acrossota and the family Acrossotidae (Coelenterata: Octocorallia). Zootaxa 1400: 27-44, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200377
03F48A48FF985D40FF2DFE98D90F31B3.taxon	materials_examined	Type species. Knopia octocontacanalis n. sp., by original designation and monotypy.	en	Alderslade, Philip, S, Catherine (2007): Pinnule­less polyps: a new genus and new species of Indo­Pacific Clavulariidae and validation of the soft coral genus Acrossota and the family Acrossotidae (Coelenterata: Octocorallia). Zootaxa 1400: 27-44, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200377
03F48A48FF985D40FF2DFE98D90F31B3.taxon	etymology	Etymology. The genus is named for Daniel Knop who collected most of the material and supplied colour images of live colonies. Gender feminine, as is traditional.	en	Alderslade, Philip, S, Catherine (2007): Pinnule­less polyps: a new genus and new species of Indo­Pacific Clavulariidae and validation of the soft coral genus Acrossota and the family Acrossotidae (Coelenterata: Octocorallia). Zootaxa 1400: 27-44, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200377
03F48A48FF985D40FF2DFE98D90F31B3.taxon	discussion	Remarks. The specimens of this genus available for examination have not formed extensive basal mats as seen in one specimen of Acrossota described above. But, it is quite possible that specimens may be found in the future with a similar growth form, as it is not rare for taxa that are mainly stolonate to be found with broad, coalescing, basal ribbons, especially if luxuriant (e. g. Clavularia australiensis in Hickson, 1894: 338; Clavularia viridis, C. inflata in Roxas, 1933: 57 – 58; Sansibia in Alderslade, 2000: 243; Orangaslia in Alderslade 2001: 42 ­ 49; and Acrossota above.) At present, specimens of Acrossota and Knopia that have only stolons cannot easily be distinguished unless the tentacles are extended. Both of these genera can also be confused with an as­yet­undescribed taxon figured by Fabricius and Alderslade (2001: 68) that has pinnulated tentacles and no sclerites. Dissection to establish tentacle form is necessary in such instances.	en	Alderslade, Philip, S, Catherine (2007): Pinnule­less polyps: a new genus and new species of Indo­Pacific Clavulariidae and validation of the soft coral genus Acrossota and the family Acrossotidae (Coelenterata: Octocorallia). Zootaxa 1400: 27-44, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200377
03F48A48FF985D47FF2DFB02DFD73783.taxon	materials_examined	Material examined: Holotype: NTM C 13568, Kapikan, Semporna Islands, Sabah, Malaysia, 04 º 38.843 ' N, 118 º 49.813 ' E, depth 10 – 20 m, F. Dipper, 28 March 2000. Paratypes: NTM C 13563, Kapikan, Semporna Islands, 04 º 37.794 ’ N, 118 º 50.085 ' E, depth 12 m, F. Dipper, 6 October 1999; NTM C 13566, Pelu Beach, Boheydulang, Semporna Islands, 04 º 36.230 ' N, 118 º 47.610 ' E, depth 28 m, F. Dipper, 8 April 2000; NTM C 13567, Kapikan, Semporna Islands, depth 5 – 10 m, F. Dipper, 30 April 1999; NTM C 15381, Kapikan, Semporna Islands, 04 ° 38.843 ' N, 118 ° 49.813 ' E, depth 10 – 20 m, F. Dipper, 28 March 2000; NTM C 15382, Biaro, Indonesia, 02 º 08.48 ' N, 125 º 21.15 ' E, depth 3 m, Coral Reef Research Foundation (CRRF), 23 May 1993; NTM C 15383 – 15387, NTM C 15392 – 15394, Kotok, Island, Thousand Islands, Kotok Is., Indonesia, 5 ° 42.77 ' S, 106 ° 33.675 ' E, depth 15 – 22 m, Daniel Knop, 16 July 2002; NTM C 15388 – 15391, NTM C 15395, same data but 24 September 2002; NTM C 15396, same data but December 2004; NTM C 15398, probably Indonesia, purchased from a dealer by Daniel Knop, December 2004.	en	Alderslade, Philip, S, Catherine (2007): Pinnule­less polyps: a new genus and new species of Indo­Pacific Clavulariidae and validation of the soft coral genus Acrossota and the family Acrossotidae (Coelenterata: Octocorallia). Zootaxa 1400: 27-44, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200377
03F48A48FF985D47FF2DFB02DFD73783.taxon	description	Description: The holotype is fragmented owing to the process of removal of the colony from the reef. It consists of several groups of polyps attached by stolons to pieces of hard, coral reef­derived substratum and a portion of sponge (Fig 5 A). The sclerite­free polyp bodies are inflated to various degrees and most are transparent and acorn­shaped, e. g. 7.2 mm long and 4.8 mm in diameter. Taller polyps are narrower, e. g. 8.7 mm x 3.8 mm and 9.5 mm x 3.3 mm and can be up to c. 11 mm long. The polyp bodies are covered by a thin cuticle that is continuous with that covering the basal colonial stolons. In general, the greater the extent of inflation the more transparent is the polyp body wall. Small, contracted polyps are opaque. Many of the polyps have the tentacles partially exposed (Fig. 5 C, D), and in a few they are completely exposed (Fig. 5 B). Some of the latter are sufficiently expanded to reveal that the polyps have an introvertible neck zone, which, although only 1 – 2 mm long in the preserved material (Fig. 5 B), can be quite extensive in life (Fig. 10 A). The mesenterial insertions into the wall of the introvert can be seen as distinct longitudinal lines (Fig. 5 B). When the neck region is invaginated, it is visible through the body wall as a pale cylinder that may hold part or all the tentacles packed longitudinally in a bundle (Fig 5 D). The mesenteries are also clearly visible through the body wall of most polyps (Fig. 5 D). The polyps arise from reticulate stolons adherent to fragments of reef substratum, but the polyp density obscures much of the network. Most of the stolons are flattened and the narrowest are about 0.8 mm broad. Other portions of the network are 2 – 3 time as wide, especially where several branches of the network anastomose, but no large membranous expansions are present. Figure 7 A shows a similar stolonal network in a paratype. Not all of the holotype stolons are fully attached to the substratum. Some arch across the rock and they also cross or lie upon other stolons without anastomosing. The terminal shoots of the stolonal network are cylindrical. They are about 0.8 mm in diameter and commonly project free of the surface. Their cuticle seems to be thicker than the stolons of the established network, and all but the smooth rounded tip is noticeably wrinkled (Fig. 5 E). The preserved tentacles are each shaped like a long, narrow, tongue (Figs 7 B, C). The lateral edges are often more or less parallel, and the tip is usually rounded although the distal part of the tentacle may taper. In life, the tentacles are narrowly elliptical (Fig. 9 A). The margins of the tentacle are very broad and are divided into a series of finger­like caeca, as if a single row of closely appressed pinnules had become fused side­toside along the length of the tentacle. This is easily seen in the decalcified tentacle shown in Figure 7 C (the gaps along the left­hand margin of this tentacle are tears). In the preserved specimens, the end of a pseudopinnule may bulge very slightly, but in most cases this is not obvious. As shown in Figures 9 B, C, it is not even obvious in live colonies where the hydrostatic pressure within the tentacle would be expected to distend the tissue. In this figure it is also possible to see that the margins of pseudopinnules do not extend over the total length of the tentacle, but the proximal portion, just before the tentacle meets the oral region, remains free. The inflated rachis of the tentacle can also be seen to be narrower in this region — a feature that is quite marked in the preserved material. The pseudopinnule caeca are confluent with the longitudinal lumen of the tentacle rachis and are full of zooxanthellae. The rachis is also packed with zooxanthellae, but in preserved material there is a free space in the centre running the length of the tentacle, as can be seen in the transverse cross section in Figure 7 Da. The other two transverse sections in this figure (Fig. 7 Db, c) are from a paratype that was fixed in formalin prior to being preserved in ethanol, and clearly show that tentacle shrinkage in the ethanol­fixed holotype has condensed the zooxanthellae into a smaller area and reduced the amount of free space within the tentacle. A longitudinal section through the blade of a tentacle from this paratype shows that the interior of the pseudopinnules is packed with zooxanthellae (Fig. 7 E). In the holotype, the tentacles are up to c. 5.4 mm in length. There are about 70 – 80 pseudopinnules in each tentacle margin. Most of these are 0.30 – 0.34 mm long but they can be as long as 0.40 mm. The polyp mouth is slit­like and sits at the apex of a dome­shaped hypostome. The upper part of the introvert (sometimes all of it), the tentacles, and all but the summit of the oral hypostome are densely covered in minute sclerites which give a pale, pinkish­white sheen. Highly magnified under a dissecting microscope, the sclerites appear opalescent with flecks of red, blue, and green. The sclerites on the tentacles are arranged in rows; longitudinally on the rachis (Fig. 10 C) and at right angles to these on the surface of the pseudopinnules. There are also sclerites in the dividing walls between the pseudopinnules (Fig. 7 C). The majority of the sclerites are very small corpuscle­like platelets with a circular, oval, peanut­, or kidney­shaped outline (Fig. 6 A); those shaped like Fig 6 Aa are actually platelets seen edge­on. Scattered amongst the platelets are a few small scale­like sclerites (Fig 6 B). Polyp sclerites mostly measure 0.011 – 0.025 mm along the greatest diameter, and the platelets are constructed from sinuous, dendritic, calcite rods that are more or less radially arranged (Fig. 6 C). Variability: Polyp density is variable, as are the density and broadness of the stolons, as can be seen in Figure 7 A of sample NTM C 15391. The number of pseudopinnules in the largest polyps in a colony does not vary greatly, with counts of about 65 – 75 being common. The distribution of the sclerites is quite variable as is the colour. In several specimens, all or most polyps have very few sclerites. In those with few sclerites, they are predominantly present in the tentacle rachis; the pseudopinnules in some specimens can be almost sclerite­free. Besides the colours described above, sclerites can also appear to refract mainly green or gold, commonly with some red. In a number of specimens the sclerite­free hypostome retains its live yellow colour. Because polyp size can be influenced by so many factors, measurements of polyps in taxa like this are not a reliable species character unless the differences are dramatic. Expanded polyps and tightly contracted ones are generally of similar size in all colonies to hand. The longest expanded polyp has a body length of 12.5 mm and tentacle length of 5 mm (NTM C 15398).	en	Alderslade, Philip, S, Catherine (2007): Pinnule­less polyps: a new genus and new species of Indo­Pacific Clavulariidae and validation of the soft coral genus Acrossota and the family Acrossotidae (Coelenterata: Octocorallia). Zootaxa 1400: 27-44, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200377
03F48A48FF985D47FF2DFB02DFD73783.taxon	etymology	Etymology: “ Eighty­piped ”. There are up to 80 pseudopinnules along each margin of a tentacle; octoconta (Greek transliteration for 80) and canalis (Latin for a water pipe).	en	Alderslade, Philip, S, Catherine (2007): Pinnule­less polyps: a new genus and new species of Indo­Pacific Clavulariidae and validation of the soft coral genus Acrossota and the family Acrossotidae (Coelenterata: Octocorallia). Zootaxa 1400: 27-44, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200377
03F48A48FF985D47FF2DFB02DFD73783.taxon	discussion	Remarks: Daniel Knop has documented the pattern of fluorescence of the polyps of Knopia octocontacanalis under ultraviolet light (Fig. 9 D). He claims (pers. com.) that this pattern is the same for species of Tubiporidae with the same tentacle structure.	en	Alderslade, Philip, S, Catherine (2007): Pinnule­less polyps: a new genus and new species of Indo­Pacific Clavulariidae and validation of the soft coral genus Acrossota and the family Acrossotidae (Coelenterata: Octocorallia). Zootaxa 1400: 27-44, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200377
