taxonID	type	description	language	source
03F50713994BFFF00222FDE2F7DBFAE6.taxon	diagnosis	• Fairly small to very large ruminants with hollow horns in males or in both sexes with a bony core, growing directly from the skull, and toes encased in sturdy hooves. • 40 - 480 cm. • Holarctic, Afrotropical, and Indo-Malayan Regions. • From desert and open plains, through forest to mountain areas; from cold temperate zones to tropics. • 54 genera, 279 species, at least 348 extant taxa. • 10 species Critically Endangered, 25 species Endangered, 52 species Vulnerable; 1 species Extinct in the Wild; 2 subspecies and 10 species Extinct since 1600.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139949FFF2037DFDC2F79AF289.taxon	materials_examined	Bengal, India.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139949FFF2037DFDC2F79AF289.taxon	discussion	Opinion 2027 of the International Commission for Zoological Nomenclature in 2003 retained usage of C. H. Smith’s gaurus for the wild Gaur and A. B. Lambert’s Jfrontalis for the domestic Gaur; they are considered a single species. Two subspecies are recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139949FFF2037DFDC2F79AF289.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. B. g. gawrusC. H. Smith, 1827 — India, SNepal, SBhutan; possiblyBangladesh. B. g. laosiensis Heude, 1901 — Myanmar, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Peninsular Malaysia, and perhaps S China (S Yunnan).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139949FFF2037DFDC2F79AF289.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 250 - 330 cm, tail 70 - 105 cm, shoulder height 165 - 220 cm; weight 650 - 1000 kg. The Gaur is argued by some to be the largest species of wild cattle in Asia, although some records of wild male Yaks (B. mutus) suggest otherwise. The Gaur subspecies from South-east Asia tends to be considerably larger than the subspecies from India, although horns of female Indian Gaur tend to have a greater span and tip-to-tip distance than their South-east Asian counterparts. Gaurs are massively built, with relatively short limbs with white stockings on all four legs but lacking a white rump patch as in the Banteng (B. javanicus). Males are considerably larger than females (as much as 175 %). Both sexes are dark brown to black with mature males often jet-black and short-haired. At birth, young are pale brown without stockings; by 3 — 4 months, young become dark brown and their stockings begin to appear. Coloration varies throughout the Gaur’s range. They are generally darker on the upperparts of the body (particularly males) and paler on underparts, upper forehead, and muzzle. The ears are large. A muscular ridge on the back, as a result of extension of the dorsal vertebrae, is very developed, particularly in males. The tail is long and tufted, reaching the hocks. Both sexes have yellowish to pale greenish horns with black tips. The horns arise on either side of pale crown hump on top of the skull and are robust, flattened at the base, and curved throughout their length, sweeping outward and then upward, with the tips inclining inward and a bit backward. The horns of males are larger than those of females: length along the outer curve is 76 - 88 cm, basal circumference is 40 - 52 cm, and tip-to-tip length is 30 - 90 cm (with considerable variation noted among subspecies / locations). Female horns are smaller and curve slightly outward from the base. In profile, the shape of the forehead on the skull is decidedly concave. Dewlaps are present; their prominence on males seems to vary among populations. In India, mature males purported to have two such skin flaps, one near the chin and the other hanging below the throat. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139949FFF2037DFDC2F79AF289.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Gaurs occur from sea level up to 3000 m, and although considered by some to be forest mammals, they may be less specialized relative to habitat preferences than other wild Asian cattle. Their current range, and habitat availability within it, has been reduced in the past century, and lowland areas seem to be optimal habitat for some populations. Solitary Gaur, often males, may be found more often in upland areas. In a study area with elevations of about 40 - 1080 m in Malaysia, three radio-collared Gaurs preferred habitats at elevations less than 61 m. In India, Gaurs use evergreen, semi-evergreen, and moist or dry deciduous forest and hilly terrain up to 3000 m, but use of the latter may be due to loss of preferred habitat to agriculture. Gaurs will use croplands, improved pastures, and plantations and seek open areas with abundant grasses and bamboo, typically late in the afternoon or at night. In mainland south-east Asia, Gaurs occur in many habitat types, including montane forests. Availability offree water is important to Gaurs.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139949FFF2037DFDC2F79AF289.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Gaurs are herbivorous and perhaps more generalists than other wild Asian cattle reflecting their wide range, use of various habitats, and ability to maintain themselves on low-quality forage. The Gaur eat many species of grasses, sedges, herbaceous plants, leaves of shrubs and trees, bamboo, fruits, and bark. Their diets change seasonally, and differences may be pronounced. In India, cool-season diets are diverse, reflecting enhanced forage availability, but in the dry season, 66 - 100 % of the diet may be mature and senesced grasses. About 190 species of plants have been found in diets of Gaurs across their range. For example, in Pench Tiger Reserve, India, Gaurs will eat from at least 31 tree species, 20 shrub species, five vine species, nine herbaceous species, and twelve grass species. Cultivated forage also is eaten, and crop depredation can be a localized problem when Gaurs are secure enough to enter fields. A long prehensile tongue makes grabbing various plants easy. Gaurs will drink daily, or twice a day, particularly in the hot-dry season. Mineral licks are visited periodically.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139949FFF2037DFDC2F79AF289.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Gaurs have a variable and often extended breeding season throughout their range, and in some locations (e. g. Peninsular Malaysia, and Myanmar), neonates are observed throughout the year. Breeding occurs in December — January in India, May-June in Thailand, and March-April in Cambodia. Some male Gaur, typically younger males, stay with female herds throughout the year, but others, particularly mature males, live in bachelor groups, or less frequently alone, until rut. As rut approaches, males begin to roam in search of receptive females, often making a call described as a whistling sound; such calls are often heard at night. To determine dominance, males display laterally to each other for up to ten minutes, stiff-legged, head lowered, and back hunched to magnify the dorsal crest; males bellow and horn the ground and vegetation before or after such a lateral display to a competitor. Horn-to-horn combatalso is involved in dominance, but more so among young males rather than fully mature males. A breeding male seems to know which female in a group is in estrus and will approach her directly, often performing a lip curl after smelling her vulva. The male will tend the female until she is ready to copulate; tending may be prolonged. Courting pairs spend considerable time licking each other’s neck, shoulder, and rump — up to ten minutes at a time; this behavior is not confined to male-female pairs and is rather unique among bovids. Females probably breed for the first time at two years, giving birth to their first calf in their third year. Female Gaurlive up to 24 years in captivity; their reproductive years are no doubt far less in the wild. Gestation is about 275 days. Parturient females leave their group to give birth and return with their calf after about four days. Females have one calf at a time; no twins have been documented. Calves are said to be fully weaned by about eight months.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139949FFF2037DFDC2F79AF289.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Activity patterns of Gaurs are typical of ruminants, involving alternating periods of foraging and ruminating / resting. Gaurs rest for most of the day, often lying down. Foraging during midday is secondary to resting, which usually occurs under forest cover. Most feeding by Gaurs in India occurs after about 18: 00 h and continues through the night. By morning, groups are resting again.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139949FFF2037DFDC2F79AF289.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Gaurs are non-migratory and gregarious. They will move extensively for food and water and, in India, may disperse seasonally from lowlands into uplands. Mean daily movements in India are 1: 39 - 1: 75 km in summer and 1 - 23 - 1 - 31 km during the monsoon, but they may be as high as about 5 km / day. Movements are no doubt constrained by the size of usable habitat available to a particular population. Annual non-exclusive home ranges vary considerably between sexes and locations, but maximum home range may be as high as about 140 km? ®. Seasonal home ranges are much smaller; e. g. mean summer home ranges of female and male Gaur in Pench Tiger Reserve, India, were 7 - 25 km? and 12 - 6 km?, respectively. Density estimates in India range from 0 - 7 ind / km? to 9 - 6 ind / km?. Aside from a female and her offspring, Gaur groups are likely temporary associations that vary in size depending on time of year and reproductive periods. Not unlike Bantengs, typical group sizes are about 5 - 12 individuals, but groups of 20 - 100 have been observed in open areas. Groups are made up of adult females, their offspring, and juveniles, often accompanied by one or more young and adult males; such groups probably are not stable.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139949FFF2037DFDC2F79AF289.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCNRed List. Although largely an educated guess, total numbers of wild Gaur throughoutits range are 13,000 - 30,000 individuals, but only 40 - 60 % of those, or 5200 - 18,000, are likely to be reproductively active individuals. No population has more than 1000 individuals. India appears to be the Gaur’s stronghold with estimates of 12,000 - 22,000 individuals. Populations in India appear stable to increasing; populations in mainland south-east Asia are declining. Extinct in south-eastern Xizang and Sri Lanka, and possibly extirpated in Bangladesh where some individuals may still occasionally move in from nearby India. Many populations of Gaur occur in parks and reserves, providing a degree of protection and administrative control; e. g. Gaurs exist in more than 100 protected areas in 15 states in India. Threats to conservation of Gaur include habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation; poaching for subsistence and trade in trophies, meat, and animal parts (horns are prized); and competition and disease transmission with domestic cattle. Density of Gaurs was 132 times higher in some livestock-free areas than in areas with livestock in and near Bandipur National Park, India, suggesting near competitive exclusion of Gaurs by domestic cattle under some circumstances. Gaurs are important prey for the endangered Tiger (Panthera tigris), particularly in India. Given the Gaur’s wide-ranging movements, protecting large tracts of native habitat from conversion to agricultural uses is important to its ongoing conservation, particularly in mainland South-east Asia. Gaur has the distinction of being the first threatened species to be cloned; a cloned male was born to a domestic cow in 2001 but died of infection within two days. Two Banteng clones were subsequently born from a similar cross-species cloning. Gaur and Banteng now have a permanent place in the history of such innovative and yet controversial approaches to recovery of species in peril.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139948FFF303ABFE8AF6C9FA2B.taxon	materials_examined	Indonesia, Java.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139948FFF303ABFE8AF6C9FA2B.taxon	discussion	Three subspecies are recognized here.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139948FFF303ABFE8AF6C9FA2B.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. B. j. javanicusd’Alton, 1823 — Java, perhapsBali. B. j. birmanicusLydekker, 1898 — AsianmainlandincludingMyanmar, SChina (SYunnan, currentpresenceuncertain), Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, andNPeninsularMalaysia. B. j. low: Lydekker, 1912 — Borneo. The domestic form of the Banteng has been introduced, and is now feral, in N Australia, New Guinea, and on various islands of Indonesia (Bali, Sangihe, Sulawesi, Sumbawa, Sumba, and Enggano) and occurs in domestication throughout the islands of SE Asia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139948FFF303ABFE8AF6C9FA2B.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 190 - 225 cm, tail 65 - 80 cm, shoulder height up to 160 cm; weight 600 - 800 kg. The Banteng subspecies from Borneo tends to have a smaller cranium with smaller horn span than the other two subspecies; the cranium of mainland Banteng is comparable to the taxon from Java, but the horns are larger in all dimensions. Bantengs are generally built lighter than other wild Asian cattle, with longer legs, a more elongated head, and less developed hump on the withers. Bantengs are sexually dimorphic, particularly in size and coloration. Males are larger than females, who are more slender and domestic cattle-like. Males are black in Java and apparently peninsular Thailand, but they are orange-khaki with chestnut-brown hues elsewhere. Females and young are orange-khaki to chestnut with a dark dorsal line. Both sexes have distinctive white stockings on their lower legs, a white rump patch surrounding, but not including, the base of the tail, white muzzles, and small white spots above their eyes. The tail is long and tufted, reaching below the hocks. The horns of males are larger than those of females and curve outward and forward, with upward-turned tips; the length along the outer curve is 42 - 76 cm, the basal circumference is 26 - 43 cm, and the tip-to-tip length is 18 - 68 cm (considerable variation noted among subspecies / locations). Horns of mature males are connected by a cornified band across the intercornual ridge, particularly in the subspecies from Java. Smaller female horns grow upright from the base. Dental formula is I 0 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (2) = 32,	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139948FFF303ABFE8AF6C9FA2B.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Bantengs can occur from sea level to 2100 m. Their current range, and habitat availability within it, has been greatly reduced in the past century, and the species may now be relegated to less than preferred habitats. Early accounts suggested that the long legs of the Banteng, relative to other wild Asian cattle, predisposed it to lowlands, but other accounts suggest that it may be somewhat of a habitat generalist. On the Asian mainland, early investigations suggested that Bantengs avoided evergreen forests, preferring open dry deciduous forests with grassy openings and bamboo stands. In West Java, Bantengs seek cover in rainforests but tend to concentrate around open meadows where they feed. On Borneo, Bantengs use swamps and forests along rivers and lowland logged forests. Human activities such as cultivation and logging may force Bantengs to denser forests in upland areas, but in some places, they seem to tolerate humans. Availability of free water is important; Bantengs are said to drink daily when conditions permit it. Mineral licks also are visited regularly, and occasional drinking of seawater by some Banteng populations is thought to be a substitute for mineral licks.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139948FFF303ABFE8AF6C9FA2B.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Bantengs are herbivorous, predominately grazers consuming a variety of grasses, sedges, and forbs, but they will eat considerable amounts of browse and fruits if preferred forage is not available (some consider Bantengs to be intermediate feeders). In WestJava during the dry season, Bantengs eat bamboo, palm, and various shrubs (e. g. Psychotria malayana) and saplings. Preference for the grass genera Imperata, Ischaemum, Axonopus, and Cynodon, among others, has been noted.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139948FFF303ABFE8AF6C9FA2B.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Generally, breeding and birthing seasons of Bantengs are variable depending on location. In Thailand, mating occurs in May-June; in Cambodia, mating occurs in March-April, with most births in December — January; in Myanmar, early accounts suggested that births occur throughout the year. Some male Banteng, typically younger males, stay with female herds throughout the year, but others, particularly mature males, live alone or in bachelor groups until rut. Little is known about age offirst breeding of males or females. A captive-born female lived 27 years, but the reproductive life and overall longevity of females in the wild are no doubt shorter. Gestation is 285 days. Bantengs have one calf at a time; birth weights of domesticated Banteng, which likely weigh less than their wild counterparts, are 16 - 9 kg for males and 15 - 6 kg for females.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139948FFF303ABFE8AF6C9FA2B.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Activity patterns are typical of ruminants involving alternating periods of foraging and ruminating / resting, typically 2 - 3 hours long. Bantengs may be active day and night and can become rather nocturnal when humans encroach into their range.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139948FFF303ABFE8AF6C9FA2B.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Bantengs are non-migratory but will move extensively for food, water, and mineral licks. No information exists on home range sizes. A female and her offspring constitute the nucleus of social groups. Typical group sizes are about 8 - 12 individuals, but groups of 20 - 100 have been observed in open areas. Typical groups are made up of adult females, their offspring, and juveniles, often accompanied by one or more young and adult males; such groups probably are not stable. Sometimes females occur alone or in female-only groups without offspring. Mature males also occur singly or in bachelor groups, which break up as rut approaches. Sexual segregation may be minimal in some areas perhaps because of limited resources and clumped water availability (e. g. Baluran National Park, Java).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139948FFF303ABFE8AF6C9FA2B.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Bantengs only occur now in small and isolated populations. Wild Banteng only number about 5000 - 8000 individuals; no populations have more than 500 individuals and only 6 - 8 populations have more than 50 individuals — most are in decline. The species is extinct in Bangladesh, Brunei, and India. Most remaining wild populations of Bantengs occur in parks and reserves, providing a degree of protection and administrative control. Threats to conservation of wild Bantengs include habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation; poaching for subsistence and trade in trophies, meat, and animal parts (horns are prized); disease transmission with domestic cattle; loss of genetic integrity and hybridization with domestic cattle; and predation by Dholes (Cuon alpinus), particularly in Java. Conservation efforts likely will have the greatest potential for success in Java and Cambodia where numbers of Bantengs are the highest, followed by Thailand and Borneo. The exotic population of Bantengs in the Northern Territory of Australia numbers about 6000 individuals and is genetically identical to wild Bantengs, despite the 20 or so founders being domesticated animals from Bali. This population may have conservation potential in the future. In 2003 following successful cloning of Gaur (B. gaurus), two clones of Banteng were produced from a single cell of frozen ear tissue of a male that died at the San Diego Zoo in 1980; one of the clones survived to at least 2007 but had not reproduced. The Banteng now has a permanent place in the history of such innovative and yet controversial approaches to recovery of endangered species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139948FFF406A1FA71F975FCB5.taxon	materials_examined	Cambodia, near Tchep Village.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139948FFF406A1FA71F975FCB5.taxon	discussion	An early genetic study, using mtDNA, suggested that Kouprey is not a valid species but rather a result of relatively recent hybridization among some South-east Asian domestic and wild cattle such as the Banteng (B. javanicus). More convincing evidence from mitochondrial and nuclear DNA supports its status as a species forming a clade with Banteng and Gaur (B. gaurus), despite some interbreeding at least with Banteng. Perhaps domesticated in the past. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139948FFF406A1FA71F975FCB5.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Historically thought to occur in Cambodia, S Laos, SE Thailand, and W Vietnam, but perhaps wider. If still extant in the wild, probably restricted to several protected areas in E Cambodia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139948FFF406A1FA71F975FCB5.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 210 - 220 cm, tail 100 - 110 cm, shoulder height 170 - 190 cm; weight 700 - 900 kg. Male Koupreys are black to dark brown except for white / grayish leggings; female Koupreys are grayish with paler underparts; very young Koupreys are reddish-brown, with both sexes becoming pale on the flanks. Both sexes have a dewlap (flap of skin) under their necks; it is much longer in males — up to 43 cm and almost to the ground in older males. The black muzzle of males has a dark chestnut brown area around it, as do the eyes. The wide-spreading black horns of male Koupreys curve outward and forward with shredded or frayed ends, to a degree that is unique among Bovidae (slight shredding of horn tip is sometimes seen in male Wisent, B. bonasus), and they may grow to 81 cm with a spread of 84 cm (based on one specimen). The horns of mature males in cross section are triangular and flat for the first 300 mm, and then they become round; heavy ridges extend along the ventral surface and a knife-life keel extends along the posterior edge for about 300 mm. The horns of females are smaller, more twisted, and lyre-sshaped. The nostril has a distinctive notch. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32. Maxillary tooth row is shorter in Kouprey than in other Asian cattle.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139948FFF406A1FA71F975FCB5.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Koupreys are said to primarily use open deciduous forests interspersed with open grasslands and savannas with scattered trees. Such areas are usually flat to rolling lowlands with seasonal climate and less than 2000 mm of precipitation per year. Koupreys may use habitat mosaics that include semi-evergreen forests and will move a kilometer or more through dense forest to find foraging habitat with less overstory cover. Standing water and mineral licks are presumed to be important to Koupreys, and water can offer a refuge from predators.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139948FFF406A1FA71F975FCB5.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Herbivorous, presumably like other wild Asian cattle that eat a variety of grasses, sedges, herbaceous species, and some browse. The shredded ends of the horns may be caused by digging for tubers, or related to behaviors associated with the breeding season. The Kouprey has been described as a cautious feeder, making careful observations before advancing, and often doubling back. This may be a sign of human persecution rather than their general behavior.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139948FFF406A1FA71F975FCB5.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is very little specific information available for this species, but presumably like other wild Asian cattle. Breeding activities are probably most concentrated in April. Females leave their group to give birth and may not return for a month. A single calf per adult female is born from December to February. Calves are born reddishbrown but become grayish if female and blackish if male at 4 - 5 months; little horns are apparent by six months of age.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139948FFF406A1FA71F975FCB5.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is very little specific information available for this species, but presumably like other wild Asian cattle with alternating patterns of feeding and ruminating / rest. Koupreys bed in tight circles in early afternoon and become active in late afternoon and evening.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139948FFF406A1FA71F975FCB5.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Koupreys may wander up to 15 km / night in search of forage and may move to higher elevations in the rainy season. They occur in small but non-cohesive groups that may be as large as 20 during the rainy season, often led by an old female. Males occur in bachelor groups outside of the breeding season. In the past, Koupreys were observed among herds of Bantengs particularly after the breeding season of both species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139948FFF406A1FA71F975FCB5.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Koupreys have not been observed in the wild since the 1960 s, and no individuals exist in captivity. Habitat destruction and poaching for use in traditional medicine and as trophies are largely responsible for the demise of the Kouprey. Because of the rarity (or possible extinction) of the Kouprey, surveys may be unproductive, and conservation efforts should focus on protection and recovery of habitats in eastern Cambodia that benefit large mammal communities in general.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713994DFFF60346FE8AF854F3C1.taxon	materials_examined	Africa, Asia. Restricted by Lydekker in 1913 to “ Bielowitza, Lithuanis ” (Poland, Bialowieza Forest).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713994DFFF60346FE8AF854F3C1.taxon	discussion	Sometimes included in the genus Bison. The pure form of the Caucasian Bison B. caucasicus 1 s now extinct, but it is believed to persist genetically in a form crossed with bonasus, or the “ Lowland Line. ” It has been proposed that the extinct Wisent from the Carpathian Mountains and Transylvania was a distinct subspecies (hungarorum Kretzoi, 1946), but the evidence for it is equivocal. Another subspecies, montanus Rautian, Kalabushkin, and Nemtsev, 2000, has been described recently as a “ Highland Line ” occurring in the highland forest belt of the Caucasus Mountains; the population on which itis based is actually descended from hybrids between Wisent and American Bison (B. bison) bred in the 1930 s and introduced into the Caucasus Mountains. Neither subspecies is recognized here. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713994DFFF60346FE8AF854F3C1.taxon	distribution	Distribution. C & E Europe and N Caucasus; became extinct in the wild and now scattered in free-ranging and semi-free populations in Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Slovakia, Ukraine, and Russia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713994DFFF60346FE8AF854F3C1.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 210 - 350 cm, tail 30 - 60 cm, shoulder height 150 - 200 cm; weight 350 - 1000 kg. Wisent is the largest ungulate in Europe. Closely resembling American Bison (Bos bison), Wisent have a dense, dark brown to golden-brown coat, with a tinge of plum coloration. The shoulder hump is pronounced, and the neck is short and thick, accentuated by long hairs forming a short beard or mane, often curly, on the underside — most developed in males. It has a curly mop of hair on the relatively flat and broad forehead and a short beard on its chin. The hindquarters are larger and less sloping than those of American Bison, and the Wisent tends to hold its head higher. The skull is broad and short, and both sexes have relatively long and slender black horns that project outward and then curve upward and slightly forward. In adult males, the horns may shred around the tips, like a Kouprey (B. sauveli) but less marked. A long tail drapes to the hocks or below. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713994DFFF60346FE8AF854F3C1.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Wisent use deciduous and mixed forests that optimally contain about 20 % open glades, meadows, tree plantations less than ten years old, and recently cleared areas, all of which provide more abundant preferred forages such as grasses than closed forest. Coniferous forest is used secondarily, and a mosaic of forest types provides the most favorable habitat. In the Caucasus Mountains, Wisent use foothill forests in winter and move to subalpine meadows in summer. In Lithuania, Wisent use more open areas including agricultural fields. It is impossible to know if habitat preferences of Wisent now are comparable to their preferences when they were more widespread and abundant centuries ago.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713994DFFF60346FE8AF854F3C1.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Wisent are herbivorous, but they are known to consume more browse in forested habitats than their American counterpart. As a large bovid, daily forage requirements are high: 8 kg / day (less than one year of age), 19.5 - 28. 5 kg / day (2 - 3 year olds), and 23 - 32 kg / day (adults). In Bialowieza Primeval Forest, Poland, Wisent consume more than 130 plant species, including at least 96 herbaceous species (forbs), 14 grass / sedge species, and 27 shrub and tree species. Annually, grasses, sedges, and forbs make up about 67 % of the diet; shrubs and trees make up about 33 %. Important shrub and tree genera in the diet include Carpinus, Salix, Fraxinus, and Betula; important grass / sedge genera include Calamagrostis and Carex; important forb genera include Aegopodium, Urtica, Ranunculus, and Cirsium. Mast from trees can be seasonally important in forested habitats, and snow cover in winter can greatly affect diet composition. In less forested landscapes, and where agricultural fields are available, Wisent consume considerably more grass / sedge and herbaceous forage, particularly during the growing season; they revert back to diets higher in shrubs and trees when the growing season ends. In the Caucasus Mountains, Wisent move from the low-elevation forested habitats they occupy in winter to subalpine meadows in summer, and their diets contain more grass / sedge and herbaceous forages. Many of the free-ranging and semi-free populations of Wisent are supplemented with hay in winter — a management practice that was implemented while reestablishing the species in the wild. Such supplemental feeding limits understanding of winter diets, movements, and natural mortality under wild conditions. Wisent do not necessarily drink free water daily during snow-free periods, but groups visit permanent water sources such as reservoirs and streams to drink. In winter, they consume snow, melted snow, and ice and will trod in frozen soggy soil to get free water.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713994DFFF60346FE8AF854F3C1.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Generally, breeding and birthing seasons ofWisent are August — October and May-July, although some births can occur as late as October, depending on location. Some male Wisent stay with female herds throughout the year, but others, particularly mature males, live alone or in bachelor groups until rut. Physiologically, males can be sexually mature at about two or four years of age, but males 6 — 12 years old probably attain their maximum breeding performance and do not permit younger males to breed. As rut commences, males maintain a dominance hierarchy by fighting each other. After males reach about twelve years of age, spermatogenesis wanes. Males may live to about 20 years in captivity but only 14 - 16 years in the wild. Copulation is abrupt and of short duration. Females breed for the first time at three years of age and give birth in their fourth year. About one-half of the females in free-ranging populations in Poland and Belarus give birth every year. The reproductive life of female Wisent in free-ranging populations is 18 - 20 years, longer than that of males. Females may live up to 28 years in captivity, and one marked female lived to 24 years in the wild. Gestation is 254 - 279 days; sex ratio at birth is equal. Wisent have one calf at a time, very rarely twins and apparently only in captivity. Females leave their group to give birth; parturition takes about 90 - 130 minutes and occurs in a lying position. Neonates are 24 - 28 kg at birth. They stand 22 - 45 minutes after birth and begin suckling within their first hour of life. Females return to their group after a few days.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713994DFFF60346FE8AF854F3C1.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Daily activity patterns are typical of ruminants involving alternating periods of foraging and ruminating / resting. Wisent often actively feed while moving from one location to another. During the plant-growing season, they spend about 60 % of the day feeding, 30 % resting, and 10 % roaming without feeding. During winter, many populations are fed supplemental food, which influences the amount of time needed to acquire food; they may spend only 30 % of their time feeding and 60 % resting. In Bialowieza Forest, Poland, in late winter / early spring, Wisent may spend 18 % of their feeding time stripping bark from trees.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713994DFFF60346FE8AF854F3C1.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Wisent are non-migratory but may wander rather extensively in search of food and seem to use their habitats somewhat rotationally. In Bialowieza Primeval Forest, Poland, annual home range sizes of males increase with age from 44 - 136 - 5 km? (5 - 6 year olds) to 84: 3 - 151 - 6 km? (older than six years). Home range size varies depending on habitats occupied. Maximum annual female home ranges are about 100 km?. Seasonal core areas in the overall home range are much smaller; in winter, male and female core areas are only 10 - 7 km? * and 7 - 9 km?, respectively, and the size is often constrained by snow cover and low temperatures or the availability of supplemental feed. When snow cover is light or absent, winter home ranges increase in size. During seasons other than winter, seasonal home ranges can be as large as 70 km?, but they may be focused on water sources and meadows. In Lithuania, annual home ranges may be as large as 200 km? * with core areas of about 20 km? ®. Wisent are gregarious; group sizes vary depending on forage availability, time of year relative to breeding and parturition, and sex. Typical group sizes are 8 - 13 individuals, but groups of 20 or more individuals can be typical in open areas. Groups of about 100 individuals can be observed particularly in winter around supplemental feeling sites and in open settings with abundant forage. Groups are made up of females, their offspring, and young males, but they are not persistent family units, except a cow and her offspring of the year. Other individuals join and leave groups as they encounter one another, with young bulls changing groups most often. About 50 % of mature males are solitary or they occur in small groups, typically of less than about ten individuals but often just two individuals. It is impossible to know if this grouping behavior was typical of the species centuries ago or is an artifact of conditions of reintroduction, limited numbers, and current habitat availability and fragmentation.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713994DFFF60346FE8AF854F3C1.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Wisent also is listed in Appendix III of the Bern Convention and Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. Historically it was distributed throughout Western, Central and South-eastern Europe, surviving up to 18 " century in Germany, Romania and western Russia, until about 1790 in Hungary, and until early in the 20 " century in Poland, with a closely related species (now extinct as a pure form) in the western Caucasus Mountains (Armenia, Georgia, and Russia). A European Bison Pedigree Book is kept by the Mammal Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences, which maintains records on genetic purity of individuals. Restoration of the Wisent after their extinction in the wild in 1919 is a testament to decades of efforts by many individuals, governmental and non-governmental agencies, academies, etc. From a founding population of only twelve captive pure Wisent, the total population of free-ranging Wisent in 2006 was about 1800 in 19 populations, with 1400 individuals more in captivity. Nevertheless, many challenges have been, and still are, encountered; lack of genetic diversity and inbreeding depression from the small number of founders, affecting skeletal growth; habitat degradation and fragmentation caused by a growing human population and its demands for agriculture and logging; diminishing places to restore populations; poaching; disease; and unintentional hybridization. Unfortunately, hybrids with American Bison occur too close to the Wisent in the Caucasus Mountains, Toksove Forest Park near Saint Petersburg, Russia, and Mordovia Wildlife Reserve. The 2004 Action Plan calls for continued captive breeding, establishment of a gene bank from semen collections, continued reintroductions with a goal of 3000 freeranging Wisent, management of existing free-ranging populations with the capacity of their habitat to sustain them, stricter control of poaching, and creation of an international breeding center. Captive populations exist in at least 30 countries worldwide.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713994DFFF8065FF30EFC22F940.taxon	materials_examined	Mexico (= C Kansas, Quivira). Restricted by Hershkovitz in 1957 to C Kansas, “ Quivira. ”	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713994DFFF8065FF30EFC22F940.taxon	discussion	Sometimes included in the genus Bison. Most recognize two subspecies of American Bison based on physical differences in body mass, horn size, diameter of horn cores, hump configuration, and foreleg chaps. Because of mixing of the “ Plains Bison ” (bison) with the “ Wood Bison ” (athabascae) in northern Canada in the 1920 s, populations of Wood Bison are no longer genetically pure, but they do retain many of their taxonomic characteristics and other differences from Plains Bison and can be distinguished completely by six horn and five cranial measurements. Two subspecies recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713994DFFF8065FF30EFC22F940.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. B. b. bisonLinnaeus, 1758 — scatteredinfree-rangingconservationherdsinW & CCanada (BritishColumbia & Saskatchewan), WUSA (Alaska, Montana, Utah & Wyoming), andextremeNMexico (Chihuahua). B. b. athabascae Rhoads, 1898 — scattered in free-ranging conservation herds in W & C Canada.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713994DFFF8065FF30EFC22F940.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 304 - 380 cm (males) and 210 - 350 (females), tail 43 - 60 cm, shoulder height 167 - 195 cm (males) and 150 - 180 cm (females); weight 460 - 998 kg (males) and 360 - 544 kg (females). American Bison are the largest terrestrial herbivores in North America, massively built, tall, and rather narrow in head-on profile. Although the two subspecies, Plains Bison and Wood Bison, share common characteristics, individuals in extant populations are disparate in some diagnostic ways. Compared to Plains Bison, Wood Bison weigh more; they have a longer body, legs, and horns; wider and longer pelvis; and greater basal skull length but smaller skull width on the masseteric processes. The hump of the Wood Bison is more abrupt and taller anteriorly, whereas the Plains Bison has a deeper neck from which the hump rises gradually and does not decline as much behind. Both subspecies have a dense darkbrown coat, appearing black from a distance, with shaggy, long, and nearly black hairs on the cape, neck, shoulders, and front legs (more so in Plains Bison with its well-developed chaps). Some color variation exists seasonally; for example, when the pelage bleaches from exposure to the sun. Young are born reddish-tan but become brownishblack at about three months of age. The hairs on the dark head are curly and moplike between the horns of Plains Bison, often obscuring the lower parts of the horn; on Wood Bison, they are straight and extend farther down the face, rarely obscuring the horns. Both subspecies have ventral beards, but they stand out more and appear more pointed in Wood Bison. The dorsal cape of Plains Bison is well defined and yellow-ocher in color, with a sharp demarcation between it and the rest of body — not so in Wood Bison. Plains Bison tend to hold their heads lower than do Wood Bison, and the hindquarters of Plains Bison are smaller and more gradually sloping. Both sexes have relatively short, blunt-tipped black horns that project backward, outward and then curve upward; the horns are pointed outward a bit more in Wood Bison. The horns of females tend to curve inward at the top and are smaller than those of males. Dental formula is 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32. Molars are hyposodont and selenodont; the first permanent teeth erupt after one year of age, and all permanent teeth are present by age five.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713994DFFF8065FF30EFC22F940.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The American Bison is decidedly a species of relatively uniform and low-lying North American grasslands and meadows; however, historical evidence shows thatit once roamed to elevations of 3200 - 3900 m in Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana, USA. American Bison tolerate a wide range of climate and habitat conditions; they once occupied semi-arid grasslands of Mexico and the southern USA, grasslands of more moderate climate but huge variability in precipitation and temperatures in the central USA, eastern forested areas in the USA, and cold boreal spruce forests in Canada and Alaska. Population densities no doubt varied by location. In forested areas in Canada and the eastern USA, openings and wetland meadows were no doubt important habitats; riparian areas along streams and rivers provide abundant sedges. Although use of forested areas is limited, American Bison will seek such cover for shade and during inclement weather in winter. Habitat use by American Bison is determined by a complex combination of tradition, occasional need for shelter, food and nutrient availability, access to water, and freedom from insect harassment. American Bison are strong swimmers and not deterred by swift rivers or lakes while moving from one area to another.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713994DFFF8065FF30EFC22F940.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The American Bison is herbivorous and much more of a grazer than its European counterpart. American Bison eat grasses and sedges in all seasons, and are not particularly selective of particular species given its large mouth size. Sedges dominate diets in northern areas with abundant wet meadows, and cool-season and warms-season grasses are important in mixedand short-grass prairies, respectively. It is not uncommon for diets of American Bison to contain 95 % grasses and sedges, but in semi-arid areas where grass / sedge availability is seasonally low, browse and forbs are important and movements to acquire them typically increase. Snow is readily swept away by the head as American Bison search for grasses / sedges in winter. Fires can play a significant role in habitat selection. In the past, fires deliberately set by humans likely caused American Bison to move to such areas to take advantage of the flush of grasses and herbaceous species that follow fires. Many prairie habitats in the USA currently are managed with fire, and if American Bison are present, groups gravitate to such areas. American Bison are more efficient at digesting low-quality diets than domestic cattle (B. taurus) and often sympatric Wapiti (Cervus canadensis). Water availability is important to American Bison, and they readily consume free-standing water and snow.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713994DFFF8065FF30EFC22F940.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The breeding and birthing seasons of American Bison are late June-September and mid-April-May, although conceptions may be more punctuated because births in some populations occur over just a couple of weeks. Northern populations generally give birth a couple of weeks later than southern populations. Some males stay with female herds throughout the year, but others, particularly mature males, live alone or in bachelor groups of 2 - 6 individuals until rut. Males attain their maximum breeding performance at 6 - 9 years old and establish dominance by displaying and fighting each other to attain breeding rights, which are not simply a function of age and weight. Rutting males are boisterous and very active during rut, when overall herd size increases. While a dominant male tends an estrous female, both sexes may lick and horn each other, and females may even try to mount the bull. Copulation, which is typically crepuscular or occurs at night, is abrupt and of short duration; the pair may start to run off together before copulation ends. Females are seasonally polyestrous. They breed for the first time at two years of age and give birth in their third year. Calving rates of sexually mature females vary by location but can be as high as 88 %; typically, a mature female will produce two calves every three years. Female American Bison are most productive between three and 12 - 15 years. Males maylive to their late twenties in captivity but likely less than 20 years in the wild. Females may live up to 29 years in captivity, but as with males, they are no doubt shorter-lived in the wild. Gestation is about 285 days; sex ratio at birth is somewhat male biased. American Bison have one calf at a time, very rarely twins. Females may give birth in the herd or retire to an isolated location. Neonates are 15 - 25 kg at birth; they are precocious, standing about only ten minutes after birth and nursing after about 30 minutes. The young will begin to test solid food and drink water at about 5 - 7 days of age but nurse for 7 - 8 months; weaning occurs at about one year of age, at which time young weigh 225 - 315 kg.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713994DFFF8065FF30EFC22F940.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. American Bison are primarily diurnal, occasionally feeding and traveling at night. Daily activity patterns are typical of ruminants, involving waves of foraging followed by ruminating / resting. Both sexes and all age classes wallow usually in dry depressions that are deepened by regular and frequent use; wet wallows are sometimes used. Horning of vegetation by both sexes is also a common activity.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713994DFFF8065FF30EFC22F940.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The American Bison has been described as migratory and nomadic. Historically, these animals undertook lengthy movements, often single-file, but given the unpredictability in weather across much of their former range, most populations tended to be nomadic because of uncertain forage availability in any given season or location. Where resources were more predictable, American Bison may have migrated from a regular summer range to a regular winter range and back again. Such movements could be directional, elevational, or both. Distances moved vary greatly and depend on the extent of usable range; daily movements of several kilometers are typical, but over a year, individual Wood Bison may traverse an area of more than 1400 km ®. On Santa Catalina Island, California, where the total amount of usable habitat is limited, annual home range sizes of females were 29 - 5 - 70 - 5 km?, similar to those in the Henry Mountains, Utah, that averaged 52 km *. American Bison are very gregarious and occur in three types of groups: matriarchal, male only, and mixed breeding. In Yellowstone National Park, average group sizes range from 10 - 63 individuals in matriarchal groups to 19 - 480 individuals in mixed breeding groups. Groups of American Bison are rather fluid and are made up of females, their offspring, and 2 - 3 year olds and a few older males. Bonds between females and their male and female offspring may last into their second and third years, respectively, but offspring become quite independent as young as 2 - 3 weeks, and cluster together in bands of 2 - 15 within their matriarchal group. Today’s groups are just a vestige of the huge herds that were typical throughout much of the historical range of the American Bison.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713994DFFF8065FF30EFC22F940.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (Wood Bison only). Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. American Bison once ranged from Mexico through the Intermountain West of the Rocky Mountains to Alaska, east through the Great Plains, south of the Great Lakes and east to the Allegheny Mountains in Maryland, and south to Georgia and northern Florida (although the specific eastern extent of the historic range is still disputed). The species attained its numerical zenith in the fertile Great Plains of the USA and Canada. As settlement by Europeans advanced westward in the midto late 1880 s, the near extermination of bison in North America from rampant market hunting for meat and hides, regional drought, competition with livestock, and likely introduced bovine diseases has been well documented. There also was a concerted effort by the US military to exterminate bison and thereby handicap Native Americans dependent on them. Perhaps no other wild mammal experienced such a rapid and complete reduction in numbers and range, from tens of millions to as few as 500 - 1000 individuals by the late 1880 s. Only remnant wild populations of Plains Bison and Wood Bison existed then in Yellowstone National Park, USA, and northern Alberta and Northwest Territories, Canada. Unfortunately because of early translocations of Plains Bison into northern Canada, interbreeding there resulted in genetically impure Wood Bison; however, theystill display most of their unique phenotypic char acteristics that contrast pure Plains Bison. Similarly, some Plains Bison, such as those in Custer State Park, South Dakota, USA, are infused with domestic cattle genes. Bold conservation efforts initiated by W. ' T. Hornaday in the 1890 s and championed thereafter by numerous other individuals and agencies / organizations saved wild Plains Bison and Wood Bison from possible extinction. Today, free-ranging and semi-free Plains Bison and Wood Bison occur in 62 and eleven “ conservation herds, ” only totaling about 20,500 and 10,900 individuals, respectively; semi-free herds are confined to some degree and perhaps given supplemental feed. Eight of those herds, five Plains Bison and three Wood Bison, have more than 1000 individuals, with one Plains Bison herd (Greater Yellowstone area, north-western Wyoming and south-western Montana) and one Wood Bison herd (Greater Wood Buffalo National Park area, north-eastern Alberta and south-central Northwest Territories, Canada) numbering more than 5000 individuals. Five free-ranging conservation herds of Plains Bison occur in their native range: one in Canada (Prince Albert National Park, central Saskatchewan), three in the USA (Henry Mountains, Utah; Grand Tetons, Wyoming; and Greater Yellowstone area), and one in Chihuahua, Mexico, which moves across the international border into New Mexico, USA, whereit is officially considered livestock. An additional five free-ranging Plains Bison herds have been introduced outside of their native range: one in the Pink Mountains, British Columbia and four in Alaska (DeltaJunction, Copper River, Chitina River, and the Farwell area), where variable harvests are regulated by state and provincial game agencies. Ten free-ranging conservation herds of Wood Bison occur in western Canada, with an additionalfledgling introduction in Alaska. In the USA, semi-free conservation herds of Plains Bison occur in Montana, North Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Wyoming, South Dakota, Nebraska, Iowa, Illinois, Utah, Colorado, Kansas, California, Arizona, Oklahoma, Texas, and Kentucky; no Wood Bison conservation herds are considered semi-free in Canada. Commercial herds, officially considered domestic by most governmental agencies, number about 500,000 bison (mostly Plains Bison) on about 4000 privately owned properties, but they do not have a role in the conservation and recovery of the wild populations. A consortium of Native American tribes is working to restore “ buffalo to Indian Country. ” Plans are underway to establish large free-ranging herds of Plains Bison in Colorado and northern Montana and Wood Bison in Alaska. The IUCN American Bison Status Survey and Conservation Guidelines 2010 calls for restoration of the species on an ecological scale comparable to its historical past. Assembling the large landscapes required for such restoration will have to involve innovative approaches to deal with ecologically degraded areas, legal rights of private and public stakeholders, and prevailing socio-economic conditions. Substantial financing will be needed for planning, implementation, and maintenance to ensure the success of such a bold endeavor.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139943FFF9034CF890F5F2FA8C.taxon	materials_examined	W Nan Shan (approx. 39 ° 20 ’ N, 95 ° E), China.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139943FFF9034CF890F5F2FA8C.taxon	discussion	Opinion 2027 of the International Commission for Zoological Nomenclature in 2003 retained usage of both Przewalski’s mutus for the wild Yak and Linnaeus’s grunniens for the domestic Yak. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139943FFF9034CF890F5F2FA8C.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Fragmented distribution in the Tibetan Plateau in China (Xinjiang, Xizang & Qinghai); one population drifts from S Xinjiang into NW India (Ladakh) and another from Qinghai to Gansu, China.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139943FFF9034CF890F5F2FA8C.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body up to 306 - 380 cm, tail up to 100 cm, shoulder height 170 - 203 cm (males) and 137 - 156 cm (females); weight 535 - 1000 kg (males) and 300 - 350 kg (females). Male Yaks have massive but compact bodies on sturdy short legs; they are reported to be the third largest mammal in Asia after the Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) and Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis). Female Yaks can be one-third the size of males. Both sexes have nearly smooth, cylindrical, gray-to-black horns, but those of males are larger and longer and sweep outward and forward more than the upright smaller horns of females; from a recent sample in the Chang Tang Nature Reserve, Xizang, length of outside curve, 47.5 - 99 cm (males), 37 - 64. 5 cm (females); basal circumference, 26 - 42 cm (males), 15 - 23 cm (females); tip-to-tip, 26 - 83 cm (males), 18 - 67 cm (females). The Yak forehead is short, wide, and slightly convex. The skull is heavy, with broad nasals with tapering ends; narrow lachrymal; upper edge of maxillary is in contact with middle of nasals; outer sides of premaxillaries nearly parallel, not tapering. Other characters include small ears; no dewlap; large and rounded hooves; conspicuous hump, most pronounced in males, arising abruptly behind the short neck as a result of elongated neural spines of cervical and dorsal vertebrae tapering level at the mid-back and notfalling away above the hips; black pelage with rust-brown hues and sometimes peppered with gray on the head and neck of older adults (a rare pale golden-brown mutation in about 2 % of animals occurs in the Aru Basin, Xizang); muzzle grayish; young dark brown; pelage dense with an undercoat of wool and long coarse guard hairs; long draping hair on chest, flanks, and thighs almost reaches the ground in mature males; tail long and bushy on the lower one-half; few functional sweat glands; no preorbital glands or associated lachrymal fossa. The pelage consists of three types of hairs: long coarse guard hairs, intermediate down fiber, and dense, fine down fiber. Down fibers grow dense in winter, particularly on the neck, shoulders, and back. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32. Yak neonates are not born with their deciduous incisors; the first pair erupts after about one week, with successive pairs erupting weekly thereafter until the calf is four weeks old; at about two years of age, the first pair of deciduous incisorsis replaced by permanent incisors, and that process continues until aboutfive years of age.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139943FFF9034CF890F5F2FA8C.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Yaks are highly adapted for existence under extreme conditions of low temperature, high elevation and associated low oxygen availability, extreme solar radiation at southern latitudes, and relatively arid conditions. They are now restricted to very high-elevation and remote uplands at 4000 - 6100 m, usually free of human harassment, and are undaunted by mountainous terrain because of their stout and strong limbs and their relatively small compact hooves with hard edges and sharp tips. They occur in greatest abundance on alpine meadows, less so in alpine steppe, and are scarce in desert steppe. Preferred habitats in Chang Tang Nature Reserve include partially glaciated mountains with slopes of alpine meadows, seasonally lush alpine steppe that may green-up 2 - 3 weeks before the plains, and edges of streams. Male Yaks occur often on gentle slopes, and female herds occur more often on high hills and upper slopes. Densities of Yak are difficult to estimate given their rarity and their clumped and fragmented distribution in their expansive and remote range on the Tibetan Plateau.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139943FFF9034CF890F5F2FA8C.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Yaks are grazers, seasonally eating grasses, sedges, lichens, and mosses. The Yak’s mouth is broad and lips flexible; the incisors have flat grinding surfaces, and the tongue is broad and blunt with highly cutinized and developed papillae. Such adaptations allow Yaks to forage like cattle on long grasses or like sheep on grasses as short as 2 - 3 cm. In winter when sedges such as Kobresia are short and brittle, Yaks simply lick them up with their rough tongue. In Chang Tang Nature Reserve, Yak feces contain grasses and sedges (Stipa, 52 %; Kobresia, 4 %; Carex mooreroftit, 14 %; other grasses, 4 %), followed by herbaceous plants (12 %) and the dwarf shrub Ceratoides compacta (10 %). In Yeniugou, Qinghai, Yak feces in summer contain 85 - 5 % sedges and grass (sedges: 67 - 1 % Kobresia and 5 - 3 % Carex; grasses: 13 - 1 %) and almost 4 % mosses; in autumn, grasses dominate (68: 8 %), and sedges become less important (25 - 3 %). Little is known about their specific water requirements, but early chroniclers noted frequent visits to mineral-rich warm springs and rivers and consumption of snow.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139943FFF9034CF890F5F2FA8C.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The breeding and birthing seasons are short, generally mid-August through September and mid-May through June, respectively. Some male Yaks stay with female herds throughout the year, but others live alone or in bachelor groups until rut. At some point, older males may become less competitive in obtaining mates than prime males and may live alone or in small groups apart from other groups. Males do not establish a territory or harem apart from a herd or each other. Rather, they wander day and night and attempt to tend and breed receptive females within existing female herds. As rut commences, males maintain a dominance hierarchy by fighting each other and likely attain maximum breeding performance at 5 - 10 years. Aggressive behavior among males in rut is intense; considerable scarring, wounds, and horn damage on male Yaks incurred during rut-induced fights have been noted. Almost every village close to areas frequented by wild Yaks in the Chang Tang Nature Reserve has experienced attacks, injuries, and even deaths caused by male Yaks, particularly during rut. Indirect threats involve lateral displays that emphasize the shoulder hump and mantle of hair; competing males will stand head-to-head or head-to-tail 3 - 6 m apart for more than five minutes. Direct threats include charges with lowered heads and head-to-head sparring that can last 15 minutes. Rutting wild males frequently wallow on dry ground, sometimes while defecating and urinating, which distinguishes them from most other Bos but parallels behavior of American Bison. Other rutting behaviors of males include grunting, bellowing, horning the ground and vegetation, rubbing the face and neck on the ground, and teeth grinding. Copulation is abrupt and of short duration. Females breed for the first time at 3 - 4 years of age, but this, and annual timing of estrus, likely varies depending on climate, latitude, elevation, and availability of nutritious forage. Yaks generally produce one calf every other year, or longer; twinning is rare. Gestation is 258 - 270 days. If wild Yaks are comparable to domestic Yaks, parturition occurs during the day, rarely at night, in a sheltered location away from the herd; birth is often from a standing position although the female may spend considerable time lying on her side. Offspring are precocial and attempt to stand within about ten minutes postpartum; nursing first occurs 11 - 30 minutes postpartum and may last 3 - 5 minutes. Females and their offspring rejoin the herd shortly thereafter, and herds will protect offspring by encircling them. Postpartum anestrus is about 125 days.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139943FFF9034CF890F5F2FA8C.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Daily and seasonal activity patterns are no doubt related to heat conservation during lengthy winters and avoiding heatloading in summer. Consistently low temperatures and low primary productivity throughout most of the year in Yak range result in a strategy of heat conservation rather than heat production. Adaptations to the cold are so developed that signs of heat exhaustion are apparent when ambient temperatures exceed 13 ° C; heart rate and respiration increase and most activity ceases when ambient temperatures approach 20 ° C. Adaptations for heat conservation include a compact body, despite a large mass, with relatively short legs, neck, and ears and a low surface-to-volume ratio; thick pelage particularly on the neck, back, and rump; dark pelage and skin pigmentation to minimize effects of intense solar radiation but maximize heat absorption; thick unwrinkled skin with non-functional apocrine sweat glands, except on the muzzle, but with highly developed piloerection muscles; and a thick, but seasonal, subcutaneous fat layer. Yaks maximize heat dissipation and minimize heat production by seeking the coldest spots and shade, bedding in snow, and standing in icy water even during inclement weather.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139943FFF9034CF890F5F2FA8C.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Yaks are non-migratory but are capable of moving considerable distances, both linearly and elevationally if, for example, harassment or seasonal food availability dictate. Because of persecution, wild Yaks today are very wary of humans, and disturbance may cause long and unpredictable movements; e. g. one observer recalled a Yak group that fled 20 km after spotting him! No home range information exists for the Yak. Groups of Yaks vary from single males to aggregations of more than 200 and even 400 individuals, but aggregations of a thousand individuals were reported in the 1800 s. Groups are not stable through time. Grouping behavior depends on sex, time of year, and location. Group types include solitary adult males, mixed-aged males, females and offspring, and mixed sexes. Females rarely occur alone and typically in groups of about five, sometimes considerably larger. Most adult males segregate from females and subadults during non-breeding. Of 507 male Yaks observed in the Aru Basin, Xizang, 36 % were alone, 43 % in groups of 2 - 5, 13 % in groups of 6 - 10, and the rest in groups up to 19. Observations from Chang Tang Nature Reserve suggest a sex ratio of 67 - 75 males: 100 females. In Yeniugou, Qinghai, groups of 10 - 245 female Yaks with their young-of-the-year and yearling offspring, juveniles, barren females, and adult males (about 4 % of the herd) were observed in summer; male only groups averaged 6 - 2 individuals. Maximum life span of the Yak in captivity is about 20 years; one wild Yak lived 22 years and nine months in the Beijing Zoo, China. Longevity probably is comparable, or less, in the wild. The Latin name “ mutus, ” meaning mute, is misleading because Yaks are quite vocal, particularly males in rut.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139943FFF9034CF890F5F2FA8C.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Historically, the wild Yak occurred more widely than it does today, beyond the Tibetan Plateau in the mountains of Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and southern Russia until the 137 - 18 " centuries (dates of extinction uncertain). It is considered extinct in Nepal, Bhutan, and western Sichuan, China. Numbers of Yak now total only about 10,000 - 15,000 in Xizang and Qinghai, China. The wild Yak is now one of the most endangered species of the Tibetan Plateau and has been persecuted to the point that it only finds refuge in the most remote relatively human-free areas. In recent decades, construction of roads into remote areas and the availability of more sophisticated firearms and motorized vehicles have led to excessive harvest, even for markets beyond the Tibetan Plateau. The human population of the Tibetan Plateau has increased to such an extent in the past 50 years that all good grazing lands are now occupied and remnant populations of wild Yaks are seriously affected. Competition and interbreeding between wild and domestic Yaks (the latter numbering in the millions) and possible disease transmission are problematic. To address the conservation of Yaks and other Tibetan ecosystem components, the Chinese government has established an admirable network of reserves. The 300,000 km * Chang Tang Nature Reserve in northcentral Xizang is roughly the size of New Mexico (USA) or Germany, making it the second largest reserve in the world. Important contiguous reserves to the north in Xinjiang include West Kunlun Reserve (30,000 km? *), Mid-Kunlun Reserve (32,000 km?), and Arjin Shan Reserve (45,000 km ®). Kekexili Reserve (45,000 km?) and Sanjiangyuan Reserve (150,000 km?) occur east of Chang Tang in Qinghai. This impressive network of reserves is important to the Yak, the Chiru (Pantholops hodgsonii), the Tibetan Gazelle (Procapra picticaudata), and other Tibetan species. Nevertheless, remaining populations of wild Yak and others species are still threatened by human activities and difficulties with enforcement of protective laws because of limited personnel and the expansive and very remote nature of the western China.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139947FFFD0341FE2DFB41FEDF.taxon	materials_examined	India, north from Bengal. Restricted by Harper in 1940 to Koch Behar, India.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139947FFFD0341FE2DFB41FEDF.taxon	discussion	Opinion 2027 of the International Commission for Zoological Nomenclature in 2003 retained usage of Kerr's arnee for the Asian Wild Buffalo and Linnaeus’s bubalis for the domestic form; they are considered a single species. The three Asian mainland subspecies (arnee, fulvus, and theerapati) show a degree of separation based on multivariate analyses of cranial measurements that mightjustify future rank as distinct species, but the sample size is currently too small. The existence of the Sri Lankan subspecies has been debated, but assessment of cranial and behavioral characteristics by C. P. Groves and J. Jayewardene in 2009 suggests that a pure-bred form of the Asian Wild Buffalo still persists in Yala National Park. Four subspecies recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139947FFFD0341FE2DFB41FEDF.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. B. a. arneeKerr, 1792 — EPeninsularIndiaandSNepal. B. a. fulvusBlanford, 1891 — NEIndia & NMyanmar. B. a. migonaDeraniyagala, 1952 — SSriLanka. B. a. theerapati Groves, 1996 — W Thailand and EC Cambodia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139947FFFD0341FE2DFB41FEDF.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 240 - 300 cm, tail 60 - 100 cm; shoulder height 150 - 190 cm; weight 250 - 1200 kg. Males are considerably larger than females. Although not as tall or as long, a mature male Asian Wild Buffalo is heavily built and can be larger in mass than other mature male Asian wild cattle such as the Banteng (Bos javanicus) or Gaur (B. gaurus). In contrast to those species, and more like congeneric Bubalus and African buffaloes in the genus Syncerus, the back of the Asian Wild Buffalo is level, without a pronounced hump. The Asian Wild Buffalo is much larger than its congeners, the Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) and the Anoa (B. depressicornis). The Asian Wild Buffalo tends to hold its head low, and its ears are large. It does not have a dewlap on its throat like some other wild Asian cattle. Its black to ashy-gray pelage is sparse, with rather long hairs, but many parts of the body are essentially hairless, particularly with age. When dry, the skin color is a dark grayish, but the buffaloes are usually mud-covered, wet, and dark brown to black because they spend most of their time in swamps, rivers, and mud holes. The legs from the knee down may be whitish or yellowish gray, but typically are obscured by mud; the hooves are large and splayed. The end of the long tail is bushy. Both sexes have heavy ribbed horns that arise, mostly laterally, far apart on the skull; they are triangular in cross section, and semi-lunar in shape. Males have the largest and longest horns — said to be the widest-spread of any extant bovid species. Along with their distinct geographical distributions, the four subspecies of the Asian Wild Buffalo can be distinguished by their body size, color, and cranial and horn measurements. Subspecies arnee is relatively small, black with contrasting white below the knees; the tail reaches to the hocks; the muzzle is white. Its skull length is usually less than 57 cm, with large teeth and a tooth row greater than 27 % of the skull length; horn spans are 100 - 120 cm and tip-to-tip distances are less than 80 % of the span. Subspecies fulvus is very large, pale gray to brownish-gray; its lower limbs are less white than those of arnee, and the tail falls short of the hocks. Its skull length is usually greater than 57 cm, and the tooth row length is 26 - 28 % of the skull length; the horn span is greater than 110 cm, with tip-to-tip distances as in arnee. The subspecies in Thailand, theerapati, is relatively small, with a skull length less than 57 cm and a shorter tooth row relative to skull length, at 24 - 27 %. Its horn span is usually less than 120 cm and the tip-to-tip distance is 80 % of the span. Subspecies migona, from Sri Lanka, is smaller overall than the mainland subspecies, and its horn span is less than 100 cm. The skulls of migona are not sexually dimorphic, as in the other subspecies; their length is less than 57 cm and they have especially small occipital breadths of less than 26 cm (mainland female skulls are greater than 26 cm and mainland male skulls are greater than 28 cm). Most migona lack white markings. Dental formula ofall subspecies is 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32. The karyotypes of mainland Asian Wild Buffaloes are unknown, but migona has a diploid number of 50. Domestic derivatives, the “ Swamp ” and “ River ” Buffaloes (B. bubalis), have diploid numbers of 48 and 50, respectively.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139947FFFD0341FE2DFB41FEDF.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Asian Wild Buffalo is a tropical to subtropical water-dependent species. It is now found only in remnant and widely disjunct riverine areas and associated swamps, lowland grasslands, and lowland forests. Many of these preferred habitats have been usurped for agricultural purposes. They occur at low elevations now, but may have occurred at higher elevations where wetland habitats existed (feral Swamp Buffaloes may occur at elevations of up to 2800 m). In the past, Asian Wild Buffaloes living in regions with pronounced seasonality were likely concentrated around permanent water sources during the dry season and spread out through more forested areas during the wet season, much like feral domestic buffaloes do today.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139947FFFD0341FE2DFB41FEDF.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Asian Wild Buffaloes are herbivorous and may be more specialized than other Asian wild cattle, given their preference for aquatic habitats. Presumably they are like their domestic counterparts and other wild Asian cattle, preferring grasses and sedges but also eating fruits, herbs, and bark as needed. Little is known about the diets of the Asian Wild Buffalo, but in one study in India, they ate grasses such as Cynodon dactylon, Themeda quadrivalvis, and Coix species and the sedge Cyperus corymbosus. The Asian Wild Buffalo probably eats more aquatic herbaceous plants than the other species, and it can cause serious damage to agricultural crops, such as sugar cane and rice, which are grown close to their dwindling preferred habitats.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139947FFFD0341FE2DFB41FEDF.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Specifics on the breeding of the Asian Wild Buffalo are somewhat limited, and may depart somewhat from domestic derivatives. They are polygynous and timing of the breeding season probably varies by locality, perhaps like the Gaur. In areas with a distinct rainy and dry season, breeding and subsequent parturition are expected to be more seasonal. Observations from Nepal and Sri Lanka indicate that a mature bull tends a small cohesive group of adult females and their offspring throughout the year. As rut approaches, other mature males, some of whom may live alone or in bachelor groups, vie for breeding rights and no doubt challenge group-tending males. Dominance among breeding males is likely established by horn-to-horn combat, but few observations of Asian Wild Buffalo competition exist. Perhaps it is similar to the Gaur, where combat is most common among young males rather than fully mature males. The behavioral repertoire of the Asian Wild Buffalo is no doubt similar to other Asian wild cattle, with males frequently assessing females’ urine and genitals. In domestic forms, the estrous cycle is about 20 - 21 days, estrus last up to 72 hours, and gestation is said to be the longest of any bovid species at 300 - 340 days. Females probably breed for the first time at 1 - 5 - 2 years of age, giving birth to their first calf in their third year. Females may give birth only every other year and generally have one calf at a time, but twins are not uncommon among domestic forms. Calves are said to be fully weaned by about 6 - 9 months. The domestic counterparts of the Asian Wild Buffalo may live 25 years in the wild and close to 30 years in captivity. The only record for an Asian Wild Buffalo is from a zoo in Kathmandu, Nepal, where a male acquired as a two-year-old was still living as an 11 year-old in 2004.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139947FFFD0341FE2DFB41FEDF.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Activity of the Asian Wild Buffalo is typical of ruminants, involving alternating periods of foraging and ruminating / resting. Depending on conditions (e. g. temperature and human harassment), they can be diurnal or nocturnal. They are very sensitive to heat, having few sweat glands, and spend a considerable amount of the day in water, at times completely submerged except for their head or muzzle. Asian Wild Buffaloes wallow in mud, and their entire bodies are usually mud-covered, providing a thermal advantage and protection from biting insects.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139947FFFD0341FE2DFB41FEDF.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Asian Wild Buffaloes are non-migratory and gregarious. Group size is generally about 10 individuals, although larger aggregations can be seen. Female groups appear to be cohesive, with a dominant cow and apparently a mature bull leading the movements and activities of the group. Young males generally disperse from female groups at three years of age and join bachelor groups of about ten individuals, which live apart from female groups. In 1999 - 2001, the population of Asian Wild Buffaloes in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand, was estimated at 25 - 60 individuals, with 20 % adult males, 55 % adult females, 10 % subadults, 10 % yearlings, and 5 % calves. Group sizes were 2 - 19 individuals (average of 5 - 67), although groups greater than 10 were rare. Average density in Thailand was 0 - 27 ind / km?. No information on movements and home range exists for the Asian Wild Buffalo, but female groups of feral Water Buffaloes in Australia had home ranges of 1: 7 - 10 km ®. The Asian Wild Buffalo’s sense of smell and hearing are acute, but its vision is said to be poor.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139947FFFD0341FE2DFB41FEDF.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix III (Nepal only). Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Most known populations of the Asian Wild Buffalo occur in protected areas, and it is legally protected in Nepal, Bhutan, India, and Thailand. In Cambodia, establishment of the Mondulkiri Protection Forest and Srepok Wilderness Area was motivated, in part, by the imperiled status of the Asian Wild Buffalo. Although largely an educated guess, total numbers of Asian Wild Buffaloes in the isolated populations that remain are likely much less than the purported 4000 and may even be as low as 200 individuals; however, some evidence from north-eastern India suggests that 1000 individuals still occur there. Despite their occurrence in protected areas, the biggest conservation threat to the Asian Wild Buffalo is the genetic purity of the few remaining individuals because of interbreeding with the domestic forms (indeed, some speculate that no genetically pure Asian Wild Buffaloes remain). Feral populations of River and Swamp Buffaloes occur throughout South-east Asia, as well as in Australia. Some genetic evidence from Nepal shows that gene flow is predominately from wild to domestic buffaloes and not the other way around, suggesting that female Asian Wild Buffaloes do not breed with domestic males, perhaps because of their inferior size compared with male Asian Wild Buffaloes. Additional research is needed to establish the genetic integrity and relatedness of extant Asian Wild Buffaloes. Other threats include loss, degradation, and fragmentation of their preferred wetland habitats to agriculture; poaching; and competition and disease transmission with domestic cattle and River and Swamp Buffaloes.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139946FFFD03D9FE29FAD0F33A.taxon	materials_examined	Mindoro Island, Philippines, exact location unknown.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139946FFFD03D9FE29FAD0F33A.taxon	discussion	This species is monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139946FFFD03D9FE29FAD0F33A.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Mindoro I, Philippines.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139946FFFD03D9FE29FAD0F33A.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 220 cm (one individual), tail 60 cm, shoulder height 100 cm; weight 200 - 300 kg. Coat is generally grayish-black but can be dark brown with pale markings on the fetlocks, lower neck, and head. A distinct dorsal line is also evident on some adults. Their horns, which are black in color and triangular in cross section, are short (30 - 51 cm in length).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139946FFFD03D9FE29FAD0F33A.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Tamaraw inhabit open grassland or forest glades, thick bamboo-jungle, marshy river valleys, and upland forests. Formerly, they were found across the whole of Mindoro from sea level to at least 2000 m above sea level.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139946FFFD03D9FE29FAD0F33A.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Captive Tamaraw are reported to consume about 5 - 5 kg (dry weight) of forage per day. Their diet and feeding behaviorislittle studied, but it is thought that they probably prefer forest edges with dense cover and open areas for grazing.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139946FFFD03D9FE29FAD0F33A.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Tamaraw usually produce a single offspring, after a gestation period of 317 days. Cows usually calve every other year. In the wild births are reported throughout Mindoro’s rainy season (June-November), and this may extend until January (with newly born or very young Tamaraw being observed).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139946FFFD03D9FE29FAD0F33A.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Tamaraw are recorded grazing in open areas during the day; the annual population estimates are conducted using daytime surveys in open grass areas. In the MountIglit area, it is thought they use these areasless frequently in the day and more at night, because of increased hunting pressure.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139946FFFD03D9FE29FAD0F33A.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Adult bulls were thought to be solitary for the majority of the time and adult cows are either solitary or accompanied by up to three subadults. The largest groups reported were of 10 - 11 animals. More recent reports are of smaller groups or solitary animals. The life span of the Tamaraw is reported to be about 20 - 25 years, although it is not clear whether these figures refer to captive or wild animals. Aggressive behavior between Tamaraw was observed in Mounts Iglit-Baco National Park. It mainly consisted of chases, with no actual fights.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139946FFFD03D9FE29FAD0F33A.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Tamaraw receive total protection under Philippine law. Tamaraw are confined to just three locations on Mindoro Island. Two of these are within protected areas (Mount Calavite Wildlife Sanctuary and Mounts Iglit-Baco National Park), and one is just outside the national park. Two additional locations, mostly outside protected areas, are possible habitats for Tamaraw. They have been reported there in the past and suitable habitatstill remains, but no recent surveys have been conducted. All populations are thought to be very small, with fewer than 300 individuals in all three populations combined. Two Tamaraw, a female and her male offspring, remain in a 280 ha enclosed facility known as the “ gene pool ” captive breeding center. The decline in Tamaraw numbers likely is related partially to the increased use of high-powered rifles and automatic weapons for hunting; these are in addition to the more traditional spears and pit-traps. Human encroachment into Tamaraw habitat, and habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation are also threats; for example, there are cattle ranching and farming activities within Mounts Iglit-Baco National Park and Mount Calavite Wildlife Sanctuary. A large area in the south-western part of Mounts Iglit-Baco National Park is already permanently occupied by people and a large area in the eastern part of the Park has been planted with sugar and cereal crops. Logging and shifting cultivation are thought to pose threats to the Tamaraw in the Mount Calavite Wildlife Sanctuary. The Tamaraw Conservation Program (TCP) was set up to prevent the extinction of the Tamaraw and develop its potential as an economic resource in 1979. The TCP, through its Community Assistance Program (CAP), has forged a Tamaraw conservation network with communities adjacent to Tamaraw habitat. Several strategies and approaches have been instituted by the TCP to disseminate information and build local public support for Tamaraw and habitat conservation. However, protected areas established in Mindoro in the past have generally not achieved their objective of reducing threats to the Tamaraw. The present protection force is concentrated in Mounts Iglit-Baco National Park (Occidental Mindoro side) and Aruyan-Malati. Efforts are underway to enhance the accuracy of the annual surveys of population size, and to develop a plan to enhance the effectiveness of future conservation actions.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139946FFFE03D0F281FBACF71E.taxon	materials_examined	Celebes (= Sulawesi, Indonesia).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139946FFFE03D0F281FBACF71E.taxon	discussion	There is still debate about whether there are distinct species of Anoa. Two phenotypes, characterized by body size, hair texture, horn shape, and presumably pelage color have been used by some authors to Justify the existence of two species, the “ Lowland Anoa ” (B. depressicornis) and the “ Mountain Anoa ” (B. quarlesi). Other authors recognized only one species, with two or three subspecies: depressicornis, quarlesi, and fergusoni. However, transitory morphs suggest that the real relationships are more complex, and hardly understood. The enormous underlying variability (outward appearance, anatomy, chromosomes, proteins, DNA) has hitherto precluded definitive classification and has called into question the validity of grouping Anoas into clear, reproducible types. Most zoo and museum specimens lack reliable information as to their origin within Sulawesi, and pattern-based classifications of these specimens have not stood up following later discoveries of phenotypes with new combinations of supposedly diagnostic characters. Recent genetic research suggests that there are at least four genetically distinct, geographically differentiated subpopulations. These subpopulations are located in northern, central, and south-eastern Sulawesi, with a fourth subpopulation on Buton Island. There is currently insufficient information to determine if each genetic subpopulation merits species status. The “ transitory morphological populations ” probably do not represent “ hybrids ” of two species, but instead they represent various degrees of genetic introgression, or even primary clines of diverging evolutionary lineages, as shown by the latest genetic variation between different regions of Sulawesi, depending on the degree of gene flow and the characters affected. At present, every regional Anoa population should be considered worthy of conservation. The management units should be based on known origins from within Sulawesi rather than on morphotypes, which in the past have proved confusing. This species is considered monotypic here.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139946FFFE03D0F281FBACF71E.taxon	distribution	Distribution. The Anoa is endemic to Sulawesi and Buton Is, with no records from other small neighboring islands.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139946FFFE03D0F281FBACF71E.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 122 - 188 cm, shoulder height 60 - 100 cm; weight less than 300 kg. This is the smallest of the extant wild cattle species. Anoas are stocky, short limbed, and thick necked. Young Anoas are generally reported to have a thick covering of yellowish-brown, woolly hair, but there is much variation; newborn calves in zoos have brown or black pelage. Adults are also variable in color but are predominantly brown or black. Males are usually darker than females. Both sexes have horns (horn length, 146 - 373 mm). Anoas are reputed to have exceptionally thick hides. The groin is usually pale-colored to white. The forelegs sometimes are white to yellowish-white from knee to hoof, and the hindlegs have conspicuous white spots above the hooves. There are also white facial markings and often white throat markings.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139946FFFE03D0F281FBACF71E.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Anoa is found in both primary and secondary lowland tropical forest, as well as in swamp and mangrove forest. In Tanjung Peropa Wildlife Reserve, riverine and lowland forests were preferred to rocky-cliff forest, because of the availability of water sources, known food plants, and fruit-bearing trees. In the past, the species was reportedly common along coasts. Anoas are also found at high elevations in mountainous areas up to 2300 m above sea level. Like other wild buffalo species, Anoas wallow and bathe in pools of water or mud. It is probable that mineral springs or licks are also required, although Anoas are reported to drink seawater, which might fulfill their mineral needs in areas withoutlicks or springs.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139946FFFE03D0F281FBACF71E.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. In a survey of the Anoa’s diet, 146 species of plants were recorded to have been browsed by in Tanjung Amolengo and Tanjung Peropa Wildlife Reserves. Eighty-one of these species were confirmed in fecal analyses. The main food items were dicotyledonous plants, representing more than 70 % of their diets. This is in agreement with observations from Mount Rantemario in South Sulawesi and and Lore Lindu National Park, Central Sulawesi. The fruit of figs (Ficus spp.), Artocarpus dasyphyllus, Parkia roxburghii, and Dilleania ochreata are among those preferred. This diversity suggests that they are intermediate feeders.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139946FFFE03D0F281FBACF71E.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The typical life span in captivity is reported to be 20 - 30 years, although a male kept in San Diego Zoo was 36 years old when he died in 1988. Sexual maturity is attained in the second to third year (in captivity). Mating in captive animals does not seem to be restricted to a certain period, although a slight increase in the number of births in March has been reported. Females are in estrus for about 24 hours every 22 - 30 days. Gestation is reported to be 275 - 315 days and generally only a single calfis born; however, twins were born at Planckendael Zoo in 1994.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139946FFFE03D0F281FBACF71E.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Anoas are shy and largely nocturnal, hiding in dense undergrowth during the day; although such behavior may be a response to disturbance by humans, particularly hunting. They spend most of their time in the deep forest but are active both day and night. Anoas studied in south-eastern Sulawesi were generally most active in the morning between 06: 00 h and 09: 00 h and in the afternoon after 16: 00 h, spending the periods between these peaks of activity resting and ruminating in the forest. The animals foraged in cropland around the reserve at night.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139946FFFE03D0F281FBACF71E.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Very little is known about the behavior of the Anoa. They are most frequently observed singly; in Tanjung Peropa and Tanjung Amolengo Wildlife Reserve 84 % and 60 % of sightings were lone individuals (n = 38 and 40, respectively). The density data of Anoa populations in natural habitat is very limited, so it is difficult to accurately estimate population size. Data on the Anoa are available only for some conservation areas. There are an estimated 8 - 12 Anoas in Tanjung Amolengo Wildlife Sanctuary (604 ha), with a population density of 1 - 3 - 2 ind / km?; in Tanjung Peropa Wildlife Sanctuary (38,927 ha), the density was 0 - 9 ind / km * and the population was estimated at 350 individuals. In Lambusango Wildlife Sanctuary, Buton Island, the estimated population density was 0 - 25 — 0 - 33 ind / km?, and so the total population was estimated to be 150 - 200.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139946FFFE03D0F281FBACF71E.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List and fully protected under Indonesian law. The Anoa population is estimated to be less than 5000 mature individuals; its rate of decline is believed to be greater than 20 % over two generations (14 - 18 years), and no subpopulation is believed to number more than 250 mature individuals. The population size is an estimate because there is limited information, even for the largest populations. Estimating the population size is further complicated by its uncertain distribution and population structure. This species has declined throughout Sulawesi. Its decline probably began at the end of the 19 " century, with an increased decline rate from 1980 to today, precipitously in some areas. The Anoa is thought to be locally extinct in the southern and eastern part of the northern peninsula. Most populations are rapidly becoming fragmented; conservation of viable populations may soon require management of subpopulations. There has been a 50 - 95 % decline of this species in Tangkoko Nature Reserve in North Sulawesi in a ten-year period, and more recent surveys suggest it is now locally extinct. The range-wide rate of population decline is thought to be 20 % over two generations (generation length of 7 - 9 years). The relatively low reproduction rate of the Anoa means that even low levels of hunting will cause rapid reduction in population size. Recent reports indicate that hunting, mainly for food, is by far the most serious threat. Other threats include land conversion to agriculture, gold mining, and activities related to the collection of non-timber forest products. International trade in live animals or body parts is not thought to present a serious threat. The total forested area remaining on Sulawesi in 1985 was estimated to be 42 - 49 % of the land area of the island. The loss of lowland forest between 1985 and 1997 was estimated to be 89 %. Recently it has been said that Sulawesi’s lowland forest has already been reduced to statistical insignificance. The genetic subpopulations each occur in a number of protected areas. Lore Lindu National Park, Bogani Nani-Wartabone National Park, and Tanjung Peropa Nature Reserve on Sulawesi, and Lambusango Wildlife Reserve on Buton Island are large and important protected areas thought to hold a significant population of each genetic subpopulation. There are also likely to be important populations in unprotected forested areas, for example the Verbek and Abuki mountains in south-eastern Sulawesi. Current conservation planning aims to protect populations of each of these subpopulations. A back-up population of Anoas exists in conservation breeding institutions. There are 150 Anoas in captivity, but the breeding program has been greatly hindered by taxonomic confusion. The Anoa requires the following conservation actions: protection from hunting, prevention of habitat loss at a minimum of ten priority sites, complete genetic studies to better determine the subpopulation boundaries and taxonomy ofthis species, and determination of the status of remaining populations.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139945FFFF0375F62EF68AF855.taxon	materials_examined	Sunday River, Algoa Bay, South Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139945FFFF0375F62EF68AF855.taxon	discussion	In the late 1800 s and early 1900 s, the various forms of the African buffalo were classified initially as distinct species, often under Bos, based largely on skull and horn characteristics, but that was followed quickly by their unification under a single species with numerous named subspecies (e. g. 21 subspecies under Bos [Bubalus] caffer by Lydekker in 1913). The latter approach persisted through the 20 ™ century, but with a steady reduction in the number of subspecific names, to the point where 4 - 5 subspecies were recognized most commonly (aequinoctialis, caffer, brachyceros, mathewsi, and nanus). However, the general impression that African buffaloes form a single species from the large black buffalo in the savanna grading into the small red ones in the central rainforests is misleading. The taxa in this group are probably best described as a ringed-shaped morphocline from the central African rainforest (considered ancestral) via West Africa and the Sudan to the eastern and southern African savanna. Because of recent disparate craniometrical (skull and horn characteristics) and genetic analyses, caffer, brachyceros, mathewsi, and nanus have been elevated to specific standing here. Intermediate forms occur in areas of range convergence in, for example, East Africa, particularly in the Western Rift west of Lake Victoria (southern Uganda). Now considered monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139945FFFF0375F62EF68AF855.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S Ethiopia, extreme S Somalia, most Kenya (except extremes NW & NE), S Uganda (Lake Mburo), Rwanda, Burundi, extreme E & SE DR Congo (Rutshuru Plains and Katanga), Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, N Botswana, NW and extreme S Zimbabwe, NE Namibia, N, C & extreme SW Mozambique, Swaziland, NW Lesotho, and South Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139945FFFF0375F62EF68AF855.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 240 - 340 cm, tail 50 - 110 cm, shoulder height 148 - 175 cm; weight 500 - 900 kg (males) and 350 - 620 kg (females). These measurements are general for the non-forest African buffalo species and should be considered provisional until further information is available for individual species. The Cape Buffalo, particularly the male, is the largest of the African buffalo species and comparable to the largest of the Asian wild oxen. They are stocky in build, with relatively short legs. Both sexes have smooth, jet black coats; the pelage of old males may become scant, exposing areas of dark skin, and grizzled hairs may be present on their heads. Neonates may be black or dark brown and go through various changes in color (e. g. dirty yellowish-brown to chocolate brown) before becoming the typical adult black. Both sexes have dark horns that are widely spread laterally. Each horn, larger in males, curves strongly downward below the base of the skull and then up, so that the length of each horn by itself nearly equals the span. Horn span is 72: 5 - 134 cm, and horn length along the curve is 66 - 116 cm. In males, the bases of the horns are greatly expanded and nearly meet at the midline of forehead, where each base forms a convex boss. The skull is massive but short and broad, and convex in profile. The greatest length of the skull is 44.8 - 57. 5 cm, and the mastoid breadth is 24 - 1 - 31: 6 cm. The mouth is wide, and the nose is moist and bare. The ears are large, droopy, and meagerly fringed, and the tail is tufted. No scent glands have been described. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32. The eruption pattern of the permanent teeth makesit possible to determine the age of young Cape Buffaloes up to age six, when all the permanent teeth are in. The permanent molars all erupt by about 3 - 5 years of age. The lower canine teeth are the last and most variable, erupting between 4 - 5 and 5 - 5 years of age. One cementum annulus develops each year, making their counts on molars useful for aging, and wear patterns of molar crowns correlate well with ages determined from annuli counts up to 15 - 16 years of age.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139945FFFF0375F62EF68AF855.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Cape Buffaloes occur in a variety of habitats and elevations throughout eastern Africa from southern Ethiopia to South Africa. They are most abundant in wellwatered savannas, swamplands, and floodplains, but they are capable of inhabiting drier savannas and riparian areas of arid landscapes if permanent water is available. Cape Buffaloes occur in montane forests above 3000 m on Mount Kenya. Optimal habitat for the Cape Buffalo, as well as the Lake Chad Buffalo (S. brachyceros), includes open grazing areas in a mosaic of dense cover afforded by thickets or reed beds, but more open savanna woodlands are frequently occupied.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139945FFFF0375F62EF68AF855.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. All non-forest African buffaloes are predominantly grass eaters, regularly consuming genera such as Cynodon, Sporobolus, Heteropogon, Digitaria, and Pancium. Given the size of Cape Buffaloes, they are often foodand protein-limited, leading to malnutrition at high population densities and during periods of drought. Adults require about 14 kg of forage / day. At Lake Manyara National Park, Tanzania, Cape Buffaloes adopt a bulk feeding strategy when forage is abundant, whether it is of high or low quality; they are more selective when forage is scarce and of poor quality, even though they cannot crop plants as closely or as selectively as smaller sympatric ungulates, given their large mouths and wide incisor row. In the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania, grass leaves were selected over other plant parts, but as the dry season progressed and grasses senesced, such selective foraging was more difficult; the buffaloes then moved toward riverine habitats where forage was less desiccated. In some unique habitats such as the “ succulent thicket ” of the Eastern Cape, South Africa, Cape Buffaloes consume a greater variety of woody species because their normally preferred grasses and herbaceous species are underrepresented in the sparse understory; during the dry season, the diet may contain 33 % browse species such as Acacia karroo, Plumbago auriculata, Grewia robusta, and Ptaeroxylon obliqguum. Cape Buffaloes in the bamboo forest zone on Mount Kenya at elevations of 2800 - 3050 m use their horns to expose soil, which they consume, a behavior thought to be related to their enhanced need for iron living at the high elevations. Elsewhere, Cape Buffaloes are fond oflicking salty surfaces, including sweating conspecifics. Availability of permanent water is a critical habitat component because Cape Buffaloes need to drink daily. In dry areas, they are usually never farther than 8 - 20 km from permanent water.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139945FFFF0375F62EF68AF855.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Breeding and birthing of the Cape Buffalo may occur at any time of the year, but in areas with pronounced dry and rainy seasons, and the resulting variability in forage quality and quantity, they tend to peak seasonally. In the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania, most breeding behavior was observed from November through early July, when it peaked. In the Limpopo Province of South Africa, monthly births were associated with rainfall and forage conditions 12 - 13 months prior to births, suggesting that the condition of the female determines her optimum time to breed. Many male Cape Buffaloes of all ages stay in the highly gregarious herds throughout the year, but some may associate in small bachelor groups and senescent males are often alone. Males establish a dominance hierarchy relative to age and size that confers breeding rights, and they do not reach their full breeding potential until 8 - 9 years of age. To establish dominance, mature males interact regularly with a variety of displays and threats, seemingly designed to minimize serious combat. The head-on threat display is most common when a dominant male encounters immature males; he stands still with his head and shoulders up but his nose pointing to the ground, presenting his horns directly at an opponent. He also may thrash his head up and down with hooking motions of the horns. The same head position is used in lateral displays that emphasize the size of the entire body; this behavior is most common when mature males of equal rank encounter one another. Such displays play a significant role in establishing dominance because head-on combat between mature male Cape Buffaloes is relatively rare. When it does occur, males charge each other, often from distances of 30 m or more, with their head stretched out, making a deep growling call. Right before impact, they tuck and turn their heads slightly and take the full impact on the bosses between their horns. This constitutes the complete fight. Speed, weight, and the strength of impact immediately determine the winner, and the loser turns and runs, frequently chased for up to 100 m by the winner. Unlike mature males, immature males frequently spar with each other. Both sexes will wallow in muddy areas, but given the limited availability of such wallows in most areas, this behavior appears to have a social function, likely related to rank among mature males who dominate the wallows’ use. Males frequently urinate in wallows. During the extended breeding season in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, mature males alternate their time between seeking receptive females among mixed herds and resting in small all-male groups, likely a reflection of the high cost of breeding activities. Like many bovids, males constantly check the readiness of females to breed by examining their genitals, testing their urine, and performing a lip curl. Breeding males tend estrous females, which draws the attention of other mature males, who may displace the tending male. A tending male frequently rests his chin on the female’s rump; she will signal her readiness to breed by standing still and moving her tail to the side. Copulation is brief, and it may occur multiple times between the same pair over 30 minutes. Mock-mounting is common among females and subadult males. Females typically do not have their first offspring until 4 - 5 years of age, rather late among the Bovini. Gestation is as long as 11 - 5 months, and birth intervals are 15 - 24 months, depending on maternal and forage conditions. Females give birth to a single offspring, commonly among the herd. Neonates typically weigh 45 kg but range up to 55 - 60 kg. Offspring always nurse from between their mothers’ rear legs irregularly for 3 - 10 minutes / bout. They may nurse, or try to nurse, until the birth of the next offspring, but females tend to stop lactating during their seventh month of pregnancy when their previous offspring are ten months old. Fetal sex ratios in the Cape Buffalo were not related to maternal age, condition, rainfall, or density in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Recent evidence suggests that fetal sex ratios can be influenced by sex-ratio distorter genes in males that function during spermatogenesis and even post-copulation in the females’ genital tract and differ in their effect depending on rainfall patterns; i. e. fetal sex ratios will be male-biased during wet periods when food resources are going to be most abundant. A newborn Cape Buffalo needs several hours to become strong enough to stand and follow its mother, and it remains slow and clumsy for several weeks, during which the pair may become somewhat separated from their herd. During this period, the mothers are particularly protective of their offspring. Cape Buffaloes are notorious for vigorously protecting herd members, particularly offspring, from common threats, so predation of young is relatively low. Cases of herds of buffaloes holding Lions (Panthera leo) at bay in trees, and overrunning and stomping them to death have been reported. Predation of males, particularly old non-breeding males that live alone, is common. In a study in the Serengeti, Lions killed 44 males compared to six females, six young, and six of unknown sex. Hyenas typically do not pose much of a threat to African buffaloes. Maximum longevity in the wild is 18 - 20 years, sometimes more, and at least four known individuals lived almost 30 years in captivity.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139945FFFF0375F62EF68AF855.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Cape Buffaloes follow the same general activity patterns as other ruminants, with feeding periods followed by resting / ruminating periods throughout the day and night, but their lengths vary depending on location, forage availability, competition with other ungulates, and secondarily, predation pressure. In Lake Manyara National Park, Tanzania, Cape Buffaloes generally grazed from about 10: 00 h to 14: 00 h, but that period varied from 1 - 5 hours of intense feeding in July to 4 - 5 hours in April. Resting / ruminating periods occur before and after feeding. In South Africa, 74 % of the 24 hour cycle was spent feeding, resting / ruminating, and moving; 48 % of the time was spent actively grazing. Nocturnal activity was highest during the dry season. Throughout the day during the breeding season at Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Game Reserve, South Africa, adult female Cape Buffaloes spent 21 - 28 % oftheir time feeding and 66 % of their time resting / ruminating. In contrast, mature males in mixed groups spent 14 - 18 % of their time grazing and 74 % of their time resting; when in all-male groups, they grazed more (26 - 29 %). Breeding activities in mixed groups accounted for a small part of their activity budget overall (2: 5 - 3 %). Throughout the year in the Lower Sabie region of Kruger National Park, South Africa, Cape Buffaloes fed more at night (44 - 5 %) than during the day (32 %) and, concomitantly, rested less at night (16 %) than during the day (28 - 4 %). Where heavily poached, such as Mount Kilimanjaro, Cape Buffaloes become largely nocturnal and very wary.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139945FFFF0375F62EF68AF855.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Cape Buffaloes are non-migratory, and groups move in regular and repeated patterns throughout their relatively exclusive, but often extensive, traditional home ranges, which vary greatly in size from 126 km * to more than 1000 km ®. These regular movements over the same ground throughout a traditional range trample and turn up the soil, which encourages regrowth of vegetation and repeated foraging in the same areas. Movements typically involve travel to water, and daily movements of groups are greatest where permanent wateris widely dispersed. In the Lower Sabie region of Kruger National Park, water is readily available, and Cape Buffaloes only moved an average of 3 - 35 km / day. Groups are made up of clans of related females and their offspring, accompanied by males of various ages. Males often occur in small bachelor groups of 5 - 10, or alone; home ranges of male groups can be remarkably small, e. g. 3 - 4 km? ®. Sizes of traditional ranges and densities of Cape Buffaloes within them are directly related to rainfall and its effect on forage and water availability; herd home ranges are larger and densities lower in drier areas. Densities vary widely depending on habitat conditions and protection from excessive poaching; they are typically 0 - 6 - 3 ind / km?, but as high as 15 ind / km? in Lake Manyara National Park and 10 - 8 ind / km? in Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania. All African buffaloes are highly gregarious. Cape Buffalo herds number in the dozens to thousands, depending on habitat type, time of year, and forage and water availability; very large groups tend to be temporary aggregations. A group occupying a traditional range in northern Botswana was thought to be stable, but seven of 45 radio-collared females switched groups during the wet season, when herds moved extensively and often splintered into smaller groups; in one case, a female moved 133 km during the switch, and no females rejoined their original group during the period of study. Recent assessments of fission-fusion events among known groups of Cape Buffaloes in the Satara region of Kruger National Park show, for example, that regular associations of pairs of adult females and juveniles for a period of time are not good predictors that they will remain together when groups split or aggregate. When Cape Buffaloes relocate, rather than feed, groups assume characteristic column formations with pathfinders and dominant females in the lead, subgroups of females and young clustered in the center, infirm individuals behind them, and bachelor males surrounding the entire group. The animals’ vision is poor, but hearing is keen, and Cape Buffaloes emit low-pitched moos as they move and feed. Group structure and regular communication protect infirm (e. g. blind) individuals, often permitting their survival for extended periods.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139945FFFF0375F62EF68AF855.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (included under S. caffer, which includes all four African buffalo species identified here). Range-wide, numbers of African buffaloes have been greatly reduced from historic levels because of land-use changes, competition with livestock and associated disease transmission (notably livestock-transmitted anthrax, rinderpest, and bovine tuberculosis), poaching, and extended drought, and these are still common threats in many areas. In the late 1990 s, numbers of non-forest African buffaloes were estimated at 500,000 - 1,000,000, with 70 % of them occurring in and around protected areas, but free-ranging populations of the Cape Buffalo in southern Africa reportedly decreased by about 50 % from 1991 to 1996. Currently, stable to increasing populations of the Cape Buffalo occur in many protected areas, particularly in Tanzania, Zambia, northern Botswana, Zimbabwe, and South Africa. Populations in Mozambique are less stable. The buffaloes have been successfully reintroduced in Swaziland. Efforts to domesticate Cape Buffaloes have been largely unsuccessful, but the species is managed as a free-ranging ranch animal on some private lands in southern Africa. Well-managed hunting and safari zones have the potential to bring needed revenue to enhance conservation of the Cape Buffalo and other wildlife species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139944FFE006A8F79EFAE1F566.taxon	materials_examined	Lake Chad, Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139944FFE006A8F79EFAE1F566.taxon	discussion	This taxon has often been called aequinoctialis, and the name brachyceros has been applied to what are likely hybrids between this species and the Forest Buffalo (S. nanus), which occurs in southern parts of Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, and Ghana. Recent study of more abundant museum material shows that the buffalo originally found around Lake Chad, the type locality of brachyceros, represent a different species we are calling the Lake Chad Buffalo. Synonyms include aequinoctialis, azrakensis, centralis, neumanni, and solvayi. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139944FFE006A8F79EFAE1F566.taxon	distribution	Distribution. SE Senegal, extreme SW Mali, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, NW Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, S Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, extreme S Niger, W & C Nigeria, N Cameroon, S Chad, Central African Republic, S & E Sudan, N DR Congo, lowland parts of W Ethiopia, Uganda (not extreme S), NW Kenya (Lake Turkana region).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139944FFE006A8F79EFAE1F566.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 200 - 245 cm, tail 55 - 70 cm, shoulder height 120 - 145 cm; weight 350 - 500 kg (males) and 250 - 450 kg (females). The Lake Chad Buffalo is smaller than the Cape Buffalo. It is stocky in build, with relatively short legs. Both sexes of the Lake Chad Buffalo have a smooth, dark brown coat, usually only slightly reddish and apparently never quite black. The horns of both sexes are widely spread laterally, but much less curved than on the Cape Buffalo, so that the length of each horn is noticeably less than the total span. Horn span is 56.2 - 103 cm, and horn length along the curve is 53 - 94. 5 cm. In males, the bases of horns of the Lake Chad Buffalo are greatly expanded, nearly meeting in midline, but not forming a convex boss. The skull is massive but short and broad, and convex in profile. The greatest length of the skull is 43.3 - 59. 9 cm, and the mastoid breadth is 15 - 31. 7 cm. The mouth is wide, and the nose is moist and bare. Similar to the Cape Buffalo, the ears are large, droopy, and meagerly fringed, and the tail is tufted. No scent glands have been described in the Lake Chad Buffalo. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32. In Burkina Faso, West Africa, 34 samples of maxillae from three sites showed that measurements of tooth size and wear and enamel height of M' were useful to age Lake Chad Buffaloes. In contrast to the Cape Buffalo, cementum annuli on M' of the Lake Chad Buffalo in Burkina Faso provided inconsistent results because annuli were very irregular in appearance and intensity, despite the punctuated and long dry season that was expected to produce clear annuli. In western Uganda, the number of cementum annuli and the heights of the crowns of M, and M' were highly correlated, providing a useful method for aging.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139944FFE006A8F79EFAE1F566.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Lake Chad Buffaloes occur in the long savanna belt across sub-Saharan Africa. They use open grasslands but are never far from shrub / forest cover and water.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139944FFE006A8F79EFAE1F566.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. [Lake Chad Buffaloes are predominantly grazers. In Benoue National Park, northern Cameroon, they ate 16 plant species and preferred grasses, particularly Andropogon gayanus and A. tectorum, in both the dry (74 % of the diet) and rainy seasons (86 %). Woody plant species, particularly Piliostigma thonningu (including fruits) and Gardenia erubescens (including flowers), were more important during the dry season (26 %) than in the rainy season (14 %). Early dry season fires in northern Cameroon result in a subsequent flush of green grasses, which are sought out by grazing Buffaloes. Lake Chad Buffaloes drank daily from the Benoue River or standing waterholes either between 11: 00 h and 12: 45 h or 16: 00 h and 19: 30 h. They drank intermittently available water whereverit was found.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139944FFE006A8F79EFAE1F566.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably very comparable to the Cape Buffalo. Maximum longevity in the wild may be 18 - 20 years, perhaps less, and at least two individuals have lived to 21 - 4 and 23 - 3 years in captivity.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139944FFE006A8F79EFAE1F566.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Lake Chad Buffaloes in northern Cameroon spent more time grazing during the day than during the night. Over 24 hours in the dry season, they spent 7 - 9 hours grazing (3: 7 hours at night) and 9 - 6 hours resting (4 - 6 hours at night). Estimates of activities for a full 24 hours during the rainy season were not possible in this study, but during the daylight, they spent only 3 - 1 hours grazing and 3 - 8 hours resting. Grazing during the dry season was most intense from 09: 00 h to 10: 20 h, with rest from 10: 45 h to 12: 10 h and again from 14: 30 h to 15: 40 h. During the rainy season, peak morning grazing occurred from 10: 10 h to 11: 20 h and was light but constant in the afternoon until dusk; rest periods occurred from 09: 25 h to 10: 00 h and again from 13: 10 h to 14: 55 h.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139944FFE006A8F79EFAE1F566.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Densities of the Lake Chad Buffalo are 0 - 3 - 0 - 6 ind / km * where the species is considered common and often less than 0 - 2 ind / km? * in depleted populations; both are considerably less than many Cape Buffalo populations. In Benoue National Park, northern Cameroon, Lake Chad Buffaloes moved with daily regularity from feeding sites to water sources during the dry season, but no regular pattern was observed during the rainy season, when both food and water were more readily available. Mean daily distances moved were 5 - 6 km in the rainy season and 7 - 2 km in the dry season. Home ranges were small in the rainy season (46 km?) and larger in the dry season (61 km?), and their overlap of 54 % showed that Lake Chad Buffaloes did not occupy disjunct seasonal ranges. Densities in Benoue National Park were higher than average for the species and estimated at 1 - 2 ind / km? in the rainy season and 0 - 8 ind / km? in the dry season.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139944FFE006A8F79EFAE1F566.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (included underS. cafferas all African buffaloes). Range-wide, numbers of African buffaloes have been greatly reduced from historical levels because of land-use changes, disease (notably anthrax, rinderpest, and bovine tuberculosis), poaching, and extended drought, and these are still common threats in localized areas. In the late 1990 s, numbers of non-forest African buffaloes were estimated at 500,000 - 1,000,000, with 70 % of them occurring in and around protected areas. If indeed the Lake Chad Buffalo is the dominant species in Uganda, as proposed here, population levels are the highest there. Elsewhere, particularly through the sub-Saharan savanna belt in West Africa, populations are smaller and likely decreasing where not protected. Populations of Lake Chad Buffaloes have been greatly reduced in Mali (one population left), Guinea (perhaps only vagrants from Senegal), northern Togo (close to extinction), western and central Nigeria (two isolated populations), Chad (eliminated from most ofits former central range, including the type locality), Sudan (eliminated from most ofits former central range). The species is extinct in Gambia and Eritrea.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995BFFE00377F4B2F90BF718.taxon	materials_examined	Mfumbiro district, on a volcanic mountain west of Kiva, on the borderland between the Congo Free State and German East Africa, in a forest at an elevation of between 7000 and 8000 feet. Modified by Lydekker in 1913 to Ruanda (= Rwanda), north-east of Lake Kivu, between Tanganyika and the Albert-Edward Nyanza.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995BFFE00377F4B2F90BF718.taxon	discussion	The Virunga Buffalo was traditionally considered merely an intermediate form between the Cape Buffalo (S. caffer) and the Forest Buffalo (S. nanus), but current evidence suggests that it is not simply an intergrade, but a homogeneous taxon distinct from all other African buffaloes. S. cotton: is a synonym. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995BFFE00377F4B2F90BF718.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Extreme SW Uganda, W Rwanda and E DR Congo (North Kivu province, where restricted to the forested mountains from the Virunga volcanoes north along the W side of Lake Edward).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995BFFE00377F4B2F90BF718.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. No specific measurements are available, but the Virunga Buffalo is about the same size as the Lake Chad Buffalo (S. brachyceros). The Virunga Buffalo is stocky in build, like other African buffaloes, with relatively short legs. Both sexes of the Virunga Buffalo have smooth, dark brown to black coats, often with reddish tones, especially on females. Reddish individuals have a dark dorsal stripe and dark shanks. The horns of the Virunga Buffalo are about the same length, but less widely spread, than the horns of the Lake Chad Buffalo, so that the length of each horn is only somewhat less than the total span. Horn span is 62: 1 - 74. 5 cm, and horn length along the curve is 53 - 72 cm. In males, the bases of horns are expanded and flattened but do not form a convex boss, as they do in the Cape Buffalo. The skull is massive but short and broad, and convex in profile. The greatest length of the skull is 45 - 50. 8 cm, and the mastoid breadth is 25: 9 - 30. 2 cm. The mouth is wide, and the nose is moist and bare. The ears are generously fringed with hair, more so than on the Cape Buffalo or the Lake Chad Buffalo. Thetail is tufted (with dirty white hairs on the type specimen). No scent glands have been described in the Virunga Buffalo. Dental formula is I 0 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995BFFE00377F4B2F90BF718.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Virunga Buffalo is restricted to tropical montane forests and prefers open meadows. In Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda, at elevations of 3000 - 3600 m, Virunga Buffaloes use a variety of habitats, including mountain meadows, bamboo stands, and alpine areas. Their densities, estimated from fecal counts, were highest in mountain meadow habitats throughout the year (4 - 157 ind / km?) but bamboo stands were important in March-May (10 - 5 ind / km? ®) and September-November (9 - 5 ind / km?). Alpine habitats were the least used of the available habitats (0 - 5 - 1 - 6 ind / km?).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995BFFE00377F4B2F90BF718.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but perhaps diets are most comparable to Forest Buffaloes.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995BFFE00377F4B2F90BF718.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably very comparable to other African buffaloes.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995BFFE00377F4B2F90BF718.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably comparable to other African buffaloes.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995BFFE00377F4B2F90BF718.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, but given this mountainous habitat, movements, home range, and group sizes are no doubt smaller than Cape and Lake Chad Buffaloes and perhaps more comparable to Forest Buffaloes.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995BFFE00377F4B2F90BF718.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (included under S. caffer as all African buffaloes). Range-wide, the number of African buffaloes has been greatly reduced from historic levels because of land-use changes, disease (notably anthrax, rinderpest, and bovine tuberculosis), poaching, and extended drought, and in localized areas, these are still common threats. Little is known about the current status of the Virunga Buffalo, but the Rwandan civil war in the 1990 s may have decreased numbers, particularly on the west side of Parc National des Volcans.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995BFFE1064EF763F5F2F7D3.taxon	materials_examined	Congo, Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995BFFE1064EF763F5F2F7D3.taxon	discussion	The Forest Buffalo is considered by some to be the ancestral form of the African buffaloes. The synonymy of the Forest Buffalo is complex, depending on whether the West African populations, which are somewhat larger in size with slightly greater horn span on average, are recognized as a distinct subspecies. There are slight average differences between West and Central African populations of Forest Buffaloes, and there are intermediate populations between this species and the Lake Chad Buffalo in southern Nigeria and in the Central African Republic, south of the Shari River and the Uele district. The name brachyceros has been applied to these intermediate populations in the past, but new evidence suggests that they are not homogeneous and represent a fairly narrow hybrid zone. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995BFFE1064EF763F5F2F7D3.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Found in lowland rainforest regions of W & C Africa, including S Nigeria (perhaps one population remaining that may be an intermediate form), S & C Cameroon, S Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea (extinct on Bioko I), Sao Tomé and Principe Is, Gabon, Republic of the Congo, C & N DR Congo, W & C Angola (two disjunct populations).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995BFFE1064EF763F5F2F7D3.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 180 - 220 cm, tail 70 cm, shoulder height 100 - 130 cm; weight 2656 - 320 kg. The Forest Buffalo is distinctly smaller than the other three African buffalo species, and although still cattle-like, it appears much less massive than the Cape Buffalo. It is generally pale reddish-brown, with dark markings on the limbs and shoulders, but some individuals are entirely black. The horns of the Forest Buffalo are shorter than the other species and do not curve much laterally; they mainly curve upward, forming a crescent. Their length is greater than the total span, a discrepancy that is greater in Central than in West African populations. Horn span is 34.1 - 65. 5 cm and 34.5 - 72 cm, and horn length along the curve is 41 - 69 cm and 35 - 635 cm in Central and West African specimens, respectively. The bases of horns do not form a convex boss, as on the other savanna buffalo species. The skull is less massive than in the other species, but still short, broad, and convex in profile. The greatest length of the skull is 39.4 - 46. 8 cm and 41.1 - 49. 2 cm and the mastoid breadth is 13.7 - 25. 7 cm and 19.9 - 27. 6 cm in Central and West African specimens, respectively. The ears very large and prominent, with heavy fringes on the lateral (= inferior) edges; the long thick hair begins well into the inner surface of the pinnae. Two streaks of long white to pale yellow hair cross the ears and extend off the bottom edge. The mouth is wide, and the nose is moist and bare. The tail is tufted. No scent glands have been described in the Forest Buffalo. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995BFFE1064EF763F5F2F7D3.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Forest Buffaloes prefer open, grassy areas and watercourses in the rainforest belt of Central and Western Africa. They can be found in forest-savannas in drier areas in their range as well as areas of near-continuous primary and secondary forest. In south-western Gabon, however, Forest Buffaloes were absent in primary forest and only occurred in secondary forest in open areas and along roads, where more understory forage was available. In coastal Gabon, Forest Buffaloes are found most commonly in coastal shrub habitat. In Dzanga-Ndoki National Park, Central African Republic, Forest Buffaloes depend on forest clearings, but also favor forests characterized by large trees and open canopy. Logging roads that open the forest canopy and encourage understory growth are used by Forest Buffaloes in southern Cameroon.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995BFFE1064EF763F5F2F7D3.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Little specific information on the diet of Forest Buffaloes is available, but given their occupation of the rainforests, their diets likely are composed of fewer grasses than other African buffaloes occupying more open and drier savannas. In Campo-Ma’an National Park, southern Cameroon, Forest Buffaloes ate early pioneer, shade-tolerant, and swamp species of plants. Their diets were only 42: 9 % grasses (dominated by Leptochloa caerulescens), with 21 - 3 % non-grass monocots (dominated by Commelinaceae species), 32: 7 % dicotyledonous species, mainly their leaves (26 - 5 %), and 3 - 1 % cryptogams (presumably ferns and mosses).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995BFFE1064EF763F5F2F7D3.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species. Presumably similar to other African buffalo species, but without pronounced seasonality in breeding and birthing periods. Maximum longevity in the wild may be 18 - 20 years, perhaps less. Forest Buffaloes have lived more than 28 years in captivity.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995BFFE1064EF763F5F2F7D3.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Forest Buffaloes follow the same general activity patterns of other ruminants, with feeding periods followed by resting / ruminating periods throughout the day and night. Forest Buffaloes in Lopé National Park, Gabon, spent about 30 % of the day feeding, mostly in the morning in savanna habitat, and more than 38 % of the day resting / ruminating, often in the afternoon in marshes. Activity patterns did not differ annually or seasonally at Lopé, but individual buffaloes varied somewhat in the time they devoted to feeding and resting. In Dzanga-Ndoki National Park, Central African Republic, groups of Forest Buffaloes tended to move rotationally from one forest clearing to another; clearings were favored as resting places during the day, but forests were preferred for resting during the night.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995BFFE1064EF763F5F2F7D3.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Numbers of Forest Buffaloes are difficult to estimate because oftheir often localized distribution and the forest cover they typically occupy. Density estimates range from 0 - 1 - 0 - 3 ind / km? in near-continuous forests to 6 - 4 ind / km? in secondary forests with open canopies and greater understory development. In a coastal shrub area in Réserve de Faune du Petit Loango, Gabon, density was 1 - 75 ind / km?, but it was only 0 - 01 - 0 - 4 ind / km? in Campo-Ma’an National Park, southern Cameroon (highest along logging roads and their associated habitat). Forest Buffaloes do not have to move extensively in search of water and ephemeral food resources, as do many Cape Buffalo populations; therefore, movement patterns and home ranges are much smaller. Forest Buffaloes in Dzanga-Ndoki National Park, Central African Republic, moved greater distances from forest to clearings in the dry season than the rainy season. While moving, individuals at Dzanga-Ndokistayed closer together than they did while foraging, and the amount of time spent foraging by each individual increased with increasing group size. Home range sizes of adult females in Lopé National Park, Gabon, were 2 - 3 - 7 - 64 km?, and there waslittle overlap among them. Individual home ranges were stable over two years of study and were dominated by savanna habitat despite there being a greater proportion offorests in the landscape. Habitat use varied seasonally; marsh habitat was preferred over forest in September — February and forests were preferred in March — - August. Generally, the buffaloes rested / ruminated in forests, fed in savannas, and rested and wallowed in marshes. In the Lopé study area of 72 km? ®, about 340 buffaloes lived in 18 relatively stable groups with a mean size of twelve individuals (range of means 3 - 24, maximum size observed 46). Groups occupying a traditional home range have been thought to be stable, but one of nine radio-collared females in Lopé switched groups. This suggests some fluidity in group membership, but not as much as for Cape Buffalo groups. In coastal Gabon, mean group size was smaller at 5 - 1 buffaloes.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995BFFE1064EF763F5F2F7D3.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (included under S. caffer as all African buffaloes). Range-wide, Forest Buffaloes are decreasing, and their numbers have been greatly reduced because of land-use changes, disease (notably anthrax, rinderpest, and bovine tuberculosis), poaching, and extended drought. Likely extinct in Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, and Benin. In some areas, these are still common threats. When the bushmeat market is fueled by local increases in human activities, the Forest Buffalo and other wildlife suffer. Recent oil exploration near the Gabonese town of Gamba has resulted in unsustainable illegal harvest of forest wildlife. During a one-year survey in the late 1990 s, 54 Forest Buffaloes were tallied in Gamba’s market, representing an estimated removal of 22 - 7 kg / km? / year from the Gamba Protected Areas Complex, the fourth highest among 30 wildlife species noted in the market. In the late 1990 s, the IUCN / SSC Antelope Specialist Group estimated the total number of Forest Buffaloes at 60,000, with 75 % of them occurring in and around protected areas in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon, DR Congo, and Republic of the Congo. It is unknown how many Forest Buffaloes actually exist in the species’ primary range in Central Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139958FFE403D9F427FE1EF59C.taxon	materials_examined	Vietnam.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139958FFE403D9F427FE1EF59C.taxon	discussion	This species is monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139958FFE403D9F427FE1EF59C.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Annamite Mts of Laos and Vietnam.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139958FFE403D9F427FE1EF59C.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 143 cm (one adult male), 150 cm (one adult female), tail 16 - 5 cm (to tip of bone, one adult male), 23 cm (to end of hair, one adult female), shoulder height 95 - 5 cm (one dead adult male), 84 cm (one live adult female), girth at broadest point around belly 104 cm (one dead adult male), 108 cm (one weakened, pregnant female), ear 10 cm (one adult male), 11 - 5 cm (one adult female); weight 70 - 100 kg (estimated). Horns at least 55 cm long measured along the curve and 51 cm measured across the chord. Iris of the eye dark brown, pupil round. Four mammae. The body of this bovid is fairly compact, and the neck relatively long. Pelage is somewhat short (1.5 - 2.5 cm), mostly straight (curlier on the belly and inner forelegs), and soft. Most of the pelage is medium brown in color, but there are striking white patches on the sides of the face, muzzle, and above the eye; white pasterns, cream and black bands on the tail and rump, a black “ chinstrap ” over a whitish chin and throat, and a black dorsal midline stripe. Horns are blackish, long, straight, sharply pointed, and with a long bony core. There is apparently no sexual dimorphism, at least in horn length. Saolas possess what may be the largest (in absolute size) preorbital glands of any extant species, measuring 9 cm x 3 - 5 cm x 1 - 5 cm deep. Each gland is covered by a muscular flap, which the Saola can raise at will. Captive Saolas have been observed to raise the flaps and expose the glands when scent marking (by rubbing the underside of the flap on edges of rock), when the animal appears nervous, or when exhibiting defensive behavior. There are also small nodules that may be secretory glands (although this function is not confirmed) associated with the white markings on the face. A captive adult female Saola left tracks in modeling clay measuring 5 - 6 cm long by 5: 3.6 - 4 cm wide for the forehooves and 6 cm long by 5.7 - 6 cm wide for the hindhooves. The tracks were widest across the middle.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139958FFE403D9F427FE1EF59C.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Saolas inhabit damp evergreen forests of the Annamite Mountains, possibly up to 1200 m. The species’ lower elevational limit in the absence of human disturbance is not known, but could be 200 m. Most records today are from 500 - 800 m.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139958FFE403D9F427FE1EF59C.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Probably a browser, of both ground vegetation and the leaves of understory woody plants. Local people report that Saolas readily feed on the leaves of an aroid in the genus Schismatoglottis.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139958FFE403D9F427FE1EF59C.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Birth of a single calf in Laos in the late dry or early rainy season (i. e. April — June) is known to occur (confirmed from a fetus found in a deceased captive), and may be the norm. Otherlife history parameters (e. g. age at first breeding) are little known.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139958FFE403D9F427FE1EF59C.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Limited camera-trapping results and observations of a captive indicate that the species is diurnal and / or crepuscular.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139958FFE403D9F427FE1EF59C.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Seasonal movements have been reported by local people, but little more is known. Local people also report that Saolas are usually solitary, except females with calves and possibly loose, extended associations of males and females (2 - 3 animals) during the breeding season. Home range size is unknown.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139958FFE403D9F427FE1EF59C.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. There are no Saolas in captivity anywhere in the world, and no biologist has ever reported seeing one in the wild. The species became known to science only in 1992 — it was one of the most spectacular zoological discoveries of the 20 " century. The global population is not known, but is probably no more than a few hundred at most, and could be substantially less — the animalis so difficult to detect (solitary, shy, at low density in thick, remote forest) that a population estimate of any confidence is not possible. Surviving animals are probably fragmented into several subpopulations in Laos and Vietnam. The most recent confirmed record of the species was an animal captured by villagers in Bolikhamsay Province, Laos, in August, 2010, and photographed shortly before it died. This was the first indisputable record of a live Saola since 1999. The species is threatened mainly by hunting and snaring for animals valued in the traditional East Asian medicine and the local bushmeat trades. Saolas themselves apparently have limited value and are not aggressively sought; a greater problem is the killing of Saolas incidentally or opportunistically in the widespread pursuit of other species. The Saola is particularly susceptible to hunting with dogs, since it commonly responds to pursuit by dogs by coming to bay and making a stand in a shallow stream. Other increasing direct or indirect threats are road construction, logging, commercial agriculture, mineral mining, hydropower dam development, and human population growth. Conservation priorities are: reduction of wildlife trade demand in China, Vietnam, and Laos; immediately improved protected area management, and especially reduction of snaring and other hunting; reduction of illegal or otherwise poorly managed forest clearance; research to learn more about local human hunting patterns and also about Saola ecology, distribution, population, life history, and behavior; and providing motivation and support for Saola conservation in Laos, Vietnam, and in the international community. There may be no other mammal in Asia that shares the Saola’s combination of phylogenetic distinctiveness, degree of endangerment, and paucity of conservation attention. Despite this, there may be new hope for the Saola’s survival with the establishment of a dedicated nature reserve in Quang Nam, Vietnam.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995FFFE50348F4EAF8E6FD17.taxon	materials_examined	Bengal, India.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995FFFE50348F4EAF8E6FD17.taxon	discussion	Pallas’s description was based on earlier accounts of the “ tragelaphus ” and on the description of a male Nilgai in London (the lectotype), which had been brought to Bengal from a very remote part of the “ Mogul’s Dominions. ” Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995FFFE50348F4EAF8E6FD17.taxon	distribution	Distribution. NE Pakistan, lowland areas of S Nepal, and Peninsular India. Introduced into Italy near Rome (extirpated during World War II), South Africa, S USA (Texas), and N Mexico (Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, Sonora, Tamaulipas & Veracruz).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995FFFE50348F4EAF8E6FD17.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 180 - 210 cm (males) and 170 cm (females), tail 46 - 53 cm (males) and 45 cm (females), shoulder height 120 - 140 cm; weight 200 - 288 kg (males) and 120 - 212 kg (females). The Nilgai is a large bovid, somewhat equine in appearance, with a deep and compressed neck, a tufted tail reachling the hocks, hindlimbs that are shorter than the front legs, and high withers. Males and females vary greatly in coloration, and mass. Only males have horns, which characteristically arise close together just behind the orbits and are directed upward. They are short (15 - 24 cm at maturity), black, generally smooth, sharp, and nearly straight, with no catching arch. Horns are subconical above and triangular at the base (circumference about 20 cm) with a flat posterior side and a ridge in the front; they may develop one or more base rings annually after 3 — 4 years of age. Horn characteristics of adult males are core surface, 70 - 8 cm?; sheath surface, 100 - 7 cm?; and sheath thickness, 0 - 38 cm. The adult male pelage is dark gray, but can vary from bluish to brownish-gray. The mane, terminal half of the outside of the ear, two spots inside the ear, and the tip of the tail are black. A patch on the throat (gular patch), two spots on each cheek, and the lips, chin, inside of the ears (except for the two black spots), lower surface of the tail, the abdomen, and two rings above and below the fetlock are white. Females, calves, and young males are tawny brown with the same white markings as males. Males have a pronounced beard of coarse hair directly beneath the white gular patch; it is rudimentary in females. Both sexes have a short, bristly mane that extends the length of the neck and terminates in a tuft at the nape of the neck. The mane and terminal tuft are darker and more prominent in adult males than in females and other age classes. Preorbital glands are small, with no lachrymal fossa. Interdigital and unguicular glands are present, but there are no inguinal glands. Frontals and parietals of the skull are almost in a single plane, forming a right angle with the occipital. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32. The molars are very hypsodont, with tall crowns and a large accessory column on upper molars. Nilgai can be aged by the eruption pattern and wear of their teeth: 1 - 2 year olds, M * within alveoli, M * just erupted, and milk dentition weakly to moderately worn; three year olds, premolars unworn, last milk tooth worn, and M? just erupted; 4 - 5 year olds, full permanent dentition in first stages of wear; and more than six years old, full permanent dentition in advanced stages of wear.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995FFFE50348F4EAF8E6FD17.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. In its native range, mainly in India and Nepal, the Nilgai is a habitat generalist, preferring level to undulating terrain with scattered short trees and brush interspersed with open grassy plains. They rarely occur in dense forest. Nilgai can be pests in agricultural areas, depredating fields at night and returning to cover during the day. Densities in India are 0 - 2 - 11 - 4 ind / km? ®, depending on habitat conditions, predation, degree of protection, and competition with livestock. Where exotic in southern Texas, USA, Nilgai avoid dense woodlands and frequent improved pastures, sparse forests of live oak (Quercus virginianus) and scrub, and coastal prairies. Densities in southern Texas are 3 - 1 - 4 - 8 / km ®. On both continents, availability of free water limits Nilgai distribution. All sexes and age classes visit water sources regularly and are not averse to entering water to drink. In captivity neonates begin to drink at three weeks of age. Nilgai also have been translocated to Mexico, South Africa, and Italy (now extirpated) and occur in various states of confinement or have escaped and are free-ranging.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995FFFE50348F4EAF8E6FD17.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Nilgai are herbivorous and seasonally semi-frugivorous. Their premaxillary shape suggests a mixed feeder. Dietary selection varies seasonally and includes grasses (Cenchrus, Cynodon dactylon, Desmostachya bipinnata, Scirpus tuberosus, Vetioeria zizanoides), woody vegetation (Acacia nilotica, A. senegal, A. leucophloea, Clerodendrum phlomidis, Crotalaria burhia, Indigofera oblongifolia, Morus alba, Zizyphus nummularia), and herbaceous species (Cocculus hirsutus, Euphorbia hirta, Sida rhombifolia). Woody vegetation dominates Nilgai diets in dry tropical forests of India. Frugivory occurs seasonally; in Keoladeo National Park, India, seeds of 34 plant species germinated from Nilgai feces. Seeds of Paspalum distichum occurred in feces year-round, seeds of Acacia nilotica and Prosopis juliflora (both with fleshy fruits, but the latter an invasive exotic species in India) occurred in feces during the hot-dry season, and seeds of Enchinochloa crus-galli occurred in feces during the monsoon. In Texas, Nilgai consume at least 167 species of plants: 66 grasses, 89 herbaceous species, and twelve woody plants. The average annual diet in Texas is 66 % grass, 25 % herbaceous species, and 15 % browse. Generally, adult males eat more grass throughout the year than adult females, and subadults eat more herbaceous vegetation than adults of either sex. Seeds, mainly from mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa), are seasonally important to Nilgai in Texas. In Ranthambhore National Park, India, Nilgai and Deccan Chinkara (Gazella bennettii) form a bovid guild and select Acacia — Butea habitats during summer and winter, in contrast to sympatric Chital (Axis axis) and Sambar (Rusa unicolor), which prefer Anogeissus — Grewia forests. In contrast to the cervids, Nilgai tolerate livestock grazing and associated degradation of grass cover.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995FFFE50348F4EAF8E6FD17.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The breeding and birthing seasons of Nilgai are extended: generally October-February and June-Octoberin India and August-December and April-August in Texas (where neonates can be observed throughout the year). Female sexual maturity typically occurs at two years of age, with the first parturition after three years. Gestation is 243 - 247 days. Twinning is common; 50 % ofbirths are twins in southern Texas, and triplets are occasionally noted. Females can breed shortly after parturition. Interparturition intervals for three captive females were 319 - 664 days (sample eight litters) and averaged 436 days; one captive female produced seven litters in seven years and eight months. Generally, males 4 - 5 years old are the most active breeders, but testes are histologically active by three years of age. As rut approaches, adult males interact aggressively, and vigorous fights establish dominance among them. Solitary breeding males try to maintain an area of dominance around them as they move among different groups of females, which generally results in mutual avoidance among breeding males. Dominance interactions between breeding males include lateral displays with various head and neck displays that maximize appearance of the chest, white gular patch, and beard (arched-necked display, straight-necked display) and frontal head-erect displays (similar to alert posture), often at distances of greater than 75 m between conspecifics. Threats are more serious than dominance displays and include a straight-necked threat displayed frontally and usually within 10 m of a conspecific (while stationary, walking, or running toward opponent) and a rush threat from a normal stance or after a lateral display with lowered neck, head toward the ground, and horns horizontal. During such interactions, contact and goring of the thighs or flank are common, and chases of up to 750 m have been observed. While displaying, males may circle one another crouched and with a stiff posture. Two types of fights occur between males: head butting with horns, and neck fighting, either in standing or kneeling position. The thick dermal shield on the neck and chest of the male Nilgai is protective, but fighting of either type can result in serious goring and mortality; puncture wounds and even protruding viscera have been observed. Females also neck fight and display intrasexual agonistic behavior by rushing, head butting other females on their shoulders, flanks, or sides, and threatening with flattened ears and stretched neck. During breeding, generally only one mature male accompanies a female group at a time, sometimes for only a few hours. Even during the breeding season, female groups usually do not have a breeding male present. Males do not attempt to form or defend harems in a spatially defined breeding territory. Courtship is simple and may last only 45 minutes; a breeding male will approach a female stiffly, body stretched lengthwise and tail erect, with the tuft at a right-angle kink; the female typically holds her head close to the ground and meanders forward; the male then licks and nuzzles the female’s perineum. If she is receptive, the female will raise her tail and elicit a flehmen (lip curl) response from the male, who then rests his chin on her rump, pushes his chest forward to touch her, and mounts. Copulation is terminated by the female; no post-copulation display has been noted. Pregnant females become solitary as parturition approaches and keep neonates hidden from other conspecifics for about one month. Neonates nurse from a reverse parallel position, and average nursing bouts can last as long as seven minutes; offspring show interest in forage during their fourth week. Maximum life span is 12 - 13 years in the wild and 20 - 21 years in captivity.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995FFFE50348F4EAF8E6FD17.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Mainly crepuscular, but can be active throughout the day and night. Where Nilgai use agricultural fields, they can be largely nocturnal. Nilgai can be very wary, likely related to human harassment, but early accounts from Hindu-dominated areas in India, where they were not hunted or harassed, described them as very tame. Handreared individuals have been used in feeding and nutritional evaluations. In southern Texas, males and females are equally likely to flee approaching vehicles; mean flight distance was about 300 m, but a galloping flight response (up to 48 km / h) was noted even up to 700 m. Individuals did not seek cover but ran away from the disturbance.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995FFFE50348F4EAF8E6FD17.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Nilgai are non-migratory, but individuals are capable of moving considerable distances if ambient conditions such as drought or restricted food availability dictate. No home range information exists for Nilgai in their native range, but in Texas, home ranges in a 5680 ha fenced area averaged 4 - 3 km? ® (0 - 6 - 8 - 1 km?). Males were transient, often traversing their entire home range daily. Nilgai are not as gregarious as other herding ungulates and occur in relative small groups throughout the year. Adult males segregate from females and subadults during non-breeding. Annual group sizes in India are 1 - 9 - 2 - 9 individuals; observations of male prevalence in groups during breeding in Nepal found one male in 37 % of the groups, two males in 28 %, three males in 20 %, and more than four males in 15 %. Outside of the breeding season in India, herd composition changes constantly, and includes small groups of 1 - 2 adult females and their offspring; mixed herds of 3 - 6 adult females, yearling females, and an occasional calf; and male groups of 2 - 18 individuals. Play behavior among young Nilgai is apparent but not frequent. Play activities in Nilgai as young as three months old include bounding with a spring start and landing stiff-legged, chasing, and play-fighting (rudimentary neck fighting) with erecttails. Communication and social interactions among groups and individuals are maintained with various guttural and low-pitched vocalizations and by repeated defecation in conspicuous fecal piles (suggesting a form of advertisement) that are often more than 3 m and up to 6 m in diameter. In southern Texas, fresh feces are added to a pile, on average, every 3 - 7 days. Defecation postures of Nilgai are characteristic and exaggerated; males stand with their rear legs spread 0 - 6 - 1 m, rump lowered, tail erect at least above horizontal and often near vertical, and head and neck erect and forward. This position is often maintained for more than ten seconds after defecation. Forward spraying of urine by males often accompanies defecation. Females defecate in a similar manner, but their posture is less exaggerated than in males and, unlike males, females will defecate while walking.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995FFFE50348F4EAF8E6FD17.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are about 100,000 Nilgai in India, very few in Pakistan, and they were extirpated from Bangladesh; introduced population in southern Texas numbers about 37,000. Various references to “ cow ” and “ bull ” in its common name have led to local Hindu beliefs that the Nilgai is sacred and should be protected from hunting. Although generally protected from hunting in India, such protection is often waived to minimize depredation complaints. As an exotic in Texas, unlimited numbers of Nilgai can be harvested throughout the year by hunters with a valid hunting license.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995EFFE606D7FC26FDCDF2FB.taxon	materials_examined	India.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995EFFE606D7FC26FDCDF2FB.taxon	discussion	The Chowsingha is the only wild bovid, indeed mammal, with four horns. The only other member of the tribe Boselaphini, the Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), can be nine times as heavy and twice as tall as the Chowsingha. Despite the size difference, the two species share a similar ancestry and skull and horn-core characteristics. They presently occur sympatrically in India, although numbers and range of the Chowsingha are smaller than the Nilgai. Whether the presence or absence of anterior horns should be used to distinguish subspecies is unclear, because one subspecies may not have these horns. Further complicating matters, males 10 - 14 months of age that do not yet have anterior horns can be confused with adult males of comparable size. Anterior horns sometimes occur as only hairless raised bumps, making identification in the field difficult. Three subspecies recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995EFFE606D7FC26FDCDF2FB.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. T. q. quadricornisdeBlainville, 1816 — C & NPeninsularIndia. T: q. iodesHodgson, 1847 — sub-HimalayanregioninNIndiaandSNepal. T. q. subquadricornis Gray, 1843 — SC & SW Peninsular India.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995EFFE606D7FC26FDCDF2FB.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 90 - 110 cm, tail 10 - 15 cm, shoulder height 55 - 66 cm; weight 15 - 25 kg. The Chowsingha is the smallest Asian bovid. Male-only horns, arising from the unique frontal bone of the skull, distinguish the sexes of the Chowsingha at maturity. It is the only wild mammal species with four horns, but the subspecies subquadricornis is said to have only two anterior horns. Aside from the absence of horns in females, mass and general characteristics of the sexes are comparable. The Chowsingha is small and delicately built. Its pelage is thin, short, and paler in summer and thick, coarse, and darker in winter. The color of the Chowsingha’s summer pelage is variable, perhaps among currently described subspecies, from dull rufousred and pale brown to yellow-creamy-fawn. The winter pelage is brown, with paler or whitish ventral and inner leg markings without clear demarcation. There is a white ring and tuft of hair on the lower legs, but sometimes it is not obvious. The muzzle, back of ears, and stripes down the front of the legs are blackish. Occasionally, a pair of white spots occurs on each cheek, similar to the Nilgai. The tail is short and compressed. The Chowsingha has very large elongated preorbital glands and well-developed unguicular glands above false hooves on the rear legs; there are no inguinal glands. The frontal-parietal profile of the skull is slightly and gently rounded, and the occipital meets the parietal at a right angle with very large lachrymal fossae. Mean skull lengths of the three subspecies are 18: 7 - 19. 3 cm. Dental formula is 1 0 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32. The canines are incisoriform. The upper molars are short, with quadrangular crowns and selenodont cusps, and lack additional columns on the inner side. Age classes of male Chowsinghas can be characterized, in general, by their mass and the presence and length of anterior horns: class 1 (young-of-theyear less than 66 % of adult body mass); class 2 (juvenile males with no evidence of anterior horns, which start to develop at 10 - 14 months of age in captivity); class 3 (males with anterior horns less than 33 % of the length of the posterior horns); and class 4 (oldest males with anterior horns greater than 33 % of the posterior horns). Most male Chowsinghas in Panna National Park, India, had anterior horns 25 - 66 % the length of their posterior horns, but some males had anterior and posterior horns of equal length.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995EFFE606D7FC26FDCDF2FB.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Chowsingha is a habitat generalist but prefers dry deciduous mixed forest with thickets of trees and shrubs (even within open dry patches), hilly terrain, and areas of limited human disturbance. It avoids disturbed areas but tends to use other habitats in proportion to their availabilities. High, grassy vegetation is frequently used and provides protection from predators, which include Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus); the Chowsingha rarely exceeds 15 % of any of those predator’s diets. Despite occupying dry forests, local distributions of Chowsinghas are constrained by daily need for free water.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995EFFE606D7FC26FDCDF2FB.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Herbivorous, but given its small size, the Chowsingha is a selective feeder focusing on nutritious plant parts such as fruits, flowers, and fresh leaves. In tame-animaltrials on grazing plots dominated by grasses and forbs in India, Chowsinghas preferred, in descending order, legumes (up to 60 %), other herbaceous species, woody species, and grasses, reflecting selection of the most nutritious and digestible forage available. In Gir Forest National Park, India, mixed ungulate assemblages partition their food selection, but all depend on woody species during the hot-dry season. Preference by Chowsinghas for Ziziphus mauritiana, Acacia leucophloea, A. nilotica, and Emblica officinalis, among others, has been documented. Fruits of Emblica and Terminalia are consumed by Chowsinghas and other Indian ruminants.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995EFFE606D7FC26FDCDF2FB.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The breeding season likely peaks in June — July, when the chance of observing pairs of females and males is highest. Parturition can occur throughout the year in the wild, but newborns are noted most often in October — November. Few observations of breeding behavior of wild Chowsinghas exist; only two 1 - 2 second copulatory bouts have been reported. In captivity, mating behavior includes pre-copulatory play, with males and females kneeling on their front knees and facing each other, interlocking their necks and pushing rigorously. Males then display a drill-like strutting behavior before copulation. Age at sexual maturity of wild Chowsinghasis not clearly understood, but two captive females had theirfirst offspring at 21 months of age. The female reproductive tract of the Chowsingha has two uterine compartments separated by a median anterior-to-posterior septum; the fallopian tubes are small relative to those of other ungulates. Four inguinal mammae are present in females. Placental cotyledons number 22 - 30, about one-half that noted in other antelopes; the fetal chorion has vascular ridges similar to the Eurasian Wild Pig (Sus scrofa). Gestation is about eight months — long for such a small ungulate. Interparturition intervals of one captive female were 285 and 327 days. Of 64 captive births in Paris, France, 59 % were twins and 41 % were single births, the sex ratio at birth was generally equal, and parturition was extended from August through May. In captivity in native India, average litter size was 1 - 6, and seven neonates were 0 - 74 — 1 - 1 kg at birth, 42 - 46 cm in total length, with shoulder heights of 24 - 27. 5 cm. In the wild, most newborn sightings are of twins, but most subsequent sightings are of single offspring, suggesting regular loss of one offspring. Offspring remain with their mothers for about one year. An adult female can be seen with her young-of-the-year and ajuvenile, presumably hers. Maximum life span of Chowsinghas in captivity is generally about ten years, but one female lived 17 years and five months.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995EFFE606D7FC26FDCDF2FB.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Little information exists on daily activity patterns. The Chowsingha is likely crepuscular and perhaps active at night. It is secretive and very wary in presentday India. It will often freeze rather than flee when a threat approaches, but it also will make conspicuous leaps followed by quiet stealthy movements. It is easily tamed when young and has been used in feeding trials.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995EFFE606D7FC26FDCDF2FB.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Chowsingha is non-migratory, but little is known about its movements and home range. It is likely sedentary, with individuals possibly occupying exclusive home ranges. Densities in India range from 0 - 2 ind / km? in Gir Forest National Park to 2 - 7 ind / km? in Panna National Park; no density estimates are available from Nepal. Chowsinghas are shy, non-herding ungulates and occursolitarily or in groups of four or fewer individuals throughout the year. In Nagarhole National Park, India, 80 % of observations were of solitary individuals; maximum group size was two. In Gir Forest National Park, India, maximum group size was four but averaged 1 - 5 - 1 - 6 individuals. In Panna National Park, India, 69 % of individuals were solitary throughout the year and 24 % were in groups of two. Mean group size increased seasonally, but only slightly, from 1 - 1 in November to 1 - 6 in May. Adult males segregate from females and subadults during non-breeding times. In Gir Forest National Park, India, male-female ratios were 0 - 62: 1 in winter and 0 - 71: 1 during the hot-dry season; female: offspring (more than one year old) ratios were 1: 0 - 46 in winter and 1: 0 - 14 during the hot-dry season. Monthly sex ratios in Panna National Park ranged from 0 - 37: 1 in November to 1: 45: 1 in July (annual average is 0 - 72: 1), the larger ratio perhaps reflecting greater visibility of males during the breeding season. Alarm calls are described as a “ husky pronk ” or sharp bark. Males make a distinct coughing sound around females, and females make soft calls to locate hidden neonates. Male and female Chowsinghas use their large preorbital glands to mark vegetation with scent, leaving a white crystallized film that suggests exclusive home ranges. Both sexes will defecate repeatedly at the same location. Non-random clustering of repeatedly used fecal piles in some areas suggests a form of communication or advertisement, similar to the behavior of the related Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus). The use of common defecation sites by Chowsinghas, Nilgai, and Deccan Chinkara (Gazella bennettii) suggests that the greatest niche separation occurs between Chowsinghas and Deccan Chinkara.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995EFFE606D7FC26FDCDF2FB.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix III (Nepal only). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Chowsingha is fully protected under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act. Although it occurs in a large geographic area, it is not abundant anywhere, is considered decreasing throughoutits range, and is largely confined to protected parks and sanctuaries. The total number of Chowsinghas is only about 10,000. Given habitat fragmentation, isolation, and the small sizes of populations of Chowsinghas, loss of genetic diversity is of concern. It is prized as a hunting trophy because of its unique four horns, and poaching may be a localized conservation challenge. Minimizing habitat loss and maintaining connectivity among protected areas are important to the conservation of the Chowsingha.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995DFFE70659FE69F6A5F965.taxon	materials_examined	KwaZulu-Natal, S Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995DFFE70659FE69F6A5F965.taxon	discussion	The Nyala is often placed in the genus Tragelaphus, but variations in skull measurements (e. g. lateral nasal tips virtually absent and malar-maxillary suture deeply penetrating anteriorly in angasi but not in other tragelaphines) and no inversion of the Y-chromosome suggest that placement of angasii in its own genus Nyala is appropriate. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995DFFE70659FE69F6A5F965.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S Malawi, Mozambique, N & S Zimbabwe, E South Africa, and Swaziland (extinct but reintroduced). Introduced on private ranches in Namibia and South Africa, from which they have escaped and spread to E Botswana.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995DFFE70659FE69F6A5F965.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 159 - 198 cm (males) and 132 - 146 cm (females), tail 37 - 47 cm (males) and 34 - 40 cm (females), shoulder height 104 - 121 cm (males) and 82 - 106 cm (females); weight 92 - 126 kg (males) and 55 - 68 kg (females). Tragelaphines are typified by their sexual dimorphism, and the Nyala is reportedly the most extreme and comparable to the Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) in India. The weight of males can be 171 % that of females. Both sexes are born a chestnut color of varying degrees of intensity and with lateral stripes on their torso. With maturity at about four years of age, males become a spectacular dark brown to charcoal gray, often with a bluish hint and have contrasting chestnut-tan lower legs. Males are rather bulky and become shaggy as they age. They have pronounced fringes of long hair around the neck and ventrally from the throat to the hindquarters and a whitish-gray, erectile dorsal crest. Unlike females, lateral white stripes are reduced or absent on males. Only males possess loosely spiraled, yellow-tipped horns that reach lengths of 60 - 83 cm; the hairs between them and in the inner ears are chestnut-tan like the lower legs, providing a sharp contrast to the dark face. Adult females are a smooth-coated chestnut throughout the body and lack ventral hair fringes. They have 8 - 13 vertical stripes on their shoulders, sides, and hindquarters and white spots scattered on their hindquarters and torso. Both sexes have a white chevron between their eyes (of variable intensity on the female), a black muzzle with white upperlips and chin, 2 - 3 white cheek spots on each side, a white crescent on their chest (shaggy in males), a white stripe down the anterior ridge of the upperrear leg (shaggy in males), black rings above the hooves, and a bushy tail that is whitish underneath and black tipped. The male’s tail is bushier than the female's. Nyalas lack head and inguinal glands but do have pedal glands. At birth, young are striped and the same pale-to-bright chestnut as the females; the male pelage begins to darken after about four months of age and horns are evident at seven months. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32. Permanent dentition is attained at two years of age, with permanent molars beginning to erupt at six months. Aging of Nyala is possible with a combination of cementum annuli counts and permanent tooth eruption and wear, but it is not as precise as in other species. Diploid numbers for the Nyala are b 5 for males and 56 for females, much large than the closely related tragelaphines.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995DFFE70659FE69F6A5F965.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. In its native range, the Nyala is now confined to the Lowveld of the southern savanna in extreme south-eastern Africa, but now naturalized in Namibia and eastern Botswana. It prefers low-lying dense woodlands, open thickets, and woodland mosaics in close proximity to water. In Zinave National Park, Mozambique, Nyalas use closed and open tree-savannas dominated by Acacia, Ostyoderris, and Bolusanthus, with shrub thickets as tall as 2: 5 m. Over a two-year period in Zinave, 40 - 91 % of the observations of Nyala were in shrub thickets interspersed throughout Acacia woodlands. Habitat preferences are disparate between males and females; males tend to confine themselves more to wooded habitats than females.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995DFFE70659FE69F6A5F965.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Nyala is considered to be a generalist browser, or intermediate feeder, selecting leaves of at least 108 plant species in Zinave Nationall Park. Fruits from 39 % of those plant species, twigs from 13 %, and flowers from 10 % also were eaten, along with bark of the baobab tree (Adansonia digitata). In some areas, woody species preferred by Nyalas and other ungulates have pronounced browse lines 1 - 3 - 2 m high. During the rainy season when vegetation is lush, Nyalas consume a greater variety of herbaceous vegetation such as legumes. In Zinave, grasses were found in stomach samples during most of the year, as high as 65 % wet weight, but on average, no more than 12 % mixed grass and herbaceous species. During the rainy season in Mkhuze and Ndumo game reserves, KwaZulu-Natal, Nyalas consume over 80 % monocotyledons. Food preferences are disparate between males and females; females tend to forage more in the low herbaceous layer and males select more woody species higher above the ground. Because oftheir largersize, males require 62 % more kcal / day than females. The nutritional status of Nyalas in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, is related to rainfall in the previous month, which is associated with current forage availability. Nyalas will drink daily, particularly during the dry season, often at night where human presence is high, but during midday elsewhere. Early reports suggested that Nyalas can go extended periods without free water, and they have been observed 16 - 24 km from known free water.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995DFFE70659FE69F6A5F965.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Breeding and subsequent births of the Nyala can occur throughout the year, but births in Zinave were somewhat concentrated in August-September, at the end of the dry season and beginning of summer rains. Births in Ndumo Game Reserve, South Africa, were somewhat bimodal with peaks in autumn and spring. At Ndumo, the fewest births occurred in June — September and December. Breeding may be cued more by photoperiod than changes in forage availability, but neither effect is strong enough to establish pronounced breeding peaks. Sexual maturity of malesis attained at 4 - 5 years of age, with no indication of senescence offertility with advanced age. There is no evidence that breeding adult males are territorial or form harems, but rather, they establish a hierarchy among themselves before and during rut, and seemingly with a limited repertoire of display sequences. Male Nyalas will rub and thrash the ground and vegetation with their horns, but horn-to-horn combat appears to be very uncommon. Mature males display parallel to each other, often in a frozen position, with their dorsal crests erect, their tails lifted onto the back with hairs flared to expose the white undersides, and their heads lowered so that horn tips are held slightly forward. This posturing effectively increases a male’s visual surface area by 40 %, and no doubt plays a role in establishing dominance without combat. Subordinate males will walk past such posturing males with a high-stepping walk that is considered submissive. Few observations of courtship and copulation exist, although males do perform a typical lip curl, but sparingly, in response to smelling an estrous female’s tail area and often without testing her urine. He also will push his head between the female’s legs prior to copulation. A male will tend an estrous female for up to 24 hours, but he may be replaced by progressively more dominant males during that period. As with most bovids, copulation is brief. Females breed at 14 - 20 months of age and become reproductively inactive at about 14 years old. Gestation is about 8 - 5 months, and a single young is born. Females can come into estrus one week after parturition, with calving intervals of 257 - 297 days. In Zinave, neonates are 4.1 - 5. 5 kg at birth, with a total length of 81 - 93 cm and a shoulder height of 47.5 - 53 cm. They are left in hiding places for 10 - 18 days, and mothers are not particularly attentive. Unlike many other ungulates, they do not attempt to defend neonates from predators, which include Lions (Panthera leo), Leopards (P. pardus), and Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta). Maximum longevity in captivity has been 18 - 5 years; it is no doubtless in the wild.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995DFFE70659FE69F6A5F965.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Nyalas are described as secretive and shy and generally stay close to cover. They tend to be crepuscular and nocturnal where persecuted, but active throughout the day where protected. During hot weather, even individuals in protected areas are probably more active at dawn, dusk, and throughout the night. During the dry season, Nyalas move more in search of food and water. Woodlands and shrub thickets are important during hot, dry weather for cover and protection from threats. As with all ruminants, peaks of foraging and resting / ruminating occur through the day, but little information exists on the specifics of daily activity patterns.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995DFFE70659FE69F6A5F965.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Nyala is non-migratory and gregarious. In Zinave National Park, densities peaked at about 10 ind / km?, and male and female non-exclusive home ranges were 1: 3 - 9 - 5 km * (average 3 - 9 km?) and 0 - 4 — 3 - 6 km * (average 2 - 9 km? ®), respectively. Average densities where Nyalas are common are 7 ind / km?. Individuals may move up to 12 km / day, but typically less. Group dynamics of Nyala are fluid, and a mother and her offspring-of-the-year, and perhaps the previous year, form the most lasting bond. Group sizes were 1 - 30 individuals in Zinave, but 67 % of the observations were of 1 - 3 individuals. Males were seen alone twice as often as females at Zinave, and it was uncommon to see many adult males in mixed groups. Vocalizations of the Nyala include an alarm bark described as dog-like, a distress bleat used between a mother and her calf, and soft clicking heard in captivity when in estrus and while tending a calf.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713995DFFE70659FE69F6A5F965.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Populations of Nyala were severely depleted in the past, largely because of conversion of woodland savannas to agriculture uses such as cattle grazing but also overhunting and diseases such as rinderpest. Genetic divergence (e. g. unique haplotypes) is apparent among regional populations but no loss of genetic diversity is suggested. Currently, about 32,000 Nyalas remain, with 80 % in protected areas and 10 - 15 % on private ranches in South Africa and Namibia. Populations are considered stable to increasing, particularly with reintroductions and escapees from private land that are now populating areas even beyond the Nyala’s historical distribution (e. g. in eastern Botswana). In an early assessment in 1996 of the effects of climate change on ungulates in Lengwe National Park, Malawi, the Nyala was identified as the species with the greatest potential susceptibility to decreasing rainfall and subsequent reductions in forage availability. Droughts in Lengwe in 1980 s were known to be particularly hard on the Nyala. Relocation of the Nyala to game ranges in South Africa and Namibia has resulted in well-regulated trophy hunting and has increased the number and range of the species. Ongoing management of the Nyala is important because it could become overpopulated, leading to significant mortality events. Current restoration of protected areas in Mozambique (e. g. Gorongosa and Banhine national parks) will benefit all savanna wildlife and may allow the Nyala, in particular, to regain its former abundance there.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139951FFEA0348FE2EF6A9FBEC.taxon	materials_examined	Senegal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139951FFEA0348FE2EF6A9FBEC.taxon	discussion	Because of the great variation in color and patterning of the coat of bushbucks and their wide geographical range in 40 sub-Saharan African countries (the most extensive of all African bovids), at least 40 subspecies of T. scriptus have been described. Recent molecular and morphometric analyses of bushbucks from across their wide range have identified two sister clades, or groups, “ scriptus ” (here including T. scriptus, T. phaleratus, T. bor, and T. decula) and “ sylvaticus ” (here including T. meneliki, T. fasciatus, T. ornatus, and T. sylvaticus). According to Y. Moodley and M. W. Bruford, the fossil record suggests that bushbucks originated in north-eastern Africa 3 - 9 million years ago, when the area was thickly forested, unlike today, and that the two groups diverged more than 2 - 5 - 2 - 7 million years ago, one spreading eventually to the western coast of Africa and the other spreading eventually to extreme southern Africa. Additional research is required, however, to describe these species fully, geographically and ecologically, and to ascertain if more species should be recognized. The mtDNA assessments unite the Western Bushbuck from far western Africa, and the support value for this clade is 99 %. Synonyms of scriptus include leucophaeus, gratus, and obscurus. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139951FFEA0348FE2EF6A9FBEC.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Extreme S Mauritania, S Senegal, extreme SW Mali, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, and W Liberia. The exact location of the boundary between the Western Bushbuck and the Central Bushbuck (T. phaleratus) is unclear and needs additional investigation.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139951FFEA0348FE2EF6A9FBEC.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 117 - 145 cm (males) and 114 - 132 cm (females), tail 19 - 24 cm, shoulder height 64 - 100 cm (males) and 61 - 85 cm (females); weight 40 - 80 kg (males) and 24 - 60 kg (females). These measurements are general for the bushbuck group and should be considered provisional until further information is available for individual species. Tragelaphines are typified by their sexual dimorphism. The weight of male bushbucks, in general, is about 160 % of that of females. Bushbucks are the smallest tragelaphines, with large ears and eyes and a rather round, crested back. Their hindquarters tend to be higher and more robust than their forequarters. The male Western Bushbuck is a rich dark rufous with a blackish suffusion; the female is paler. The pelage of both sexes is fairly long and marked with 3 - 10 distinct transverse white stripes, an upper and a lower white longitudinal flank band, and a circle of white haunch spots. The dorsal crest of both sexes is white. The upperparts of the limbs are blackish, and their inner sides are white. The forelimbs often have a black line down the front. The underparts are black. There are inguinal glands anterior to the mammae, but no false hoof glands. The tail is relatively short, long-haired, and bushy; the outside of the tail is the same color as the back, and the underside is white. The tail tip is usually black. Only males have keeled horns. The horns are nearly straight, with generally only one or slightly more twists. The average length of the horns of male Western Bushbuck is about 23 cm. Average total length of the skull is 23 - 7 cm. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32. Diploid numbers for the bushbuck group are 33 for males and 34 for females.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139951FFEA0348FE2EF6A9FBEC.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. As a group, bushbucks are the most ubiquitous hoofed mammals in Africa, but because of their relatively solitary nature (particularly males), relatively small size, tendency to freeze and blend into their surroundings, and preference for forest and forest edge, they are difficult to observe and census. According to Moodley and Bruford, the West Guinea Forest — Savanna mosaic ecoregion of West Africa is occupied exclusively by the Western Bushbuck haplogroup. They are often found near free water, which may be as much because their preferred forested habitats thrive near water as a physiological need.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139951FFEA0348FE2EF6A9FBEC.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably, like other bushbuck species it eats a variety of shrubs, legumes, and other herbaceous plants as well as new-growth of grasses. Elsewhere, bushbucks are fond of the fruits of various trees and can be observed feeding on fallen fruits under trees in which baboons and other monkeys are foraging. In various locations, bushbucks are agricultural pests eating various crops by night.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139951FFEA0348FE2EF6A9FBEC.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Bushbucks have been described as the most socially primitive of the tragelaphines and are typically thought of as non-terrritorial polygynous breeders (but see the Nile Bushbuck for the most thorough studies of breeding behavior).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139951FFEA0348FE2EF6A9FBEC.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is little specific information available for this species, but activity patterns are probably comparable to the general bushbuck pattern of being crepuscular and nocturnal and spending much of the day resting / ruminating in forest cover, often alone or in mother / offspring pairs.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139951FFEA0348FE2EF6A9FBEC.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is little specific information available for this species, but it is probably comparable to other bushbuck species (see the Nile Bushbuck for the most through studies of these characteristics). Bushbucks do not range over a wide area. Home ranges are not exclusive, but individuals do have their own, apparently exclusive, places to rest during the day. Although not aggressive to one another, regular social interactions among bushbucks are largely confined to mother — offspring pairs and male — females during rut.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139951FFEA0348FE2EF6A9FBEC.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under T. scriptus), which does not differentiate the eight species identified here. In the late 1990 s, the number of bushbucks range-wide was estimated conservatively at over 1 - 34 million, and they were not particularly dependent on conservation initiatives, such as protected areas, if adequate cover and water were available. Bushbuck populations are considered stable range-wide. In localized areas, some populations of bushbucks have decreased because of excessive illegal harvest, destruction of native habitats as human and livestock numbers have increased, and increased aridity. Generally, however, bushbucks can do well in areas of human habitation because of their secretive nature, non-herding tendencies, cryptic coat patterning and tendency to freeze and blend into their surroundings when faced with danger, and ability to adopt a nocturnal pattern in areas of human activity. In the late 1990 s, populations of Western Bushbucks in Senegal were estimated at more than 50,000 in protected areas, but facing pressure from habitat loss and livestock grazing elsewhere in western Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139951FFEB064EFB37FB6FF5BC.taxon	materials_examined	West bank of Stanley Falls, Congo.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139951FFEB064EFB37FB6FF5BC.taxon	discussion	The Central Bushbuck was formerly considered a subspecies of T. scriptus, but it is diagnostically different from other bushbucks. Assessments of mtDNA unite the Central Bushbuck to the exclusion of others; the support value for this clade is 100 %. Synonyms of the Central Bushbuck include knutsoni, pictus, signatus, and punctatus. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139951FFEB064EFB37FB6FF5BC.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S Mali, Ivory Coast, C & S Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, extreme SW & SE Niger, Nigeria (except the extreme N), C & N Cameroon, S Chad, W & C Central African Republic, perhaps extreme NW & W DR Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, S Republic of the Congo, and extreme SW DR Congo (N of the Congo River). The boundary between the Central Bushbuck and the Nile Bushbuck (7: bor), as depicted here based largely on recent morphometric analyses of museum specimens, may be too far east because recent genetic analyses suggest that the Nile Bushbuck can occur further west into the Central Africa Republic and southern Chad. More research is required to clearly establish the ranges of these two taxa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139951FFEB064EFB37FB6FF5BC.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 114 - 165 (males) and 120 - 130 cm (females), tail 21 - 30 cm, shoulder height 65 - 102 cm (males) and 75 - 85 cm (females); weight 32 - 115 kg (males) and 32 - 42 kg (females). These measurements are from samples of Central Bushbucks from the DR Congo and Gabon in the mid- 1900 s and should be considered provisional until more contemporary information is available. Tragelaphines are typified by their sexual dimorphism, and the weight of male bushbucks, in general, is about 160 % of that of females. Bushbucks are the smallest tragelaphines, with large ears and eyes and a rather round crested back. Their hindquarters tend to be higher and more robust than their forequarters. The body color of the Central Bushbuck is reddish-brown without any blackish suffusion except on the withers, as on the Western Bushbuck (7. scriptus). An upper longitudinal band is often absent, particularly on females. Otherwise, the Central Bushbuck is very similar to the Western Bushbuck. Inguinal glands occur ahead of the mammae, but there are no false hoof glands. The tail is relatively short, long-haired, and bushy, dorsally colored the same as the back, white underneath, and usually has a black tip. Only males have keeled horns, which are nearly straight, with generally only one or slightly more twists. The average length of the horns of the Central Bushbuck is about 23 cm; the average total length of the skull is 23 - 5 cm. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32. Diploid numbers for the bushbuck group are 33 for males and 34 for females.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139951FFEB064EFB37FB6FF5BC.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. As a group, bushbucks are the most ubiquitous hoofed mammals in Africa, but because of their relatively solitary nature (particularly males), small size, tendency to freeze and cryptically blend into their surroundings, and preference for forest and forest edge, they are difficult to observe and census. Near the Baoulé River and Boucle du Baoulé National Park in southern Mali, direct feeding observations suggested daytime use of several riverine forest types, particularly those dominated by Acacia ataxacantha, and night-time use of the more open savanna; grassy stands of mature and dried Pennisetum pedicellatum and Vetiveria nigritana were avoided. In Mole National Park, northern Ghana, Central Bushbucks spent about an equal percentage of their time in marsh (47 - 1 %) and open savanna (45 - 5 %) habitats and much less time in riverine forests (7 - 4 %); marsh habitat was actually preferred relative to its availability (26 % of the total available habitat). According to Y. Moodley and M. W. Bruford, they occur in the Atlantic Equatorial Coastal Forest, Cross-Sanaga-Bioko Coastal Forest, Mount Cameroon-Bioko Montane Forest, Southern Congolian Forest-Savanna Mosaic, and Western Congolian Forest-Savanna. Mosaic ecoregions of west-central Africa are occupied exclusively by the Central Bushbuck haplogroup. They are usually found near free water, and the Central Bushbuck in Mole National Park routinely drink water.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139951FFEB064EFB37FB6FF5BC.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Diets of the Central Bushbuck in Mole National Park were mostly leaves of 26 herbaceous and dicotyledonous plants, but they did not contain any grasses in the rainy season from May to August. Central Bushbucks in Mole visited salt licks. In southern Mali, Central Bushbucks ate a variety of woody plants (particularly Dichrostachys cinerea and Baissea multiflora), herbaceous species (up to about 31 % of the frequency of feeding observations), and sedges (up to 20 %) during the beginning of the dry season (October — February). Elsewhere, bushbucks will eat new-growth of grasses and are fond of the fruits of various trees when seasonally available. In some places, Bushbucks are agricultural pests, eating various crops by night.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139951FFEB064EFB37FB6FF5BC.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Bushbucks have been described as the most socially primitive of the tragelaphines and are typically thought of as non-territorial polygynous breeders (see the Nile Bushbuck for the most thorough studies of breeding behavior).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139951FFEB064EFB37FB6FF5BC.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Central Bushbucks in Mole National Park, Ghana, actively fed from 06: 00 h to 08: 00 h and from 16: 00 h to 18: 00 h. Most resting / ruminating occurred from 10: 00 h to 14: 00 h. When temperatures exceeded 31 ° C, the bushbucks sought cover in thickets and rested / ruminated; below that temperature, they actively fed and routinely followed specific paths while foraging.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139951FFEB064EFB37FB6FF5BC.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is little specific information available for this species, but it is probably comparable to other bushbuck species (see the Nile Bushbuck for the most thorough studies of these characteristics). Bushbucks do not range over a wide area. Home ranges are not exclusive, but an individual does have its own, apparently exclusive, place to rest during the day. Although not aggressive to one another, regular social interactions are largely confined to mother — offspring pairs and male — females during rut. Densities of Central Bushbucks were only 0 - 13 ind / km? in lowland valleys and 0 - 19 ind / km? in upland savannas in the Kainji National Park in Benin and Nigeria. In Lopé National Park, central Gabon, the density was higher (1 - 4 ind / km?), but the Red River Hog (Potamochoerus porcus) was the most abundant ungulate (18 - 4 ind / km?) there. Leopards (Panthera pardus) are known to prey on the Central Bushbuck in Lopé National Park, but they represent a small portion of the Leopard’s diet.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139951FFEB064EFB37FB6FF5BC.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under 1. scriptus), which does not differentiate the eight species identified here. In the late 1990 s, the number of bushbucks range-wide was estimated conservatively at over 1 - 34 million, and they were not particularly dependent on conservation initiatives, such as protected areas, if adequate cover and water were available. Bushbuck populations are considered stable range-wide; a 91 % decrease in the Central Bushbuck in Comoé National Park, Ivory Coast, from 1978 to 1998 was attributed to intense poaching. In Nigeria, and no doubt elsewhere in Africa, the Central Bushbuck and other wildlife species are used for various medicinal and religious purposes, leading to excessive illegal harvest. The entire body of the Central Bushbuck in Nigeria is used to appease witches, as ritual sacrifice at hunters’ burials, and in various Muslim and Christian ceremonies. The head is thought to be a cure for leprosy. Generally, Bushbucks can do well in areas of human habitation because of their secretive nature, non-herding tendencies, cryptic coat patterning and tendency to freeze and blend in with their surroundings when faced with danger, and flexible daily schedules, adopting a nocturnal pattern in areas of human activity. In the late 1990 s, populations of Central Bushbucks in Ivory Coast and Cameroon were said to be expanding into areas of abandoned cultivation and former primary forest that had been harvested. In Liberia, the Central Bushbuck is considered an agricultural pest.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139950FFEC03D2F500FDF7F35E.taxon	materials_examined	Bor, on the White Nile, Bahr-el-Ghazal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139950FFEC03D2F500FDF7F35E.taxon	discussion	The Nile Bushbuck was formerly considered a subspecies of T. scriptus, but it is diagnostically different from other bushbucks. The mtDNA support for this clade is 90 %. Apparently, there is, or was, gene flow between bor and sylvaticus in the southern part of Queen Elizabeth National Park, south-western Uganda, which led to the description of the subspecies sassae (here, a synonym of 7. sylvaticus). Bushbucks from the northern part of the Park (the Mweya Peninsula) are considered here to be the Nile Bushbuck. Most of the ecological and behavioral research on bushbucks has been conducted there. Synonyms of the Nile Bushbuck include cottoni, meridionalis, dodingae, locorinae, laticeps, and wellensis. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139950FFEC03D2F500FDF7F35E.taxon	distribution	Distribution. E Central African Republic, extreme NE DR Congo, S Sudan, W Uganda, NW Kenya, and Rwanda. The Nile Bushbuck may range further west than illustrated here because recent genetic analyses by Y. Moodley and colleagues suggest it can occur in all of the Central African Republic and southern Chad. More research is required to clearly establish the ranges of the Nile Bushbuck and the Central Bushbuck (T. phaleratus).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139950FFEC03D2F500FDF7F35E.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 117 - 145 cm (males) and 114 - 132 cm (females), tail 19 - 24 cm, shoulder height 64 - 100 cm (males) and 61 - 85 cm (females); weight 40 - 80 kg (males) and 24 - 60 kg (females). These measurements are general for the bushbuck group and should be considered provisional until further information is available for individual species. Tragelaphines are typified by their sexual dimorphism, and the weight of male bushbucks, in general, is about 160 % that of females. Bushbucks are the smallest tragelaphines, with large ears and eyes and a rather round, crested back. Their hindquarters tend to be higher and more robust that their forequarters. The color of the Nile Bushbuck is more ocher (pale yellowish-brown) with no dark suffusion of the hairs on the neck and less red than the Western Bushbuck (7. scriptus) and the Central Bushbuck, and the transverse stripes — there are up to ten — are less distinct, especially on old individuals. The dorsal crestis black. The upper longitudinal band is short or absent, and the lower one is generally broken into spots and streaks. Several haunch spots are usually present, along with a white mark on the throat. White markings on the legs are generally well developed. Inguinal glands occur ahead of the mammae, but there are no false hoof glands. The tail is relatively short, long-haired, and bushy, dorsally colored the same as the back, white underneath, and usually tipped in black. Only males have keeled horns, which are nearly straight, generally with only one or slightly more twists. Horn lengths of the Nile Bushbuck are 23 - 25 cm. Average total length of the skull is 23 - 8 cm. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32. Diploid numbers for the bushbuck group are 33 for males and 34 for females.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139950FFEC03D2F500FDF7F35E.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. As a group, bushbucks are the most ubiquitous hoofed mammals in Africa, but because of their relatively solitary nature (particularly males), relatively small size, tendency to freeze and blend into their surroundings, and preference for forest and forest edge, they are difficult to observe and census. Bushbucks are usually found near free water, which may be as much a reflection of their preferred forested habitats thriving near water as a physiological need. The Nile Bushbuck occurs in a variety of habitats and at various elevations. For example, in Volcanoes National Park on the border of Rwanda and the DR Congo, Nile Bushbucks occur in all eight available habitats at elevations of 3100 - 3600 m, with seasonal variation. Densities in the forested habitat in the saddle between two volcanic craters, estimated from fecal counts, ranged from 38 - 7 ind / km? in September — - November to 53 - 6 ind / km? in June-August. In alpine habitat at 3400 - 3600 m, densities ranged from 8 ind / km? in June-August to 13 - 6 ind / km? in March-May. On the Mweya Peninsula in Queen Elizabeth National Park in south-western Uganda, forest thickets and grasslands with a preferred woody herbaceous species (Indigofera) were used.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139950FFEC03D2F500FDF7F35E.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Beginning in the early 1970 s and continuing to the present, several important investigations on the Nile Bushbuck on the Mweya Peninsula in Queen Elizabeth National Park, south-western Uganda, have added significant ecological and behavioral insights that are probably applicable to many of the bushbuck species. In the late 1970 s, Nile Bushbucks there ate 27 herbaceous plants, five shrub species, and three grass species throughout the year; two shrubs, Erythrococcus bongensis and Capparis tomentosa, were eaten in all seasons, but herbaceous plants were preferred during the wet season. During three years of study, dry season diets averaged 59: 3 % shrubs and 40 - 7 % herbs, and wet season diets averaged 29 - 9 % shrubs and 62 - 7 % herbs. Daily feeding locations were small, wooded, and near water or gullies. In recent years, Nile Bushbucks on the Mweya Peninsula ate 43 plant species with seasonal variation: 18 perennial woody herbs, 13 annual herbs, eight shrub species, two tree species, and two climbing herbaceous plants. Relative to time spent feeding as an index to diet, four plants accounted for the greatest percentage of the diet but varied seasonally: during the wet season, 317 % Dichrostachys cinerea (tree), 30 - 6 % Indigofera spp. (perennial woody herb), 11 - 3 % Pavetta albertina (shrub), and 7 - 2 % Fluggea virosa (shrub); during the dry season, the percentages of the diet were 7 - 8 %, 27 - 3 %, 14 -: 3 %, and 14 - 6 %, respectively.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139950FFEC03D2F500FDF7F35E.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Recent and detailed research on the Mweya Peninsula, Uganda, has provided the greatest insights into the breeding characteristics and behavioral repertoire of the Nile Bushbuck to date, but their general applicability to the bushbuck group range-wide remains to be studied and will be a fruitful endeavor for the future. Female Nile Bushbucks are organized in matrilineal clans, and males are territorial. Male Nile Bushbucks display agonistic behavior toward one another throughout the year, in part because breeding can take place at any time. Lateral displays of varying intensity are the most common behavior. Other important behaviors include threat displays (lowand medial-horn presentations), overt aggression (fake attack or low horn-to-horn combat), chasing, and escorting. Escorting was newly described for male Nile Bushbuck on the Mweya Peninsula in 1999 - 2002; it involves a series of the other behaviors mentioned above coupled with a “ pursuit march ” while the territorial male escorts another mature male or subadult male from his territory. Female Nile Bushbucks also show aggressive behavior toward each other, most commonly with head butting, snout thrusting, neck winding, and jumping toward another with raised head and ears held back. Mutual grooming is common among females, particularly mothers and their offspring. Mating behaviors of the Nile Bushbuck on the Mweya Peninsula and other bushbuck species are understated relative to other tragelaphines. Courtship by the male involves a form of lateral display without the dorsal crest or tail erect or the back arched, often while uttering an infantlike twittering call. A courting male will approach a female rather quickly in a low-stretch position with his horns held back on his neck, as if to hide them. Females act submissively or defensively depending on their readiness to breed. Genital and urine testing, followed by lip curling of the males, are common. A male may draw alongside the female in a “ mating march, ” rubbing his cheek and perhaps scent on the female’s hindquarters. As with other tragelaphines, the male rests his chin on the back and hindquarters of the female before mounting. On the Mweya Peninsula in the early 2000 s, individual female Nile Bushbucks produced 0 - 3 - 1 - 6 offspring / year, or a mean birth rate of 0 - 65 - 0 - 89 offspring / year. Young bushbucks remain hidden after birth and select their own hiding places. Females determine the timing and frequency of nursing; typically, a female will nurse her young for 5 - 10 minutes 2 - 5 times per day. Young are weaned at 4 - 6 months.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139950FFEC03D2F500FDF7F35E.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. The Nile Bushbuck displays an alternating pattern of feeding followed by resting / ruminating and can be nocturnal in some areas. In the early 1970 s, Nile Bushbucks on the Mweya Peninsula were said to be less active during the day than during the night. Males rested (standing or lying) more during the day (07: 00 - 17: 00 h, peaking at 08: 00 - 13: 00 h) than females (peaks at 07: 00 - 10: 00 h, 13: 00 - 15: 00 h, and 17: 00 - 19: 00 h). Males fed actively from 23: 00 h to 03: 00 h. While foraging, Nile Bushbuck tended to remain close to shrubby cover; 52 % of bushbuck observations were within five meters of cover. Later studies noted that Nile Bushbucks were equally active day and night and alternated activity periods every 2 - 5 hours throughout the 24 hour cycle. On average, they were active 23 - 2 % of the time and lying, standing, and ruminating 76 - 8 % of the time; no differences were detected between sexes, among age classes, or during the wet and dry seasons. Unlike earlier studies, daily activity patterns of adult males, but not subadult males, were strongly associated with activity of females. Subadult males tended to be more active when adult males were not. Activity of Nile Bushbucks on the Mweya Peninsula generally peaked in the morning and evening, with resting periods from 08: 00 h to 17: 00 h and then again from 21: 00 h to 24: 00 h. No association of activity and sunlight intensity was noted, nor between nocturnal activity and phase of the moon.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139950FFEC03D2F500FDF7F35E.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. On the Mweya Peninsula in the 1970 s, Nile Bushbucks moved 193 - 947 m while foraging during the day, and night time foraging movements were greater, at 1095 - 1233 m. More recent work there in the early 2000 s showed that female densities increased with increasing canopy cover but home range sizes decreased. Such cover was related to avoidance of predators such as Lions (Panthera leo), Leopards (P. pardus), and Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta). Female densities in matrilineal clans were 6 - 7 - 19 - 6 ind / km?. In the same studies, female Nile Bushbucks claimed a home range in their natal area and associated most often with related females; home ranges of related females overlapped a great deal and overlapped less with those of unrelated individuals. Aggressive behavior was more frequent between unrelated females. Mature male Nile Bushbucks (more than five years old) lacked a linear dominance hierarchy among themselves; rather, they defended a home range from other males, particularly a core area that they scent-marked by rubbing oily secretions from their horn bases and cheeks. Locations of scent marking were focused on deliberate sites within a core area that was about 50 % of a male’s home range. Male home ranges overlapped those of females, and the size of a male’s territory expanded when more potential mates were available. With expanding territory size, however, intrusion pressure from neighboring territory holders, also attempting to gain mates, increased. Overt aggression between mature males was rare but occurred when a territory holder was challenged. Mature males attempted to dominate subadult non-terrritorial males (3 - 5 year olds), but copulation rates were not different between them. Subadults were able to participate in breeding by adopting a sneaking strategy while mature males were preoccupied with scent marking and defending their territory from other mature males. Subadult males with longer horns copulated more often than those with shorter horns. Only future research will determine how many of the bushbuck species display these patterns. As with other bushbuck species, the Nile Bushbuck is seen most often alone or in mother — offspring pairs. Like some other bovids, male and female Nile Bushbucks, particularly females, repeatedly defecate and urinate at the same location. The purpose of these latrines seems to be related to intersexual communication rather than territorial marking.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139950FFEC03D2F500FDF7F35E.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under T: scriptus), which does not differentiate the eight species identified here. In the late 1990 s, the number of bushbucks range-wide was estimated conservatively at over 1 - 34 million, and they were not particularly dependent on conservation initiatives, such as protected areas, if adequate cover and water were available. Bushbuck populations are considered stable range-wide, but in localized areas, some populations have decreased because of excessive illegal harvest, destruction of native habitats as human populations and livestock numbers have increased, and increased aridity. Generally, however, bushbucks can do well in areas of human habitation because of their secretive nature, non-herding tendencies, cryptic coat patterning and tendency to freeze and blend into their surroundings when faced with danger, and their adopting a nocturnal pattern in areas of human activity. Nile Bushbucks remain common throughout their range.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139957FFEC034DF2A5FA77F2FD.taxon	materials_examined	Abyssinia, W Ethiopia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139957FFEC034DF2A5FA77F2FD.taxon	discussion	The Lake Tana Bushbuck was formerly considered a subspecies of T. scriptus, but diagnostically different from other bushbucks. The Lake Tana Bushbuck is a mountain endemic and evidently a species of hybrid origin because it has the phenotype of the sylvaticus group but the mtDNA of the scriptus group. Synonyms of the Lake Tana Bushbuck include multicolor, nigrinotatis, and fulvo-ochraceus. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139957FFEC034DF2A5FA77F2FD.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Mainly in lowland Ethiopia but also likely in S Eritrea, SW Djibouti, and extreme SE Sudan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139957FFEC034DF2A5FA77F2FD.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 117 - 145 cm (males) and 114 - 132 cm (females), tail 19 - 24 cm, shoulder height 64 - 100 cm (males) and 61 - 85 cm (females); weight 40 - 80 kg (males) and 24 - 60 kg (females). These measurements are general for the bushbuck group and should be considered provisional until further information is available for individual species. Tragelaphines are typified by their sexual dimorphism, and the weight of male bushbucks, in general, is about 160 % of that of females. Bushbucks are the smallest tragelaphines, with large ears and eyes and a rather round, crested back. Their hindquarters tend to be higher and more robust than their forequarters. The color of both sexes of the Lake Tana Bushbuck is ocher to yellowor sandy-brown, often with a dark suffusion of the hairs on the back and a black dorsal crest. The white markings typical of the Western Bushbuck (7. scriptus) are indistinct on the Lake Tana Bushbuck, fading completely in old animals, with the exception of some haunch spots and two white spots, one below the eye and the other on the lower jaw. Two longitudinal bands are often visible in young animals. Both sexes have a fully haired neck, a white throat-patch, and sometimes a white breast-patch. The fronts of forelegs are black, with white on the fronts of the knees. Inguinal glands occur ahead of the mammae, but there are no false hoof glands. Tails are relatively short, long-haired, and bushy, dorsally colored the same as the back, white underneath, and usually tipped in black. Only males have keeled horns, which are nearly straight with generally only one or slightly more twists. The average length of the horns of the Lake Tana Bushbuck is about 25 cm. Average total length of the skull is 22 - 3 cm. Dental formula is I 0 / 3, Co 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32. Diploid numbers for the bushbuck group are 33 for males and 34 for females.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139957FFEC034DF2A5FA77F2FD.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. As a group, bushbucks are the most ubiquitous hoofed mammals in Africa, but because of their relatively solitary nature (particularly males), relatively small size, tendency to freeze and cryptically blend into their surroundings, and preference for forest and forest edge, they are difficult to observe and census. According to Y. Moodley and M. W. Bruford, the Eritrean Sahellian Acacia Savanna and the Somali Acacia Commaphora Brushland and Thicket ecoregions are occupied exclusively by the Lake Tana Bushbuck haplogroup. They are usually found near free water, which may be as much a reflection of their preferred forested habitats thriving near water as a physiological need.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139957FFEC034DF2A5FA77F2FD.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably, like other bushbuck species it eats a variety of shrubs, legumes, and other herbaceous plants as well as new-growth of grasses. Bushbucks are fond of the fruits of various trees and can be observed feeding on fallen fruits under trees in which baboons and other monkeys are foraging. In various locations, bushbucks are agricultural pests, eating various crops by night.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139957FFEC034DF2A5FA77F2FD.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Bushbucks have been described as the most socially primitive of the tragelaphines and are typically thought of as non-terrritorial polygynous breeders (see the Nile Bushbuck for the most thorough studies of breeding behavior).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139957FFEC034DF2A5FA77F2FD.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Few specifics have been reported for the Lake Tana Bushbuck, but activity patterns are probably comparable to the general bushbuck pattern; crepuscular and nocturnal, spending much of the day resting / ruminating in forest cover, often alone or mother — offspring pairs.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139957FFEC034DF2A5FA77F2FD.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is little specific information available for this species, but it is probably comparable to other bushbuck species (see the Nile Bushbuck for the most through studies of these characteristics). Bushbucks do not range over a wide area. Home ranges are not exclusive, but individuals do have their own, apparently exclusive, places to rest during the day. Although not aggressive to one another, regular social interactions among bushbucks are largely confined to mother — offspring pairs and male — females during rut.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139957FFEC034DF2A5FA77F2FD.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under 7. scriptus), which does not differentiate the eight species identified here. Some localized populations of bushbucks have decreased because of excessive illegal harvest, destruction of native habitats as human populations and livestock numbers have increased, and increased aridity. Generally, however, bushbucks can do well in areas of human habitation because of their secretive nature, non-herding tendencies, cryptic coat patterning and tendency to freeze and blend into their surroundings when faced with danger, and flexible daily schedules, adopting a nocturnal pattern in areas of human activity. Bushbuck populations are considered stable range-wide. The Lake Tana Bushbuckis one of the least known of the bushbuck species, so future research is required to establish its population characteristics and conservation needs.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139956FFED03D8FE8AFEFEF201.taxon	materials_examined	Gara Mulatta, Burka and Jaffa ranges, upper Webi watershed, Ethiopia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139956FFED03D8FE8AFEFEF201.taxon	discussion	The Ethiopian Highlands Bushbuck appears to be a highland endemic. It was formerly considered a subspecies of T. scriptus, but it is diagnostically different from other bushbucks. A synonym of the Ethiopian Highlands Bushbuck is powell. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139956FFED03D8FE8AFEFEF201.taxon	distribution	Distribution. C Ethiopian Highlands.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139956FFED03D8FE8AFEFEF201.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 117 - 145 cm (males) and 114 - 132 cm (females), tail 19 - 24 cm, shoulder height 64 - 100 cm (males) and 61 - 85 cm (females); weight 40 - 80 kg (males) and 24 - 60 kg (females). These measurements are general for the bushbuck group and should be considered provisional until further information is available for individual species. Tragelaphines are typified by their sexual dimorphism, and the weight of males is generally about 160 % of that of females. Bushbucks are the smallest tragelaphines with large ears and eyes and a rather round, crested back. Their hindquarters tend to be higher and more robust that their forequarters. Ethiopian Highlands Bushbucksare tall, standing 74 - 9 cm at the shoulders. Adult males are dark brown to black, with no white except in the armpit and the occasional 2 - 3 indistinct white flecks on the haunches and above the hooves. Very occasionally, there are traces of white lines down the forelegs, and there is an imperfect white chevron between the eyes. The dorsal crest is black, with the slightest presence of white. Female Ethiopian Highlands Bushbucks are a pale red (pale brown rufous) with a tendency for the white markings to be more evident than on males. In both sexes, the coat, including the neck, is long, full, and shining. Inguinal glands occur ahead of the mammae, but there are no false hoof glands. The tails are relatively short, long-haired, and bushy, colored the same as the back dorsally, but white below, and usually tipped in black. Only males have keeled horns, which are nearly straight with generally only one or slightly more twists. The average length of the horns of the Ethiopian Highlands Bushbuck is about 26 - 27 cm. Average total length of the skull is 22 - 8 cm. Dental formula is 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32. Diploid numbers for the bushbuck group are 33 for males and 34 for females.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139956FFED03D8FE8AFEFEF201.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. As a group, bushbucks are the most ubiquitous hoofed mammals in Africa, but because of their relatively solitary nature (particularly males), relatively small size, tendency to freeze and cryptically blend into their surroundings, and preference for forest and forest edge, they are difficult to observe and census. According to Y. Moodley and M. W. Bruford, the Ethiopian Montane Grassland / Woodland and Ethiopian Montane Moorland ecoregions of east-central Africa are occupied exclusively by the Ethiopian Highlands Bushbuck haplogroup. They are usually found near free water, which may be as much a reflection of their preferred forested habitats thriving near water as a physiological need.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139956FFED03D8FE8AFEFEF201.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but it is probably similar to other bushbuck species that eat a variety of shrubs, legumes, and other herbaceous plants as well as new-growth of grasses. They are fond of the fruits of various trees and can be observed feeding on fallen fruits under trees where baboons and other monkeys are foraging. In some places, bushbucks eat various crops by night and are considered agricultural pests.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139956FFED03D8FE8AFEFEF201.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Bushbucks have been described as the most socially primitive of the tragelaphines and are typically thought of as a non-terrritorial polygynous breeder (see the Nile Bushbuck for the most thorough studies of breeding behavior).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139956FFED03D8FE8AFEFEF201.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is little specific information available for this species, but activity patterns are probably comparable to the general bushbuck pattern, being crepuscular and nocturnal and spending much of the day resting / ruminating in forest cover, often alone, or pairs of mother — offspring.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139956FFED03D8FE8AFEFEF201.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is little specific information available for this species, but it is probably comparable to other bushbuck species. Bushbucks do not range over a wide area. Home ranges are not exclusive, but individuals do have their own, apparently exclusive, place to rest during the day. They are not aggressive to one another, and regular social interactions are largely confined to mother — offspring pairs and male — females during rut.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139956FFED03D8FE8AFEFEF201.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under 7. scriptus), which does not differentiate the eight species identified here. In localized areas, some populations of bushbucks have decreased because of excessive illegal harvest, destruction of native habitats as human populations and livestock numbers have increased, and increased aridity. Generally, however, bushbucks can do well in areas of human habitation because of their secretive nature, non-herding tendencies, cryptic coat patterning and tendency to freeze and blend in with their surroundings when faced with danger. Their flexible daily schedules permit them to adopt a nocturnal pattern in areas of human activity. Bushbuck populations are considered stable rangewide. The Ethiopian Highlands Bushbuck is one of the least known of the bushbuck species, so future research is required to establish its population characteristics and conservation needs.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139956FFEE06D3FE8BFD77FE26.taxon	materials_examined	Sen Morettu, Webi Valley, Gallaland.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139956FFEE06D3FE8BFD77FE26.taxon	discussion	The mtDNA of two specimens of the Eastern Coastal Bushbuck (one from Tana River and one from Mona Mofa in Somalia) clustered with a T. sylvaticus specimen (ascribed to roualeyni) from Thabazimbi, Limpopo, South Africa. Two other specimens from Mona Mofa clustered with a number of T. sylvaticus specimens from localities in Tanzania, Malawi, and Zimbabwe, which suggests a history of introgression between this species and T. sylvaticus. The Eastern Coastal Bushbuck was formerly considered a subspecies of T. scriptus, but it is diagnostically different from other bushbucks. Synonyms of the Eastern Coastal Bushbuck include olivaceus and reidae. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139956FFEE06D3FE8BFD77FE26.taxon	distribution	Distribution. SE Ethiopia, Somalia, E Kenya, and NE Tanzania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139956FFEE06D3FE8BFD77FE26.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 117 - 145 cm (males) and 114 - 132 cm (females), tail 19 — 24 cm, shoulder height 64 - 100 cm (males) and 61 - 85 cm (females); weight 40 - 80 kg (males) and 24 - 60 kg (females). These measurements are general for the bushbuck group and should be considered provisional until further information is available for individual species. Tragelaphines are sexually dimorphic, and males generally weigh about 160 % of the weight of females. Bushbucks are the smallest tragelaphines. They have large ears and eyes and a rather round crested back, and their hindquarters tend to be higher and more robust than their forequarters. Male Eastern Coastal Bushbucks are dark gray-brown on the back and gray on sides, females are yellowish, and young are rufous. Both sexes have 4 - 6 white stripes that are generally distinct, a broken longitudinal white flank-band, and many white haunch spots. There is no black on the crown and nose. Females have a chevron between the eyes. Inguinal glands occur ahead of the mammae, but there are no false hoof glands. Tails are relatively short, long-haired, and bushy, dorsally colored the same as the back, white underneath, and usually tipped in black. Only males have keeled horns, which are nearly straight with generally only one or slightly more twists. Average length of the horns of the Eastern Coastal Bushbuck is about 34 - 35 cm. Average total length of the skull is 25 - 3 cm. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32. Diploid numbers for the bushbuck group are 33 for males and 34 for females.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139956FFEE06D3FE8BFD77FE26.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. As a group, bushbucks are the most ubiquitous hoofed mammals in Africa, but because of their relatively solitary nature (particularly males), relatively small size, tendency to freeze and cryptically blend into their surroundings, and preference for forest and forest edge, they are difficult to observe and census. According to Y. Moodley and M. W. Bruford, the Northern Zanzibar-Inhambane Coastal Forest Mosaic ecoregion is occupied, but not exclusively, by the Eastern Coastal Bushbuck haplogroup. They are usually found near free water, which may be as much a reflection of their preferred forested habitats thriving near water as a physiological need.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139956FFEE06D3FE8BFD77FE26.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but its feeding habits are probably comparable to other bushbuck species, which eat a variety of shrubs, legumes, and other herbaceous plants as well as new-growth of grasses. They are fond of the fruits of various trees and can be observed feeding on fallen fruits under trees where baboons and other monkeys are foraging. In various locations, bushbucks are agricultural pests eating various crops by night.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139956FFEE06D3FE8BFD77FE26.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Bushbucks have been described as the most socially primitive of the tragelaphines and are typically thought of as non-terrritorial polygynous breeders (but see the Nile Bushbuck for the most thorough studies of breeding behavior).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139956FFEE06D3FE8BFD77FE26.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There islittle specific information available for this species, but activity patterns are probably comparable to the general bushbuck pattern, being crepuscular and nocturnal and spending much of the day resting / ruminating in forest cover, often alone, or pairs of mother — offspring.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139956FFEE06D3FE8BFD77FE26.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is little specific information available for this species, but it is probably comparable to other bushbuck species (see the Nile Bushbuck for the most thorough studies of these characteristics). Bushbucks do not range over a wide area. Home ranges are not exclusive, but individuals do have their own, apparently exclusive, place to rest during the day. Although not aggressive to one another, regular social interactions among bushbucks are largely confined to mother — offspring pairs and male — females during rut.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139956FFEE06D3FE8BFD77FE26.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under 1. scriptus), which does not differentiate the eight species identified here. In the late 1990 s, numbers of bushbucks range-wide were estimated conservatively at over 1 - 34 million and they were not particularly dependent on conservation initiatives, such as protected areas, if adequate cover and water were available. Bushbuck populations are considered stable range-wide, although in localized areas, some populations have decreased because of excessive illegal harvest, destruction of native habitats as human populations and livestock numbers have increased, and increased aridity. Generally, however, bushbucks can do well in areas of human habitation because of their secretive nature, non-herding tendencies, cryptic coat patterning and tendency to freeze and blend in with their surroundings when faced with danger. They are flexible as to daily schedules, adopting a nocturnal pattern in areas of human activity. Subsistence hunting in Arabuko-Sokoke Forest in south-eastern Kenya reduced the Eastern Coastal Bushbuck to very low levels by the mid- 1990 s. Habitat loss to agriculture and likely civil unrest has reduced numbers of the Eastern Cape Bushbuck in Somalia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139955FFEE0377FE72F6CEFA4D.taxon	materials_examined	Lanyanti, Chobe River between Lake Ngami and the Zambezi.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139955FFEE0377FE72F6CEFA4D.taxon	discussion	The Chobe Bushbuck was formerly considered a subspecies of T. scriptus, but it is diagnostically different from other bushbucks. The mtDNA support for a clade containing specimens from Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, and Angola was 94 % and support for the Angola and non-Angola clades also had support values of 97 and 98 %, respectively. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139955FFEE0377FE72F6CEFA4D.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S DR Congo, W Burundi, W Tanzania, Angola (except extreme SW), Zambia, Malawi, extreme NW & WC Mozambique, NE Namibia (Caprivi Strip), N Botswana, and N Zimbabwe.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139955FFEE0377FE72F6CEFA4D.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 117 - 145 cm (males) and 114 - 132 cm (females), tail 19 - 24 cm, shoulder height 64 - 100 cm (males) and 61 - 85 cm (females); weight 40 - 80 kg (males) and 24 - 60 kg (females). These measurements are general for the bushbuck group and should be considered provisional until further information is available for individual species. Tragelaphines are typified by their sexual dimorphism, and the weight of males, in general, is about 160 % of that of females. Bushbucks are the smallest tragelaphines, with large ears and eyes and a rather round, crested back. Their hindquarters tend to be higher and more robust than their forequarters. Male Chobe Bushbucks are rich dark rufous, becoming black on withers. The dorsal crest is white. They have 6 - 8 white transverse stripes and many haunch spots, but longitudinal bands, particularly the upper bands, are faint or represented only by a row of spots. The outer sides of the legs are blackish above the knees and hocks and reddish below. The inner sides of the legs are white, with a broad black garter above the knees and hocks. There is a white stripe from the knees and hocks to the pasterns. Female Chobe Bushbucks are pale red-brown and have as few as three transverse stripes. Inguinal glands occur ahead of the mammae, but there are no false hoof glands. Tails are relatively short, long-haired, and bushy, and the same color as the back, but white underneath and usually with a black tip. Only males have keeled horns, which are nearly straight with generally only one or slightly more twists. Average length of the horns of the Chobe Bushbuck is about 30 cm. Average total length of the skull is 24 - 3 cm. Dental formula is 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32. Eight subadult age classes from one month of age to 30 months can be deciphered from the sequence of eruption and replacement of deciduous to permanent teeth in the Chobe Bushbuck, likely comparable to other bushbuck species. Both the upper and lower molars begin to erupt at 4 - 5 months of age and by seven months, they have fully emerged. By 21 - 26 months of age, all premolars and molars except P *, P ,, and M ” have fully emerged. At 30 months, all permanent teeth are present. Beyond 30 months, wear classes from light to extra heavy relative to counts of cementum annuli makeit possible to age Chobe Bushbucks from 3 - 10 years of age. Diploid numbers for the bushbuck group are 33 for males and 34 for females.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139955FFEE0377FE72F6CEFA4D.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Generally, bushbuck species prefer forest cover and forest edge, or at least areas that provide dense cover. In the mid-Zambezi valley of Zimbabwe, where the artificially impounded Lake Kariba has altered downstream habitats, the Chobe Bushbuck uses perennial tall-grass (Vetiveria nigritana) habitats in the absence ofits typical preferred thick brush and forest habitat. Similarly, Chobe Bushbucks use thickets invaded by M: mosa following years of excessive livestock grazing in the Chobe National Park, Botswana. According to Y. Moodley and M. W. Bruford, the Zambezian Miombo Woodlands, Kalahari Acacia-Baikiaea Woodland, Western Zambezian and Mopane Woodland, and Zambezian Baikiaeca Woodlands are occupied exclusively by the Chobe Bushbuck haplogroup. They are usually found near free water, which may be as much a reflection of their preferred forested habitats thriving near water as a physiological need.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139955FFEE0377FE72F6CEFA4D.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, butits diet is probably comparable to other bushbuck species, which eat a variety of shrubs, legumes, and other plants. In Chobe National Park, Botswana, Chobe Bushbucks that were feeding and drinking were associated with Chacma Baboons (Papio ursinus) in 35 % of 167 observations, suggesting a commensalism. They were rarely associated with other ungulates in the area, such as Ellipsen Waterbucks (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) and Common Impalas (Aepyceros melampus). In Botswana, Chobe Bushbucks have been observed under sausage trees (Kigelia pinnata) where Vervet Monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) were feeding on flowers. Such relationships can be symbiotic in that each mammal alerts the other to potential dangers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139955FFEE0377FE72F6CEFA4D.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Bushbucks have been described as the most socially primitive of the tragelaphines and typically are thought of as non-terrritorial polygynous breeders. In northern Zimbabwe, spermatogenesis in male Chobe Bushbucks started and the first ovulations in females occurred at about eleven months of age. Physiologically, reproductive activity did not wane as Chobe Bushbucks aged, even up to 11: 6 years in males and 9 - 5 years in females. Births peaked in October-November, suggesting peak breeding in April-May at the end of the rainy season and a gestation of about six months.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139955FFEE0377FE72F6CEFA4D.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There islittle specific information available for this species, but presumably these animals are crepuscular and nocturnal and spend much of the day resting / ruminating in forest cover, alone or in mother — offspring pairs, as is the case with other bushbuck species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139955FFEE0377FE72F6CEFA4D.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is little specific information available on the movements and home range of the Chobe Bushbuck, but they probably are comparable to other bushbuck species. Generally, bushbucks do not range over a wide area, and home ranges are not exclusive, but individuals may have their own, apparently exclusive, place to rest during the day. In Chobe National Park, Botswana, 72 % of 167 observations of Chobe Bushbuck were ofsolitary individuals; males had a tendency to occur alone more than females, and the sex ratio was equal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139955FFEE0377FE72F6CEFA4D.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under 1. scriptus), which does not differentiate the eight species identified here. In the late 1990 s, number of bushbucks range-wide was estimated conservatively at over 1 - 34 million and they were not particularly dependent on conservation initiatives such as protected areas if adequate cover and water were available. Bushbuck populations are considered stable range-wide, although in localized areas, some populations have decreased because of excessive illegal harvest, destruction of native habitats as human populations and livestock numbers have increased, and increased aridity. Generally, however, bushbucks can do well in areas of human habitation because of their secretive nature, non-herding tendencies, cryptic coat patterning and tendency to freeze and blend in with their surroundings when faced with danger, and flexible daily schedules, adopting a nocturnal pattern in areas of human activity. According to population estimates accumulated in the late 1990 s, numbers of the Chobe Bushbuck may be the lowest of the bushbuck species, and poaching pressure may be a primary cause. Despite this, the Chobe Bushbuck may be expanding in the equatorial forest zone as clearing for settlement and wood products opens the closed canopy.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139955FFEF064FF997F8D5F8D6.taxon	materials_examined	Groot Vatersbosch District, southern Cape, Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139955FFEF064FF997F8D5F8D6.taxon	discussion	The Cape Bushbuck was formerly considered a subspecies of T. scriptus, but it is diagnostically different from other bushbucks. Variation in coat color and patterning among populations of Cape Bushbuck suggest some gene flow with the Nile Bushbuck (T. bor). Because of the pale color of Cape Bushbuck from Mount Elgon (comparable to the Ethiopian Highlands Bushbuck), they may be a separate species, but additional specimens need to be evaluated. Synonyms of the Cape Bushbuck include delamerer, roualeynei, massaicus, dama, haywoodi, meruensis, tjaederi, brunneus, eldomae, dianae, simplex, sassae, makalae, barkeri, and heterochrous. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139955FFEF064FF997F8D5F8D6.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Extreme S Sudan, E Uganda, W Kenya, E Rwanda, E Burundi, Tanzania, S Malawi, Mozambique, C & S Zimbabwe, E Botswana, Swaziland, and E & S South Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139955FFEF064FF997F8D5F8D6.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 117 - 145 cm (males) and 114 - 132 cm (females), tail 19 - 24 cm, shoulder height 64 - 100 cm (males) and 61 - 85 cm (females); weight 40 - 80 kg (males) and 24 - 60 kg (females). These measurements are general for the bushbuck group and should be considered provisional until further information is available for individual species. Tragelaphines are sexually dimorphic, and the weight of male bushbucks, in general, is about 160 % of that of females. Bushbucks are the smallest tragelaphines; they have large ears and eyes and a rather round, crested back. Their hindquarters tend to be higher and more robust than their forequarters. Cape Bushbucks have the greatest variation in color and patterning, some of which may represent gene flow between adjoining species. Older male Cape Bushbucks are deep brown to blackish-brown, with grayish sides and more chestnut above. Younger males are more red-brown than older males. The forehead of the Cape Bushbuck is blackbrown, and the nose is black, with two white suborbital spots. Cape Bushbucks have a white mark on the throat, and white spots, usually indistinct, occur on the face and haunches. In adult males, there is little or no trace of transverse or longitudinal stripes. Females are dark yellow-brown to reddish, tending to be paler on the shoulders and upper forelegs; they often have distinct traces of stripes. Males from Mount Elgon tend to be more of a dark red-brown; both sexes have almost no white except for some haunch spots. However, the color of some individuals from Mount Elgon can be very similar to the paler color of the Ethiopian Highlands Bushbuck. Cape Bushbucks from western Uganda and eastern DR Congo also tend to be paler, with clear white markings; they generally have a white longitudinal band represented by a line offlecks possibly because of some gene flow from the Nile Bushbuck. This also may be the case for the type originally named sassae, which is ocher-brown with a hint of rufous, and faint but distinct white stripes. Inguinal glands occur ahead of the mammae, but there are no false hoof glands. The tail is relatively short, long-haired, and bushy, with the dorsal color the same as the back. The underside is white underneath, and usually the tip is black. Only males have keeled horns, which are nearly straight, with generally only one or slightly more twists. Horns become apparent at about six months of age. The average length of the horns of the Cape Bushbuck is 29 - 5 cm and the average total length of the skull is about 24 - 3 cm. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32. Diploid numbers for the bushbuck group are 33 for males and 34 for females.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139955FFEF064FF997F8D5F8D6.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. As a group, bushbucks are the most ubiquitous hoofed mammals in Africa, but because of their relatively solitary nature (particularly males), relatively small size, tendency to freeze and cryptically blend into their surroundings, and preference for forest and forest edge, they are difficult to observe and census. Cape Bushbucks used six different habitat types in the coastal dune Woody Cape Nature Reserve, South Africa. Most of their time was spent in three of these: they spent 38: 6 % of their time in river scrub, 21: 2 % in restored Acacia thickets, and 15 - 5 % in dune thickets. According to Y. Moodley and M. W. Bruford, the Knysa — Amatole Montane Forest, KwaZulu-Cape Coastal Forest Mosaic, Maputaland — Pondoland Brushland and Thicket, Albany Thicket, and Nama Karoo ecoregions of southern Africa are occupied exclusively by the Cape Bushbuck haplogroup.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139955FFEF064FF997F8D5F8D6.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Throughout the year, Cape Bushbucks in Woody Cape Nature Reserve, South Africa, ate 23 dicotyledonous species (70 - 98 % ofthe diet) and only three monocotyledons, which were consumed more in the winter than summer. The shrub Lycium afrum occurred in the diet every month of the year, from a low of 9 % ofthe diet in June to 33 % in August (based on fecal analysis), but on average, the shrub Schotia afra was most common in the diet. Feeding trials suggest that Cape Bushbucks prefer to obtain their forage at about head height (mean 52 - 5 cm), perhaps to maximize their ability to look out for predators. Unlike Chobe Bushbucks in Chobe National Park, Botswana, Cape Bushbucks in Nairobi National Park, Kenya regularly associated with Common Impalas (Aepyceros melampus). They also associated with Olive Baboons (Papio anubis). Both associations were thought to more related to mutual detection of danger than feeding. Cape Bushbucks have been tamed for captive feeding trials.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139955FFEF064FF997F8D5F8D6.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Bushbucks have been described as the most socially primitive of the tragelaphines and are typically thought of as non-terrritorial polygynous breeders. In Nairobi National Park, Kenya, adult males defended their association with an estrous female but were not territorial. Encounters between males often involve intimidation-type lateral displays featuring arched backs with dorsal crest erected, tail extended, and head up with ears lowered; sometimes males intermittently prance on their hindlegs. Low-intensity fighting between males occurs during chance encounters. Serious fighting, usually near females, involves clashes, locked horns with heads low to the ground, and frequent attempts to gore the flanks of an opponent. Males are physiologically mature at 12 - 15 months old, but unlikely to outcompete fully mature males for estrous females. Females breed for the first time at about one year of age; gestation is about six months. Births occur throughout the year in the Central Rift Valley Province, Kenya, with a slight tendency to be concentrated around rainy periods in April-May and October-November.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139955FFEF064FF997F8D5F8D6.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There islittle specific information available for this species, but activity patterns are probably comparable to the general bushbuck pattern of being crepuscular and nocturnal and spending much of the day resting / ruminating in forest cover, either alone or in mother — offspring pairs.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139955FFEF064FF997F8D5F8D6.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. As with the other species of bushbuck, Cape Bushbucks do not range over a wide area. Very small home ranges of 2 - 5 ha for females and 5 ha for males were noted in Nairobi National Park, Kenya; subadult males occupied larger home ranges of 20 ha. The density was high at 30 - 1 ind / km? *. Cape Bushbucks there were said to aggregate in “ loose family groups ” near forest edges, dams, and river pools, but mostly they were observed alone (53 - 7 % of about 399 observations), or as mother — offspring pairs (14: 5 %). In Valley Bushveld in KwaZulu, South Africa, the summer home ranges of male Cape Bushbucks were significantly larger (25 - 2 — 43 - 3 ha) than those of females (6 - 3 - 18 - 8 ha), but there were no obvious differences between subadult and adults. Home ranges in Valley Bushveld were not exclusive, but individual males and females confined much of their activity to small core areas; they used 12 to 17 % of their home ranges 50 % of the time. Although not aggressive to one another, regular social interactions among bushbucks are largely confined to mothers and their offspring and male — females during rut. In mixed ungulate assemblages in Lake Manyara National Park, northern Tanzania, Eastern Coastal Bushbucks are among the least common species, particularly relative to biomass (0 - 3 kg / ha).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139955FFEF064FF997F8D5F8D6.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under 1. scriptus), which does not differentiate the eight species identified here. In the late 1990 s, numbers of bushbucks range-wide were estimated conservatively at over 1 - 34 million, and they were not particularly dependent on conservation initiatives, such as protected areas, if adequate cover and water were available. Bushbuck populations are considered stable range-wide. Some localized populations have decreased because of excessive illegal harvest, destruction of native habitats as human populations and livestock numbers have increased, and increased aridity. Extinct in Lesotho. Generally, however, because bushbucks are non-herding and secretive by nature, with a cryptic coat pattern and a tendency to freeze and blend in with their surroundings when faced with danger, they can coexist with humans. Bushbucks also show flexibility in being able to become nocturnal where humans are active. The Cape Bushbuck has the greatest north-south range of any of the bushbuck species, and likely benefits from the great variety of conservation efforts and protected areas found in the countries throughoutits range.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139969FFD3034EFE89FBD4FEE1.taxon	materials_examined	Karagwe, E of Lake Victoria, Tanzania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139969FFD3034EFE89FBD4FEE1.taxon	discussion	The diploid number of the sitatunga group (30 for males and females) is lower than any of the other species in the tribe Tragelaphini. Given the sitatunga group’s dependence on discrete and often widely intermittent wetland habitats throughout a large geographical area in South and Central Africa from Gambia to Kenya, it is not surprising that these animals have differentiated into five distinct taxa. Many subspecies of T. spekii have been described, but most commonly five are recognized. Because of disparate skull, horn, and pelage coloring and patterning, spekii, sylvestris, larkenii, gratus, and selousi have been elevated to individual species here and below. This new separation of T. spekii into five species, each with its own nomenclatural history, makes demarcation of current ranges difficult. Now considered monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139969FFD3034EFE89FBD4FEE1.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Discontinuous and limited to wetland environments in SE Sudan, perhaps the Rift Valley of Ethiopia, W Kenya surrounding Lake Victoria (two locations, very rare), Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda, NW Tanzania, and NE DR Congo. Maps and distributional information here are provisional pending future research.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139969FFD3034EFE89FBD4FEE1.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 151 - 170 cm (males) and 135 - 144 cm (females), tail 20 - 26 cm, shoulder height 88 - 125 cm (males) and 75 - 90 cm (females); weight 75 — 125 kg (males) and 50 - 57 kg (females). Only head-body lengths are specific to the Lake Victoria Sitatunga; the other measurements are general for the sitatunga group and should be considered provisional until further information is available. Sitatungas are among the most sexually dimorphic tragelaphines, with males weighing as much as 170 % of the weight of females. Unique to the sitatunga group, the hooves of all but the Nkosi Island Sitatunga (7. sylvestris) are very elongated, with flexible toe joints and large false hooves that help prevent them from sinking into the mud and vegetation mats in their preferred swampy habitats but make them clumsy on dryland. Their pelage tends to be shaggy, oily, and water-repellent, and males develop a scraggly mane as they age. The coat of the Lake Victoria Sitatunga is said to be silky. White stripes and other spotting on the body, typical of many tragelaphines, are slight or lacking in both sexes of the Lake Victoria Sitatunga. Male and females are dissimilar in color. Males are medium gray-brown, and females are dull reddish-brown. Males have a prominent preorbital chevron and occasionally cheek spots, but females have no or faint preorbital markings. The dark dorsal crest of males only rarely has white on it. Females may have rump spots or flank spots, but they are generally faint. Young are a uniform yellow-brown or dull reddish-brown, with faint or no white marks; however, preorbital spots may be distinct in young females. The young are red on the head, but the neck is paler. Relative to other sitatungas, the skull of Lake Victoria Sitatunga is relatively small and the horns are long. Male-only keeled horns are spiraled 1 - 5 times and average about 55 cm in length, with maximum lengths of 81 - 90 cm on fully mature males. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139969FFD3034EFE89FBD4FEE1.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Sitatungas as a group, except the Nkosi Island Sitatunga, are described as semi-aquatic, limiting most of their activities to swamps, bogs, and marshes associated with rivers, streams, lakes, and lowland forests of poor drainage that are scattered intermittently throughout their range. They are excellent swimmers, will avoid danger by escaping into deep water, and are capable of submerging their entire body with little more than their nostrils above the surface. In the Rushebeya-Kanyabaha wetland complex in south-western Uganda, 49 % of the observations of Lake Victoria Sitatunga were made in wetland habitats, but it was clear that they made use of adjacent nonwetland areas (23 % of observations were in lightly open sedge / papyrus clearings). Open grasslands and, interestingly, very marshy and boggy areas were least preferred.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139969FFD3034EFE89FBD4FEE1.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Dietary assessments of all sitatunga species are difficult to make from direct feeding observations, which underrepresent forage obtained in forested areas that are used primarily at night and those obtained while they are concealed in swampy areas. Lake Victoria Sitatungas often feed immersed up to their backs in water and will stand on their hindlegs to reach preferred forage. In the Ituri Rainforest, DR Congo, isotopic analyses of plants and teeth of the Lake Victoria Sitatunga suggest a diet of plants primarily occurring in forest gaps and clearings. About 82 % of feeding observations of Lake Victoria Sitatungas in the Kipsain-Saiwa Swamp in western Kenya found them eating only four plant species: Typha domingensis (37 %), Hydrocotyle ranunculoides (20 %), Pycreus lanceus (14 %) and Oenanthe palustris (11 %). In the Rushebeya-Kanyabaha wetland complex in south-western Uganda, 40 plant species were eaten by Lake Victoria Sitatunga, and 60 % of their diet was made up of leaves, mostly from sedges (14 %, Cyperus latifolius and 10 %, C. papyrus), grasses (5 %, Digitaria scalarum), vines (7 %, Rubus pinnatus), and various herbaceousspecies, including cultivated sweet potato (7 %, Ipomoea batatas). Depredation of the sweet potato plants, particularly when they were young and tender, by the Lake Victoria Sitatunga was significant enough in fields adjacent to the wetland complex they used that farmers changed to planting of unpalatable crops such as sugarcane and pumpkins. Other crops that Lake Victoria Sitatungas damaged included Irish potato, maize, and cabbage. Distance from the wetland complex to cultivated fields played a role in levels of depredation; 90 % ofall observations of Lake Victoria Sitatungas were within 100 m of the wetland’s edge. New growth of plants after fires is attractive to Lake Victoria Sitatunga.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139969FFD3034EFE89FBD4FEE1.taxon	breeding	Breeding. In most locations, breeding behavior and births take place throughout the year. Breeding behavior of captive sitatungas in the Audubon Zoo, New Orleans, USA, presumed to be Lake Victoria Sitatungas, follows a pattern typical of the tragelaphine group. Males frequently horn the ground and vegetation and spar with other males with locked horns while pushing and twisting; this behavior did not seem to be serious fighting but rather “ play-fighting, ” perhaps to establish dominance. Males investigated the anogenital region of females daily, typically approaching in a low-stretch posture with neck extended and then sniffing and licking the females. If the female urinated, the male displayed the lip-curl response. Estrus lasted three days, during which a male was in constant contact with the female. Anogential investigations by the male became very vigorous, to the point oflifting her hindquarters off the ground. The male rested his chin on the female’s hindquarters, and if she did not move away, he mounted. Copulation was brief but sometimes took several attempts to be successful. In the wild, the courtship ritual has not been observed very often but appears to be comparable to captive observations. In the Kipsain-Saiwa Swamp in western Kenya, one male repeatedly approached a female’s hindquarters with his head lowered and held forward, his horns lying along his back. He smelled her genital region and rubbed the side of his head against her flank. After 20 minutes of repeated approaches, the female let the male mount. Sometimes, as a courting male slowly and deliberately approaches a female, instead of slowly walking away, she will bound off erratically, stand still for a minute, and then dash off again. The male just continues his slow, deliberate following of such a female. Gestation is 7 - 5 - 8 months in captivity, with a birth interval of 11 - 6 months, indicating that captive females typically conceive about four months after giving birth. In captivity, twinning is very rare, only 0 - 18 % of births. Females give birth on dry reed platforms that they create by trampling the vegetation, and they keep their neonates well concealed until the young can move through the dense swamp vegetation. Females groom their offspring often, and the pair remain very close to each other for several months; young may remain with their mothers even after the next offspring is born.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139969FFD3034EFE89FBD4FEE1.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. In the Rushebeya-Kanyabaha wetland complex in south-western Uganda, Lake Victoria Sitatunga were in cover resting / ruminating from about 10: 00 h to 17: 00 h, and they were most visible and active between 05: 30 h and 09: 00 h and after 18: 00 h. In Akagera National Park, Rwanda, Lake Victoria Sitatunga were most active in the morning from 07: 00 h to 10: 00 h, and secondarily from 17: 00 h to 18: 00 h, making detection of individuals during systematic surveys very difficult from 10: 00 h to 17: 00 h. The same basic activity pattern was noted in the Kipsain-Saiwa Swamp in western Kenya.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139969FFD3034EFE89FBD4FEE1.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Systematic surveys of the Lake Victoria Sitatunga have been conducted in Akagera National Park, Rwanda; investigators concluded there were 9000 individuals in 600 km?, or a density of 15 ind / km? ®. In Saiwa Swamp National Park in western Kenya, densities were about 55 ind / km * in the early 1970 s. As a group, sitatunga are not very gregarious, and adults tend to occur alone except during breeding. Group sizes in Kenya were 45 - 9 % single individual, 34 - 8 % two individuals, 10 - 6 % three individuals, 5 % four individuals, and 1 - 7 - 0 - 3 % five to nine individuals. The population structure there, based on 648 observations, was dominated by females: 50 - 5 % adult females, 15 - 3 % immature females, 13 - 1 % adult males, 17 - 9 % immature males, and only 3 - 2 % young-of-the-year (but they were likely underrepresented because of difficulties observing them). When disturbed, male Lake Victoria Sitatungas often bark to each other, mostly at night; femalesare typically quiet but will emit low-pitched squeaks to each other while feeding. The Lake Victoria Sitatunga can live up to 20 years in captivity, and perhaps only about twelve years in the wild.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139969FFD3034EFE89FBD4FEE1.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under T. spekii), which does not differentiate the five species identified here. Numbers of Sitatunga are generally stable in areas of low human population density and decreasing elsewhere. As many as 170,000 sitatungas may occur discontinuously throughout the group’s range in Africa, with about 40 % living in protected areas. That number, however, is considered an overestimate, and local populations are threatened by loss of habitat, altered hydrology oftheir critical wetland habitats, livestock grazing and likely associated disease transmission, uncontrolled burning of swampland, and overharvest for subsistence and the bushmeat trade. Subsistence hunting associated with roadside agriculture in the Ituri Rainforest region of the DR Congo negatively impacts the Lake Victoria Sitatunga. In contrast, appropriately managed trophy hunting can have a positive effect by generating revenue for conservation initiatives. Major populations of the Lake Victoria Sitatunga still exist in south-eastern Akagera National Park, Rwanda, and Moyowosi-Kigosi Game Reserves, Tanzania, but the species is very rare in western Kenya and confined to swamps along Lake Victoria and the 2 km ® Saiwa Swamp National Park (which had fewer than 50 individuals in 1998). Reintroductions have been attempted in central Kenya, but their success has not been reported. Minimizing loss of wetland habitats and, critically, their interconnectedness, which minimizes isolation and permits dispersal and gene flow, is fundamental to the long-term conservation of all sitatungas, including the Lake Victoria Sitatunga.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD306D0FE8DF5FBF454.taxon	materials_examined	Bahr-el-Ghazal, 50 miles S of Yambio, SW Sudan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD306D0FE8DF5FBF454.taxon	discussion	The Nile Sitatunga has been variously included with T. spekii or T. gratus, butit is diagnostically different from other sitatunga. The new separation of T. spekii into five species, each with its own nomenclatural history, makes demarcation of current ranges difficult. Further research is required to ascertain if the south-western Sudan and Sudd Swamp populations are both T. larkenii, or if it is confined to the type locality. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD306D0FE8DF5FBF454.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Discontinuous and limited to wetland environments in two areas of S Sudan: small swamps in SW Sudan near the DR Congo border, where the type specimen was collected, and the Sudd Swamps (Bahr-el-Ghazal) of the upper White Nile. Maps and distributional information here are provisional pending future research.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD306D0FE8DF5FBF454.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. No specific measurements are available, but the Nile Sitatunga is somewhat smaller than the Lake Victoria Sitatunga. Sitatungas are among the most sexually dimorphic tragelaphines relative to body weight, with mass of males as much as 170 % of that of females. Unique to the sitatunga group, the hooves of all but the Nkosi Island Sitatunga (7. sylvestris) are very elongated, with flexible toe joints and large false hooves that help prevent them from sinking into the mud and vegetation mats of their preferred swampy habitats but make them clumsy on dry land. The pelage of the Nile Sitatunga tends to be shorter, sparser, and less shaggy than that of other sitatunga species. Male Nile Sitatungas are rich dark brown, with 4 - 8 stripes, sometimes faint, and a lateral stripe of 12 - 15 spots, which may be reduced to 3 - 4 spots. Females are dark red-brown, with 6 - 7 faint or broken stripes and the lateralstripe of spots. The dorsal crest, running from the withers to rump, is usually white in both sexes, with considerable gray in the neck of the female. The inside of the front legsis white. Young are red-brown, with 6 - 9 stripes and a lateral stripe of spots; their dorsal crest may be white or all dark, and their neck is pale. Nile Sitatungas are relatively large in size and have a long face and narrow skull. Male-only keeled horns are spiraled 1 - 5 times and relatively short. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD306D0FE8DF5FBF454.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Sitatungas as a group, except the Nkosi Island Sitatunga, are described as semi-aquatic, limiting most of their activities to swamps, bogs, and marshes associated with rivers, streams, lakes, and lowland forests of poor drainage that are scattered intermittently throughout their range. They are excellent swimmers, will avoid danger by escaping to deep water, and are capable of submerging their entire body with little more than their nostrils above the surface. The original specimens of the Nile Sitatunga were collected in forested areas with thick undergrowth but lacking true swamps; instead, they had many small streams in deep ravines.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD306D0FE8DF5FBF454.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably comparable to othersitatungas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD306D0FE8DF5FBF454.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably comparable to other sitatungas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD306D0FE8DF5FBF454.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably comparable to other sitatungas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD306D0FE8DF5FBF454.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably comparable to othersitatungas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD306D0FE8DF5FBF454.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under 7. spekii), which does not differentiate the five species identified here. Generally, numbers of sitatungas are stable in areas of low human population density and decreasing elsewhere. As many as 170,000 sitatungas may occur discontinuously throughout the group’s range in Africa, with about 40 % living in protected areas. That number, however, is considered an overestimate, and local populations are threatened by loss of habitat, altered hydrology oftheir critical wetland habitats, livestock grazing and likely associated disease transmission, uncontrolled burning of swampland, and overharvest for subsistence and the bushmeat trade. Numbers of the Nile Sitatunga in the Sudd Swamps of southern Sudan were estimated at 1100 individuals in the early 1980 s, and no estimates of numbers are available from south-western Sudan. Minimizing loss of wetland habitats and, critically, their interconnectedness, which minimizes isolation and permits dispersal and gene flow, is fundamental to the long-term conservation of all sitatungas, including the Nile Sitatunga.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD303D8FE28FD5DF203.taxon	materials_examined	Nkose [= Nkosi] Island, NW Lake Victoria.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD303D8FE28FD5DF203.taxon	discussion	The Nkosi Island Sitatunga was formerly considered a subspecies of T. spekii, butit is diagnostically different from othersitatunga. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD303D8FE28FD5DF203.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Apparently endemic to Nkosi I, the southernmost island of the Sesse Archipelago in north-western Lake Victoria. Nkosi I is about 64 km offshore from the Ugandan mainland and about 6 km from its closest neighboring island.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD303D8FE28FD5DF203.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 161 - 1 cm (male), tail 22: 9 - 23. 5 cm (males); shoulder height 95.3 - 99. 1 cm (males); weight 96.1 - 102. 5 kg (males). These measurements come from two males collected on Nkosi Island in 1915 and were published with the original description. Disparity between sizes of male and female Nkosi Island Sitatungas is likely comparable to other sitatunga species. The Nkosi Island Sitatunga is apparently a dryland taxon, and its front and back hooves are a bit shorter (7.3 - 7. 6 cm vs. 7.6 - 7. 9 cm) and wider (5.3 - 5. 9 cm vs. 4.4 - 5 cm) than those of sitatungas on Bugalla Island in the Sesse Archipelago, and the hooves are distinguished by being “ stouter and stronger ” (according to the original description). The hooves of a young Nkosi Island Sitatunga captured in 1915 were described as resembling those of a young bushbuck. Males are a uniform dull mouse color, have a paler neck relative to females, the top of their head is reddish, and the preorbital chevron may be faint or distinct. Females are dull red-brown, with a dark dorsal stripe and no white marks. Young are more reddish than females, including the top of the head, with no markings, but there may be banding on the flank, and a paler neck. The ears are large. The skull of both sexes of the Nkosi Island Sitatunga is small, the facial skeleton is very short, and male-only keeled horns are shorter and flare less than the horns of other sitatunga. They spiral 1 - 5 times and may be whitetipped in mature males. The horns of the two males in the original description were 56.5 - 59. 1 cm along the total length of the curve, 19 - 4 cm in diameter at the base, and 17 - 1 - 18: 1 cm from tip-to-tip. Dental formula is 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD303D8FE28FD5DF203.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The only known habitat of the Nkosi Island Sitatunga experienced significant change shortly before the species’ discovery in 1915. By about 1909, the entire Sesse Archipelago was abandoned by humans because of Uganda’s great epidemic ofsleeping sickness (parasitic trypanosomiasis spread by the tsetse fly), and resettlement did not begin until about 1919. In 1913 - 1915, Nkosi Island was described as completely covered by a dense dry forest with a tangled and dense understory of vines, roots, and fallen trees but little herbaceous ground cover, except for a small opening of grass on its southern end (said to be devoid ofsitatunga tracks). By 1925, after a near 20 year absence of hunting by native peoples, the understory of Nkosi Island lacked foliage from the ground to the height that a sitatunga can reach standing on its hindlegs and the ground cover was nothing but sticks and dead leaves. Individual Nkosi Island Sitatungas at the time were noted to be “ mangy ” and in poor condition. Nkosi Island is only about 2400 m by 300 m, or 0 - 72 km?, and results of a drive count along the entire length of the island in 1927 suggested a total population of 150 Nkosi Island Sitatungas, remarkably 208 - 3 / km! It is unlikely that such a density was sustained for long, but unfortunately, no subsequent records can be found.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD303D8FE28FD5DF203.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Nkosi Island Sitatunga was originally described as a browser of leaves, twigs, and bark, given the scant undergrowth available to them. Based on early observations, Nkosi Island Sitatungas foraged at the forest's edge, and the shrub Alchornea cordata was preferred.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD303D8FE28FD5DF203.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably comparable to othersitatunga species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD303D8FE28FD5DF203.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Limited early observations of the Nkosi Island Sitatunga suggest a crepuscular activity pattern similar to other sitatunga species. Like other ruminants, activity is no doubt an alternating pattern of feeding and ruminating / resting.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD303D8FE28FD5DF203.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, but individuals on Nkosi Island probably move throughout the entire 0 - 72 km * island and are more gregarious than other sitatunga species out of necessity. The Nkosi Island Sitatunga wasinitially described as quiet, not vocalizing with the typical staccato bark of sitatungas on other Sesse islands. There are no known predators of the Nkosi Island Sitatunga.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD303D8FE28FD5DF203.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under T. spekii), which does not differentiate the five species identified here. Sitatunga occur on other islands of the Sesse Archipelago. They were originally described as disparate from the Nkosi Island Sitatunga, but anecdotal reports, mostly from hunting outfitters, suggest that all sitatungas in the Archipelago are different from the mainland form, the Lake Victoria Sitatunga (7. spekii). Future research will be required to clarify the extent of the range of the Nkosi Island Sitatunga and its particular conservation challenges as an island endemic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD406D4F398FA77F82A.taxon	materials_examined	Gabon.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD406D4F398FA77F82A.taxon	discussion	The Western Sitatunga was formerly considered a subspecies of T. spekii, but it is diagnostically different from other sitatunga. The new separation of T. spekii into five species, each with its own nomenclatural history, makes demarcation of current ranges difficult. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD406D4F398FA77F82A.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Discontinuous and limited to wetland environments in the Congo Basin N and W of the range of the Zambezi Sitatunga in S Benin (Porto Novo), S Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Republic of the Congo, N DR Congo; also several isolated populations in W Africa (Senegal, Gambia & Guinea-Bissau), NE Nigeria and W Chad, and perhaps extreme S Ghana. Maps and distributional information here are provisional pending future research.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD406D4F398FA77F82A.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 152 - 163 cm (males) and 123 - 127 cm (females), tail 24 - 43 cm, shoulder height 89 - 97 cm (males) and 75 - 84 cm (females). No specific weights are available, but the Western Sitatunga is thought by some to be the heaviest of the sitatunga species. Sitatungas are among the most sexually dimorphic tragelaphines, with mass of males as much as 170 % of the mass of females. The hooves of all but the Nkosi Island Sitatunga (7. sylvestris) are very elongated, with flexible toe joints and large false hooves, which help prevent them from sinking into the mud and vegetation mats of their preferred swampy habitats but make them clumsy on dryland. Their pelage tends to be shaggy, oily, and water-repellent, and males develop a scraggly mane as they age. The Western Sitatungais relatively large, and its coat coloris generally pale pink-brown; both sexes have a white dorsal crest, with white lateral stripes and rump spots. A female from Mbi Crater, 15 miles north-east of Bamenda, Cameroon, was a dull gray-yellow brown with four very faint stripes, but her white dorsal stripe was very clear. A male from Tiko, in western Cameroon, was a rich pale rufous; he had spots high on his back rather than stripes, and a clear black dorsal stripe. The skull, if the Cameroon sample was typical, was somewhat like that of the Nile Sitatunga, but he had very short horns. Male-only keeled horns are spiraled 1 - 5 times and average about 51 cm in length in a sample from Cameroon. Dental formulas 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (2) = 32	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD406D4F398FA77F82A.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Sitatungas as a group, except the Nkosi Island Sitatunga, are described as semi-aquatic, limiting most of their activities to the swamps, bogs, and marshes associated with rivers, streams, lakes, and lowland forests of poor drainage that are scattered intermittently throughout their range. They are excellent swimmers and will avoid danger by escaping to deep water, and are capable of submerging their entire body with little more than their nostrils above the surface. In central Gabon, most sightings of the Western Sitatunga were made in narrow gallery forests along watercourses. In Abuko Nature Reserve in Gambia, observations of Western Sitatungas suggested broader habitat choices: 32: 9 % of the observations were in swampy habitat, 28: 4 % in clearings, 20 - 6 % in savanna, and 18 - 1 % in riverine forests.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD406D4F398FA77F82A.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Herbivorous and generally thought to be intermediate feeders. In Abuko Nature Reserve in Gambia, Western Sitatungas ate parts of 21 different plants (leaves, flowers, fruits, and vine stems) from 17 plant species. During those feeding observations, Western Sitatungas ate plants in savanna habitats (39 - 4 % of the time), swamps (33: 3 %), clearings (24: 2 %), and riverine forests (3: 1 %). These observations suggest greater habitat flexibility than normally afforded the sitatunga group, which is generally thought of as swamp-obligate. On the other hand, swamp habitatis relatively uncommon at Abuko, and pools associated with them contain significant numbers of Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus). In the Republic of the Congo, Western Sitatungas are partial to two seed types found in the dung of African Forest Elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis). In Gabon, they have been described as nearly obligate leaf eaters.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD406D4F398FA77F82A.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The breeding behavior of the Western Sitatunga has been described in detail only at two locations, and they were remarkably different. In a small introduced population in Abuko Nature Reserve, Gambia, normally solitary males and females basically only interact during breeding in April-July. A male courts an estrous female attentively, following her closely, mewing, regularly testing her urine, and subsequently displaying the classic ungulate lip curl. Young and mature males regularly horn the ground and vegetation. One case in Gambia suggested that a mature male died as a result of two deep puncture wounds incurred during a fight with another male. Offspring in Gambia are born in October —] January after a purported gestation of about seven months. They may remain hidden for up to seven weeks. One known female there produced four offspring every year from early 1979 to December 1982. In sharp contrast, a large, cohesive group of Western Sitatungas in Odzala National Park, Republic of the Congo, occupied a single forest swamp clearing over 3 - 5 years of observation. The group functioned like a harem, with gregarious adult females and a single mature male that did all the breeding. All young male and some young female offspring born during the period of observation left the group. Breeding was not seasonal, and the 28 births observed occurred throughout the year, with birth intervals of 5 - 5 - 9 months. In contrast to Gambia, gestation in Odzala National Park was reported to be only 5 - 5 months. Neonates were kept hidden for two weeks, and weaning occurred after about four months. First breeding of females did not occur until 2 - 2 - 5 years of age. Despite differences between the two locations, male and female offspring separated from their mothers at about 8 - 9 months old. The observations in Gambia are the most typical breeding models of sitatunga species reported in the literature, and the Odzala National Park case was hypothesized to be related to a stable and perennial forage base and mineral resources in the forest swamp clearing. The vegetation there never dried out and was always succulent, nutritious, and available, affording the opportunity for this rather aberrant breeding model, described as “ female-defense polygyny. ” Western Sitatungas can live up to almost 23 years in captivity, probably about twelve years in the wild.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD406D4F398FA77F82A.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Feeding by Western Sitatungas in Gambia was most commonly observed from 06: 00 h to 08: 00 h and from 17: 00 h to 19: 15 h, and they rested / ruminated under palms, in dense vine thickets, or in the swamps for most of the other daylight hours.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD406D4F398FA77F82A.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. As a group, sitatungas are not very gregarious, and most observations suggest that adults occur alone except during breeding. The average group size of the Western Sitatunga in natural rainforest fragments in central Gabon was one, and densities were only 0 - 3 ind / km?, no doubt dependent on the availability of marshy habitats. In Abuko Nature Reserve, Gambia, 63 - 9 % of all observations of the Western Sitatunga were single individuals, and 26 - 5 % were of a mother and her offspring. In contrast, a large stable group of 16 - 36 Western Sitatunga used a forest swamp clearing in Odzala National Park, Republic of the Congo, by day, but it broke up into subgroups that averaged 2 - 5 individuals by night (34 - 3 % of those subgroups were a mother and her offspring). Although a small part of their diet, Leopards (Panthera pardus) have been known to prey on the Western Sitatunga during the dry season in Lopé National Park, Gabon.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139968FFD406D4F398FA77F82A.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under 7. spekii), which does not differentiate the five species identified here. Generally, numbers of sitatungas are stable in areas of low human population density and decreasing elsewhere. As many as 170,000 sitatungas may occur discontinuously throughout the group’s range in Africa, with about 40 % living in protected areas. That number, however, 1 s considered an overestimate, and local populations are threatened by loss of habitat, altered hydrology of their critical wetland habitats, livestock grazing and likely associated disease transmission, uncontrolled burning of swampland, and overharvest for subsistence and the bushmeat trade. Increased roads and associated hunting pressure are associated with decreased abundance of the Western Sitatunga in southern Gabon, but it can survive in close proximity to human settlements if protective wetlands allow refuge from hunters; under such circumstances, it becomes totally nocturnal. Hunters involved in the illegal bushmeat trade to local and bigger city markets and logging towns in the Central African Republic, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, and elsewhere often use cable snares along trails in reed swamps that are particularly focused on the Western Sitatunga. In the late 1990 s, the Western Sitatunga was still common in Monte Alen National Park, Equatorial Guinea, but it was considered rare and decreasing in Gambia and Senegal. Minimizing loss of wetland habitats and, critically, their interconnectedness, which minimizes isolation and permits dispersal and gene flow, is fundamental to the long-term conservation of all sitatungas, including the Western Sitatunga.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996FFFD50644F871FDC1F2FB.taxon	materials_examined	Zambezi Valley.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996FFFD50644F871FDC1F2FB.taxon	discussion	The Zambezi Sitatunga was formerly considered a subspecies of T. spekii, but it is diagnostically different from other sitatunga. The new separation of T. spekii into five species, each with its own nomenclatural history, makes demarcation of current ranges difficult. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996FFFD50644F871FDC1F2FB.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Discontinuous and limited to wetland environments from S Republic of the Congo through C DR Congo and SW Tanzania, S to Zambia, Angola, and Botswana. Maps and distributional information here are provisional pending future research.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996FFFD50644F871FDC1F2FB.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 115 - 170 cm, tail 30 - 35 cm, shoulder height 88 - 125 cm (males) and 75 - 90 cm (females); weight 75 - 125 kg (males) and 50 - 57 kg (females). These measurements are general for the sitatunga group and should be considered provisional until further information is available, although the Zambezi Sitatunga initially was described as larger than the Lake Victoria Sitatunga (7. spekit) and comparable to the Western Sitatunga (7. gratus). Sitatungas are among the most sexually dimorphic tragelaphines relative to body weight, with mass of males as much as 170 % that of females. Unique to the sitatunga group, the hooves of all but the Nkosi Island Sitatunga (7. sylvestris) are very elongated, with flexible toe joints and large false hooves, which helps prevent them from sinking into the mud and vegetation mats of their preferred swampy habitats but makes them clumsy on dryland. The pelage tends to be shaggy, oily, and water-repellent, and males develop a scraggly mane as they age. Unlike other sitatungas, both sexes of the Zambezi Sitatunga are gray-brown to brown, with prominent preorbital spots in males and faint or obsolete preorbital spots in females. One female museum specimen had a faint lateral line and rump spots. Young Zambezi Sitatungas have long, dull-brown hair, faint preorbital spots, a dark dorsal stripe, a faint lateral line of spots, rump spots, and hints of stripes. Zambezi Sitatungas from Bangweulu, Zambia, are mostly as described above, but one museum specimen was pale yellow-brown. Variation in the skull is considerable among the various populations of the Zambezi Sitatunga; e. g. those from Bangweulu are longer-faced and have relatively longer horns than those from the Okavango Delta, Botswana, which may be taken as representing true Zambezi Sitatungas. Male-only keeled horns are spiraled 1 - 5 times and average about 58 cm in length, with a recorded maximum of 91 - 1 cm on fully mature males. Dental formula is 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P. 3 / 3, M 3 / 8 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996FFFD50644F871FDC1F2FB.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Sitatungas as a group, except the Nkosi Island Sitatunga, are described as semi-aquatic, limiting most of their activities to the swamps and marshes associated with rivers, lakes, and lowland forests of poor drainage that are scattered intermittently throughout their range. They are excellent swimmers and will avoid danger by escaping to deep water. A sitatunga can submerge its entire body, with little more than its nostrils above the surface. In the Okavango Delta, Botswana, Zambezi Sitatungas are restricted to perennial swamps of papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) and phragmites (Phragmites mauritianus); their use of other habitats is very dependent on seasonal flooding of the Delta. During periods of high water (January-June), Zambezi Sitatungas are driven from their preferred papyrus / phragmites habitats and use upland fringes of shallowly flooded grasslands. They return to papyrus / phragmites stands when water levels recede and establish well-developed paths and bedding sites among the reed beds.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996FFFD50644F871FDC1F2FB.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Herbivorous and often described as intermediate feeders, Zambezi Sitatungas are not considered to be selective feeders and consume many species in proportion to their availabilities. In the Okavango Delta, seasonal differences in diet occur relative to flooding regimes. During low-water periods, when they are confined to marshes, their diets may be composed oflittle more than papyrus; 80 % of papyrus umbels are consumed when available. During periods of high water, Zambezi Sitatungas spend more time in upland wooded areas and islands, where leaves of the trees Acacia nigrescens and Diospyrus mespiliformis are browsed heavily, even to the point of being denuded. Sprouts of a fern Cyclosurus interruptus and a grass Eragrostis inamoena on burned areas are attractive to Zambezi Sitatunga.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996FFFD50644F871FDC1F2FB.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The peak birthing season of the Zambezi Sitatunga has been reported to occur in June-July, with most of the breeding in January-February, during the rainy season. Otherwise, little is known about variation among populations, but they are probably comparable to other sitatunga species. Young Zambezi Sitatungas may remain hidden longer than other sitatunga species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996FFFD50644F871FDC1F2FB.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Feeding activities of Zambezi Sitatungas are most pronounced in the morning and evening, mainly from 06: 00 h to 09: 00 - 10: 00 h in the Okavango Delta. Their nocturnal activities there, outside of the protection of papyrus / phragmites marshes, were directly related to the phase of the moon; far fewer animals moved into upland grassy areas just prior to and during a full moon. Time spent feeding during low-water conditions differed between males (34 % of their time) and females (77 %) in the Okavango Delta.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996FFFD50644F871FDC1F2FB.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Zambezi Sitatungas in the Okavango Delta appear to move little during seasonal flooding, which forces them into less preferred habitats of shallowly flooded grasslands; under such conditions, three young males were never observed more than 100 m from their original sightings. Densities in the Okavango Delta were 0 - 8 ind / km?. As a group, sitatungas are not very gregarious, and adults tend to occur alone except during breeding. True to form, 60 % of Zambezi Sitatungas in the Okavango Delta occurred alone, and 34 % in groups of only two individuals. About half of those were pairs of adult females. Immature and adult males were typically alone, indicating to the observers some level of intolerance and perhaps even exclusive home ranges. Males bark at each other throughout the year, suggesting a role in avoiding direct interactions. One Zambezi Sitatunga survived 16 years in captivity, which may be comparable to but is likely longer than in the wild.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996FFFD50644F871FDC1F2FB.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under 7. spekii), which does not differentiate the five species identified here. Generally, numbers of sitatungas are stable in areas of low human population density and decreasing elsewhere. As many as 170,000 sitatungas may occur discontinuously throughout the group’s range in Africa, with about 40 % living in protected areas. That number, however, is considered an overestimate, and local populations are threatened by loss of habitat, altered hydrology of their critical wetland habitats, livestock grazing and likely associated disease transmission, uncontrolled burning of swampland, and overharvest for subsistence and the bushmeat trade. In the late 1990 s, populations of Zambezi Sitatungas were said to be stable in Botswana and Zambia, particularly in the Bangweulu Swamps, Kafue National Park, and Kasanka National Park, but rare in the Kafue Flats and in Mozambique, Namibia, and Zimbabwe. In many parts of Africa, competition and disease transmission between livestock and wildlife are pressing conservation concerns. Successful control of the tsetse fly (Glossina spp.), for example in the Okavango Delta, permitted expanded cattle grazing, bringing increased competition with wild bovids such as the Zambezi Sitatunga and other wildlife. Demand for water from an expanding human population can alter flow regimes, which subsequently reduces or eliminates wetlands critical to the Zambezi Sitatunga. Unregulated hunting and poaching for bushmeat also threaten conservation of the Zambezi Sitatunga. Minimizing loss of wetland habitats and, critically, their interconnectedness, which minimizes isolation and permits dispersal and gene flow, is fundamental to the long-term conservation ofall sitatunga, including the Zambezi Sitatunga.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996EFFD606D4FE81FB19F2FD.taxon	materials_examined	W Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996EFFD606D4FE81FB19F2FD.taxon	discussion	The Bongo has often been placed in its own genus, Boocercus. Although IUCN and others recognize two subspecies of the Bongo (eurycerus and isaaci), recent univariate and multivariate morphometric analyses failed to demonstrate any consistent separation in geographic samples. Therefore it is considered monotypic here.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996EFFD606D4FE81FB19F2FD.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Two disjunct areas across the lowland rainforest belt of W Africa (Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo & Benin) and C Africa through the Congo Basin (Cameroon, Gabon, Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, Central African Republic & extreme SW Sudan), and five very small disjunct populations in mountainous areas in C Kenya.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996EFFD606D4FE81FB19F2FD.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 220 - 235 cm, tail 45 - 65 cm, shoulder height 122 - 128 cm; weight 240 - 405 kg (males) and 210 - 253 kg (females). The Bongois the largest species in the genus Tragelaphus, with a barrel-shaped torso. Its pelage is striking in color, tone, and pattern. Both sexes are a bright chestnut-red with 10 - 15 white vertical stripes on the shoulders, sides, and hindquarters, and the number of stripes on each side is often unequal. The Bongo has a chestnut-to-blackish dorsal crest, segmented in white where the stripes meet it. Along with the stripes, both sexes have distinct markings, including a yellowish-white crescent across the chest and two large white spots outlining the jaw on either side of face. The body color of the male Bongo, particularly the head, chest, and shoulders, darkens to blackish with age, and females can become pale with age. Both sexes have brown spectacles around and mostly below the eyes, which remain visible even in old individuals. The legs of both sexes have similar white and black markings just above the hooves, behind the knee joint, and in the pit of the foreleg. The tufted tail is chestnut on the top and whitish underneath. The ears are exceptionally large and broad, likely playing a role in intraspecific signaling and clearly reflecting the importance of hearing in the dense habitats the Bongos occupy. Both sexes have single-spiraled, brownish-black, lyrate horns; with maturity, the tips are ivory-colored due to a lack of pigment. The lengths of the horns are about the same in both sexes (60 - 100 cm), but male horns are more massive than female horns. Female horns tend to be more parallel to each other, but may be asymmetrical, nearly touching, or even crossing, at the tips. Geographically, male and female skull and horn characteristics tend to be most different in populations that live in more open forest and most alike where they live in dense rainforest. Bongos in Kenya, East Africa, are said to be heavier and taller than those in West Africa. Dental formula is I 0 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32. Diploid numbers for the Bongo are 33 for males and 34 for females, as in the bushbuck group.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996EFFD606D4FE81FB19F2FD.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Bongos occur mainly in disturbed lowland rainforests in West and Central Africa, but the five remnant populations in Kenya are found in montane forests at elevations of 2100 - 3000 m. Although they spend considerable time moving through and resting in closed-canopy forests, such areas do not provide enough forage to sustain their rather bulky size. Bongos are dependent on lowland forest openings caused by natural, man-made, and even elephant disturbance, and on the open areas at mineral licks, where forage availability is greater than in closed-canopy forests. The proportion of habitats along Bongo travel routes in Dzanga-Ndoki National Park, Central African Republic, were 83 % mixed forest, 10 % Gilbertiodendron forest, 1 - 6 % forest openings, and less than 0 - 02 % minerallicks. Although minerallicks there are a small percentage of the total habitat used by Bongos, they are visited much more often than would be predicted by their availability, and represent centers of social activity. In mountainous areas in Kenya, the structure of the understory forest vegetation is a key component of Bongo habitat; areas with tall herbaceous vegetation and relatively few woody shrubs are preferred.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996EFFD606D4FE81FB19F2FD.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Herbivorous, but not particularly selective. The Bongo has been traditionally classified as a “ browse foliage ” specialist, which is largely supported by levels of isotopic carbon in its tissue and diets. In south-western Sudan, Bongos ate the leaves of 116 mostly dicotyledons from the shrub layer in the forest and at its edge; grasses made up only about 10 % of the diet in the late dry — early wet seasons. Recent observations, however, suggestit also consumes considerable bulk in grasses and other herbaceous vegetation, particularly at mineral licks. In Dzanga-Ndoki National Park, Bongos ate young leaves of 97 of 138 plant species available to them (vines 45 - 7 %, shrubs 42 %, and trees 6 - 2 %) but showed a positive preference for 26 of 100 woody plants. Species of Macaranga, Massularia acuminata, Cleistopholis patens, and Entada gigas were most preferred. Use of fruit and flowers there was limited to only three plant species. Bongos at Dzanga-Ndoki eat substantial amounts of grasses and herbaceous plants that grow in open areas associated with minerallicks, where they also consume mineral-rich soil and drink the muddy water. It is possible that consumption of soil neutralizes effects of toxic chemicals, such as defensive secondary metabolites, that are known to occur in many forest plants. Bongos use their horns to twist and break branches of young trees and tall shrubs to obtain food; they pull down vines to obtain young leaves at the terminal ends.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996EFFD606D4FE81FB19F2FD.taxon	breeding	Breeding. In mountainous areas in Kenya, the birthing and breeding seasons are said to occur in July-September and October — January, respectively. In lowland areas in Central and West Africa, they may be more extended, but little information exists to confirm that. Because Bongos spend most of their time in dense forest cover and are wary, little is known about their breeding behavior in the wild. Minerallicks are places of social interaction, where group sizes are larger. Aggressive interactions and kicking among females suggests a dominance hierarchy, and injuries among mature males, sometimes fatal, suggest at least some vigorous interactions during rut. In captivity, male Bongos display the behaviors typical of bovids, including vulva sniffing, frequent urine-testing of females and subsequentlip curling, and resting the head on the hindquarters of females. Females in captivity tend to ignore the attention of males if they are not in estrus. When females are in estrus, a male assumes a courting low-stretch posture, with his nose up, his neck stretched forward, his horns lying back on his neck, and his tail wagging vigorously; sometimes he flicks his tongue. Displays such as a lateral presentation with the head held high, low-stretch, and thrashing of vegetation have been noted in the wild. Just prior to copulation, a male Bongo assumes a frozen posture behind the female for a minute or so, often looking away from her. If the female is receptive, the male will lick the vulva, brush his cheeks against the female's side, and mount. Unlike females, males are quite vocal during mating, emitting soft clicks, clucks, grunts, and nasal moos. During copulation, which lasts ten seconds or less with up to ten pelvic thrusts, the male extends his chest, neck, and head across the female’s back rather than rising up on his hindlegs. Estrus lasts three days. Gestation is about nine months. In captivity, signs of parturition begin two weeks before the birth. These include swelling of the udder and vulva, distension of the area between the last rib and hindquarters, and sometimes aggressive behavior toward other Bongos. Birth takes place in a lying position. Neonates in captivity are about 19 kg at birth, emit sheep-like bleats, and have similar markings to adults, but are paler. Longevity in the wild is unknown, but captive individuals have lived up to 21 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996EFFD606D4FE81FB19F2FD.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. The Bongo is reported to be mainly nocturnal, with peaks in activity around dawn and dusk. The pronounced patterns and contrast of colors on the Bongo’s coat would be advantageous for social communication under low-light or nocturnal conditions. Bongos rest and ruminate in forest cover during the day from about 10: 30 h to 16: 00 h. In Dzanga-Ndoku National Park, they rest twice in 24 hours, once at night and once between late morning and early afternoon. Little is know about the specific percentages that Bongos spend in various activities, but they probably follow a typical pattern of alternating bouts of moving / feeding followed by resting / ruminating, usually in forest cover. At tourist lodges in Kenya, Bongos visit established salt licks at night.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996EFFD606D4FE81FB19F2FD.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Bongos are non-migratory, but in mountainous areas in Kenya, they move elevationally by the season, spending the damp, misty rainy months dispersed at low elevations and the peak of the dry season in February-March at higher elevations. In Dzanga-Ndoki National Park, mineral licks, most of them created by African Forest Elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis), are focal points of Bongo movements and home ranges. Trails radiate out from regularly visited licks. Forested areas in the Park far from mineral licks are used much less often than forests near mineral licks. While foraging, Bongo groups travel greater average distances between resting places (1 - 8 km) than individuals travel (0 - 6 km). Estimated home ranges of two groups of Bongos in Dzanga-Ndoki National Park were 19 km * and 49 km? ®. Reported densities range from 0 - 25 ind / km? in the Central African Republic to 1 - 2 ind / km? in south-western Sudan. Bongos are gregarious, and group structureis relatively fluid. Groups of up to 50 can be seen at some mineral licks, but typical group sizes are 2 - 8 individuals. The largest groups are noted 1 - 2 months after parturition, when females bring their young out of hiding and the number of young is greatest. Mature males are most likely to be solitary when not engaged in breeding activities.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996EFFD606D4FE81FB19F2FD.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Conservation efforts include the establishment of protected areas, particularly in the lowland rainforest of Central Africa, and an attempt to restore Bongo populations in the mountainous regions in Kenya. Overall, Bongo populations are decreasing, and the IUCN / Antelope Specialist Group considers the mountain populations in Kenya as critically endangered. About 60 % of Bongo populations occur in protected areas. Lowland Bongos are thought to number about 28,000, with western populations small and fragmented. The five remnant populations in Kenya number perhaps as many as 140 individuals in one population and as few as six individuals in another. There, restoration efforts have involved moving 18 Bongos from North American zoos to a captive breeding facility at the Mount Kenya Game Ranch in 2004, assessing the suitability of habitats in the region for reintroduction, and establishing genetic monitoring techniques, using feces, to identify individual Bongos and areas of occurrence. Major threats to the Bongo include habitat loss from an expanding human population, international commercial logging and subsequent use of cleared areas for cattle grazing, possible disease transmission from livestock, poaching for bushmeat, and even an increase in the numbers of Lions (Panthera leo) in Kenya. The Bongo is prized by hunters, and regulated trophy hunting could positively affect conservation of the Bongo in lowland forest by generating revenue to support management activities. Restoration of Kenyan populations of Bongo and establishment of more protected areas, particularly in lowland forests where commercial logging threatens some of the highest known Bongo densities, are ongoing priorities of those involved in Bongo conservation.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996DFFD7065FFE83F947F9F1.taxon	materials_examined	Bak Province, Ethiopia, east of the Rift Valley.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996DFFD7065FFE83F947F9F1.taxon	discussion	The Gedemsa is in a clade with the sitatungas (T. speku, T. sylvestris, T. latkenu, T. gratus, and T. selousi) and the Bongo (T. eurycerus). The male-only horns of the Gedemsa are much more open-spiraled than those ofits sister species, with a very marked and raised anterior keel, making them look superficially like those of a kudu (Strepsiceros spp.), although there are fewer turns and the spiral is even more open. Body stripes are less obvious than in most other members of the Tragelaphini, except for some bushbuck species. Although it is sometimes called the “ Mountain Nyala, ” the Gedemsa and the Nyala (Nyala angasii, but often placed in Tragelaphus) are only distantly related and quite dissimilar. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996DFFD7065FFE83F947F9F1.taxon	distribution	Distribution. The Gedemsa is now restricted to five isolated locations in the Bale and Arsi Mt ranges of SC Ethiopia, S and SE of the Rift Valley.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996DFFD7065FFE83F947F9F1.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 190 - 200 cm, tail 20 - 25 cm, shoulder height 120 - 135 cm (males) and 90 - 110 cm (females); weight 180 - 320 kg (males) and 150 - 200 kg (females). The weights of males in forested habitats in mountainous Ethiopia are reported to be greater than those of males in alpine / heath habitats. Tragelaphines are typified by their sexual dimorphism, and the weight of male Gedemsa is about 139 % that of females. Only the male has horns. Both sexes are narrow-bodied in profile, like other tragelaphines, but the Gedemsa, along with the kudu species, has a relatively level back and longer, nearly equal front and rear legs. The coat color of both sexes at birth varies by location and habitat from a tan reddish-brown to grayish. Females generally retain their basic coloration, although it can become darker and tend toward gray. Males become a more definitive dark gray-brown as they age. Both sexes have a white throat patch, a white crescent on the chest, variable white spots on the cheeks and body in a bow from the hindquarters through the ribcage, 2 - 9 lateral lines from the back down the torso (most obvious on females, but not as obvious on either sex compared to some other tragelaphines), and white patches on the inner legs. The patterning and intensity of spots and stripes on both sexes is unique to each individual. Both sexes have a white chevron and dorsal mane running the length of the back. They are much more obvious on males but not as developed as in some other tragelaphines. Males have a shaggy mane on their necks. The tail is bushy, dark on top and white underneath. Overall, Gedemsa are darker dorsally, becoming paler ventrally. The coat is smooth and glossy in summer and shaggy when the weather is cooler and damper. The lyrate horns of mature males spiral 1 - 5 - 2 times, with variable spread and tightness, are yellowto ivory-tipped, and have distinct keeled ridges. Horns can be seen on young males by the time they are six months old, and the first spiral is complete by four years. The horns thicken as a male ages, and lengths of 85 - 119 cm are attained at maturity. Male Gedemsa can be aged in general classes based on their horn characteristics. Gedemsa have two inguinal glands and pedal glands near the hind false hooves. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996DFFD7065FFE83F947F9F1.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Gedemsa use a variety of montane mesic habitats, typically at elevations of 1800 - 3500 m, but have been observed as low as 1600 m and as high as 4300 m. The current range of the Gedemsa occurs in four broad elevation zones in Ethiopia: the steep Afro-alpine zone (above 3700 m) with sparse forage and cover dominated by Alchemilla, Helichrysum, and Lobelia; the subalpine zone (3200 - 3700 m) with tall shrubs and trees dominated by Erica, Hagenia, and Hypericum; the moist upper Afro-montane zone (2300 - 3250 m) with woodlands ofJuniperus and Hagenia interspersed with montane grasslands of Festuca, Poa, and Carex; and the wetter lower Afro-montane zone (1500 - 2300 m) with woodlands of Aningeria, Sygium, and Ocotea. The lowest zone has not been thought of as important Gedemsa habitat in the past, but recent observations suggest otherwise. Predictive modeling of climatic, vegetative, and geographical variables suggests that minimum temperature and maximum precipitation are most associated with current Gedemsa habitat. Plantations of exotic trees are also used by Gedemsa, primarily for concealment and thermoregulation, and as travel corridors. Cultivated fields of barley and other crops in the lowlands near their native habitats are used at night and may be of increasing importance as availability of native habitats decreases with human encroachment. Gedemsa make seasonal movements elevationally to take advantage of changing foraging opportunities and thermoregulatory needs.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996DFFD7065FFE83F947F9F1.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Gedemsa are intermediate feeders and mainly browsers throughout much of the year. Diets vary considerably by the season, however, depending on what mountainous zone they inhabit. At high elevations, Gedemsa tend to prefer leaves of Lobelia, but in lower elevation forests, they will eat considerable amounts of forest grasses (Koeleria, Poa, and Agrostis), ferns, and lichens. The flush of green vegetation following the traditional burning in the Ethiopian highlands will attract Gedemsa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996DFFD7065FFE83F947F9F1.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Little is known about various reproductive characteristics of the Gedemsa, and it has never bred in captivity. Gedemsa have been described as breeding throughout the year, but individual populations have different breeding and birthing seasons; e. g. most breeding in Bale Mountains National Park occurs in December — January, with births in August-September, but in the Galama Mountains, there appears to be a subtle bimodal pattern of breeding and birthing. Gedemsa are polygynous, and males do not establish breeding territories or harems. Males begin to breed at 5 - 8 years old, although they are sexually mature at 2 - 3 years. When females are in estrus, the displays of males are similar to those of other tragelaphines. During this time, mature males become less tolerant of each other and establish dominance more by posturing than by combat. Combat does occur and can be intense and injurious, but is rare. Males display to each other laterally and in a T-position by standing stiff with their backs arched, head held low and outstretched, and the dorsal crest erect. The tail is not curled over the back as it is in the posturing displays of some other tragelaphines. Males thrash vegetation and the ground as a form of intimidation. Displays end when the subordinate male drops his head and leaves, which may elicit a brief pursuit by the dominant male. A dominant male follows an estrous female attentively, with his neck stretched out, and frequently smells the end of the female's tail. When ready to mate, the female urinates with her tail curled back, and the attending male tests her urine with his tongue, causing the lip-curling response. Copulation is brief. The male does not tend the female afterward; he begins to search for other receptive females. Female Gedemsa breed for the first time at 2 - 3 years. Gestation is 8 - 9 months, and a single offspring is produced. Newborns remain hidden for up to three weeks. Weaning occurs atjust 3 - 4 months. Offspring remain with their mothers for up to two years, with males inclined to leave earlier than females.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996DFFD7065FFE83F947F9F1.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Gedemsa can be active at any time of the day, but they tend to be crepuscular and nocturnal, being most active from 16: 00 h to 08: 00 h. Activity patterns no doubt change seasonally given changes in temperatures and forage availability in their montane habitats. Like other ruminants, their active period likely consists of alternating periods of feeding and resting / ruminating, although specific activity budgets have not been reported.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996DFFD7065FFE83F947F9F1.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Gedemsa are not migratory, but they do move elevationally by the season and can range widely. During the rainy season, females may restrict their movements to about 5 km? and males to 20 km? *. Reports of densities of Gedemsa range widely from 2 - 7 ind / km? to 40 ind / km? * normal density is probably toward the lower end. In 2000 - 2001, the population in Bale Mountains National Park was 62 - 9 % female, 27 - 4 % male, and 9 - 7 % young-of-the-year. Gedemsa are gregarious and occur in groups of 2 - 13 individuals, with large groups of 4 - 10 seen in more open habitat and during the wet season and smaller groups of 2 - 5 in forested habitat and during the dry season. Family groups are formed with a matriarch, other mature and immature females, and offspring; about 50 % of the time, a mature male will be in such a group. Outside of the breeding season, mature and old males are seen alone or in bachelor groups. Occasionally, temporary groups of 60 - 100 individuals aggregate at feeding and resting sites. Like other tragelaphines, Gedemsa are cautious when leaving forest cover and are described as difficult to approach because of their enhanced group vigilance under most conditions. When alarmed and fleeing, Gedemsa quickly flick and lower their tails, flashing the white undersides. They can achieve speeds of 72 km / h andjump 1 - 75 m. Although endangered itself and mostly a specialist in rodents, the Ethiopian Wolf (Canis simensis) has been reported to very occasionally prey on young Gedemsa. Other predators could include Leopards (Panthera pardus), Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), and Lions (P. leo), although hyenas and lions rarely occur in the montane habitats where the Gedemsa lives.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713996DFFD7065FFE83F947F9F1.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Surveys of Ethiopian highland animals in the 1960 s led to the establishment of Bale Mountains National Park in 1971, and the Gedemsa and Ethiopian Wolfare still its flagship species. About 50 % of the known Gedemsa occur in Bale Mountains National Park. Although they and other species are protected by law, enforcementis often spotty. In the 1960 s, the Gedemsa were initially thought to number 4000 - 5500 individuals, but they are hard to survey because of the difficulty in observing them in a systematic fashion in the forested habitats they occupy and the inaccessibility of many of those habitats due to terrain and vegetation. Numbers of Gedemsa were thought to be as low as 1000 individuals in the 1970 s, 2000 - 4000 individuals by the late 1980 s, and 2500 individuals in late 1990 s, and are currently thought to number about 4000 individuals. Gedemsa have suffered from political unrest in the early 1990 s, excessive hunting for meat and horns (used locally as medicine and to make nipples for traditional bottles), and encroachment by human settlement, logging, and cattle grazing. Surprisingly, regulated trophy hunting of the Gedemsa occurs, but its impact is not well understood and its sustainability questionable; pressures to increase quotas and areas that can be hunted are ongoing challenges to conservation. Recent research has led to the discovery of new but small populations beyond the current known distribution of the Gedemsa, with the prospects of other unknown populations being identified based on habitat modeling and future surveys in remote areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139961FFDA034FFE22F76AFE01.taxon	materials_examined	Somalia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139961FFDA034FFE22F76AFE01.taxon	discussion	The type species (i. e. no beard) was initially described as paler gray than the southern form australis. Recent evaluations of museum specimens by C. P. Groves and P. Grubb show that the two forms of lesser kudu are diagnostically different and here are placed under Heller’s genus Ammelaphus. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139961FFDA034FFE22F76AFE01.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Lowlands of EC Ethiopia (Awash area) and NW Somalia. The exact southern limit of the Northern Lesser Kudu' ’ s distribution in eastern Ethiopia requires additional research.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139961FFDA034FFE22F76AFE01.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 163 - 178 cm (males) and 140 cm (a female), tail 38 — 46 cm, shoulder height 98 - 118 cm (males) and 103 cm (a female). No specific weights are available, but male Northern Lesser Kudus are about 154 % heavier than females. Kudus are very slender in their frontal profile. Male Northern Lesser Kudus are paler gray, with less contrasting white markings than male Southern Lesser Kudus (A. australis). Their back and the whole tail are dark. Females and young are bright reddishbrown. Both sexes have two white spots on the posterior jaw line, a small but defined upper throat patch, and a lower neck patch that is widened to a chevron, but often not as pronounced as on the Southern Lesser Kudu. Males have a partial chevron on the nose just below the eyes and a dorsal crest from the withers, whereit is longest, to the tail. The crest is often whitish but can more closely match the coat color. A light mane is occasionally evident on the back of the lower neck but often absent. There is no throat beard. The number of vertical body stripes on the Northern Lesser Kudu is 10 - 14 and may not be of equal number on both sides of the body of a single individual. The stripes begin farther back on the shoulders of the Northern Lesser Kudu than on the Southern Lesser Kudu. The last 2 - 3 stripes tend to wrap across the haunch and converge near the front of the knee, characteristically becoming oblique. The lower legs are tawny-orange. The hind pasterns of the Northern Lesser Kudu generally are completely black but occasionally white. Male-only horns are widely spiraled, like an open corkscrew. The horns are dark and can be white-tipped on some mature males. The average straight-line horn length of male Northern Lesser Kudus is 52: 7 cm, the average tip-to-tip length is 26 - 1 cm, and the length along the outer curve is 60 - 90 cm. The number of horn spirals varies, but there are generally fewer on a mature male Northern Lesser Kudu (2 - 2 - 5 turns) than on a mature male Southern Lesser Kudu (2 - 5 - 3 turns). The horn keels are less pronounced than on other tragelaphine antelopes. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32. The diploid number of chromosomes is 38, and unlike other tragelaphines, both the Xand Y-chromosomes are fused with autosomes, suggesting an early evolutionary separation from other related taxa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139961FFDA034FFE22F76AFE01.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Northern Lesser Kudu is associated with northern reaches of the Somali-Masai Arid Zone in the northern Horn of Africa, dominated by semi-arid thornbush lowlands. It remains close to protective cover.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139961FFDA034FFE22F76AFE01.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but no doubt it is primarily a browser, as is the Southern Lesser Kudu. Lesser kudus do not have to remain close to water; they can satisfy most of their water requirements from the vegetation they eat.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139961FFDA034FFE22F76AFE01.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely comparable to the Southern Lesser Kudu.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139961FFDA034FFE22F76AFE01.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely crepuscular and active at night, comparable to the Southern Lesser Kudu.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139961FFDA034FFE22F76AFE01.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely sedentary and occupying relatively small home ranges in female groups of 2 - 4, comparable to the Southern Lesser Kudu.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139961FFDA034FFE22F76AFE01.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List (under-Tragelaphus); it does not differentiate the two species of lesser kudu identified here. Naturally absent in north-eastern Somalia and extinct in Djibouti. Purported to have occurred in Saudi Arabia and Yemen based on two sets of horns, but those records have never been verified and are not accepted as valid. In the late 1990 s, the number of lesser kudus range-wide was estimated at about 118,000, with 30 % of them in protected areas. Now, populations are decreasing, with the prospect of their status changing to Vulnerable in the future. The Northern Lesser Kudu is clearly the rarer of the two species, and current population levels are unknown. Awash National Park in the Great Rift Valley, Ethiopia, sustains a substantial protected population of the Northern Lesser Kudu. The lesser kudu’s preference for dense cover, cryptic coloration, and tendency to freeze when threatened make them difficult to survey but may lessen poaching for the bushmeat markets. Highly valued as a hunting trophy, properly managed populations can bring needed revenue to conservation efforts.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139961FFDB0644FE4BF8BFFEFE.taxon	materials_examined	Longaya Water, Marsabit, Kenya.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139961FFDB0644FE4BF8BFFEFE.taxon	discussion	Initially described as a subspecies of A. imberbus, 1 t 1 s darker (bright tawny ocher) than the type species, with no white spot on front of pasterns, and shorter horns. Recent evaluations of museum specimens of australis by C. P. Groves and P. Grubb show that pelage color differs by locality, horns are actually longer, and there may be more taxonomic variation than hitherto recognized, suggesting the possible need for subspecific designations. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139961FFDB0644FE4BF8BFFEFE.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Lowlands of S Ethiopia, Somalia, extreme SE Sudan, extreme NE Uganda, N, C & S Kenya, and E Tanzania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139961FFDB0644FE4BF8BFFEFE.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 150 - 169 cm, tail 28 - 43 cm, shoulder height 107 - 110 cm (these measurements refer to males only; there are no exact measurements available for females). No specific weights are available, but males are about 154 % heavier than females. The Southern Lesser Kudu is slender in frontal profile, like the Northern Lesser Kudu (A. ¢ mberbis), but it varies more in color, ranging among males and females from bright tawny-ocher to reddish-brown, chocolate brown with gray-white on the neck, or grayish chocolate brown, to predominantly gray. Both sexes have two white spots on the posterior jaw line, a small but defined upper throat patch, and a larger lower neck patch that is widened to a chevron, and often more defined than on the Northern Lesser Kudu. In the Southern Lesser Kudu, the throat spot is occasionally irregular in shape, and more rarely, a third white spot may occur below the regular throat spot. Males have a partial chevron on the nose just below the eyes, and a dorsal crest from the withers, where it is longest, to the tail; the crest is often whitish but can more closely match the coat color. A pale mane is occasionally evident on the back of the lower neck but often absent. There is no throat beard. The tail color matches coat color, seal-brown, black-tipped at the end, and white on the sides and underneath. The number of vertical body stripes on the Southern Lesser Kudu is 7 - 14 and may not be of equal number on both sides of the body ofa single individual. The stripes of the Southern Lesser Kudu begin further up on the shoulders than the Northern Lesser Kudu’, and they do not typically wrap across the haunch or converge near the front of the knee. The lower legs are tawny-orange, often with a black band on the inner side of the front leg and white areas anteriorlyjust above the hooves on all four legs. Contrary to early claims, male-only horns of the Southern Lesser Kudu are longer and have more spirals (2 - 5 - 3 turns) than in the Northern Lesser Kudu (2 - 2 - 5 turns). Horn development of young males provides a general means of determining age: horns become visible at about 9 - 9 - 5 months of age, reach ear length at about 1 - 5 years, are twice ear length at 2.5 years, and complete two complete spirals at three years. Dental formula is 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32. Diploid number of chromosomes is 38, and unlike other tragelaphine antelopes, both the Xand Y-chromosomes are fused with autosomes, suggesting an early evolutionary separation from other tragelaphine taxa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139961FFDB0644FE4BF8BFFEFE.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Southern Lesser Kudu is typically associated with dry Acacia — Commiphora thornbush habitat in north-eastern Africa, but it occurs in dry woodland areas in the western part ofits range. It avoids open grasslands and generally is found below 1200 m, although it has been seen as high as 1740 m on Mount Kilimanjaro, Kenya. In Tsavo National Park, southern Kenya, Southern Lesser Kudus tend to concentrate in riverine areas during the dry season and disperse more widely during the rainy season. Unpredictable rainfall patterns throughout their range result in irregular and often clumped distributions.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139961FFDB0644FE4BF8BFFEFE.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Herbivorous, selecting a very diverse diet of leaves, fruits, and flowers of predominantly shrubs and trees. In Tsavo National Park, Southern Lesser Kudus eat more than 150 plant species, including spiny succulents that no doubt help meet their water requirements. Diets change seasonally, with a pronounced dependence on evergreen trees and shrubs during the dry season. Leaves of trees and small and large shrubs made up 80 - 8 - 97 - 1 % of the dry season diets in three habitat types in Tsavo; vines, grasses, herbs, and fruits became more important during the rainy season, when they were 25 - 3 - 34: 6 % of the diets. In Tsavo, kudus show a preference for Euphorbia schefferi, Salvadora persica, and species of Calyptrotheca. Grasses are eaten but very selectively during the rainy season when growth is new and succulent; Panicum deustem is favored in Tsavo. Southern Lesser Kudus will drink when standing water is available, but they are not dependent on it.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139961FFDB0644FE4BF8BFFEFE.taxon	breeding	Breeding. In most locations, breeding and births take place throughout the year. The breeding behavior of the Southern Lesser Kudu follows the pattern typical of the tragelaphine antelope group, but is less intense. Direct observations are difficult to make, however, in the dense vegetation that lesser kudus inhabit. Aggressive interactions between mature males are rare, and they tend to avoid one another despite their non-exclusive home ranges. Mature males spar by pushing and twisting with their horns laid together lengthwise and the spirals engaged — Iikely a means to assess each other’s strength. Males occasionally lock horns so tightly that they eventually die. Mature males are more aggressive toward young males by displaying a bristling dorsal crest and tail, lateral presentation, and a stiff-legged gait and horning vegetation. Fake attacks and short chases may follow. A male offspring remains with its motherfor 1 - 5 - 2 years, lives variably with other young males for the next 2 - 3 years, and then becomes predominantly solitary when mature. Unless drawn to an abundant food resource, mature males only associate with females during breeding. Males check females for estrus as they encounter them, approaching in a low-stretch display, sniffing the genitals, urine testing, and rubbing the female’s hindquarters with their cheeks. If the female is receptive, the male draws alongside of her, rubbing his cheek along her body, whining and seemingly gasping for breath. The female may poke or head-butt the male from her head-low posture. Prior to copulation, the male rests his head on the female’s rump. Females can breed when they are about 1 - 5 years old. The estrous cycle is 21 - 22 days in captivity. A single offspring is born after a gestation of about 7 - 5 - 8 months. Wild neonates in Tsavo National Park were 4.1 - 7. 5 kg at birth. Mothers hid their young for a couple of weeks, visiting them only to nurse; young may nurse for up to eight minutes per bout in their first month. Weaning occurs at about six months. Birth intervals of captive and wild individuals are as short as 8 - 10 months under good forage conditions. In Tsavo, about 50 % of young die in their first six months oflife, 60 % in thefirst year, and 75 % do not live past three years of age; higher mortality rates of males were evident. Maximum longevity in the wild is probably about 8 - 10 years; two captive females lived just over 18 years and near 20 years in captivity.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139961FFDB0644FE4BF8BFFEFE.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Woodlands and shrub thickets are important for cover during hot, dry weather and for protection from threats. As with other ruminants, alternating patterns of feeding and resting / ruminating typify the daily activities of lesser kudus. Southern Lesser Kudus are active primarily in the early morning and evening; extensive night-time activity is likely. About 34 % of daylight hours are spent feeding, 36 % spent resting / ruminating, and 28 % engaged in moving and other activities. Feeding by Southern Lesser Kudus in Tsavo National Park was most common in the morning from 06: 15 h to 10: 00 h, with resting / ruminating, usually in a standing position, in dense woodland thickets from 11: 00 h to 13: 00 h. A second feeding peak occurred from 16: 00 h to 18: 00 h. Selfgrooming occurred throughout the day but was most prevalent in the late afternoon.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139961FFDB0644FE4BF8BFFEFE.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Southern Lesser Kudus are sedentary and, unless prompted by disturbance such as fire, typically remain in the same small areas of preferred habitat year after year. Disturbances can cause displacement of up to 5 - 6 km. In Tsavo National Park, groups may move about 0 - 5 km / day between foraging areas. Home ranges of males (mean, 2 - 2 km *) and females (1 - 8 km?) are small but comparable, ranging from 0 - 4 km? ® to 6 - 7 km *. Young males tend to have the largest home ranges. In most places, overall densities of the Southern Lesser Kudu are low compared to other tragelaphines: 0 - 02 - 0 - 18 ind / km? ® in Tsavo and 0 - 01 - 0 - 29 ind / km? * in Tarangire Game Reserve, Tanzania. Densities are higher in preferred shrubby habitat and generally increase with increasing density of woody cover; the highest densities of 1 - 3 ind / km ” in Tsavo were calculated from counts of known individuals. The Southern Lesser Kudu is gregarious, but typically occurs in small longlasting groups of 2 — 4 females and their offspring; no clear dominance hierarchy appears to occur among females. Mature males older than about 4 - 5 years of age mainly occur alone and tend to avoid each other. Aggregations of ten or more individuals are sometimes seen, but not often. Groups of females and young occasionally engage in “ running games ” where individuals vigorously rush about, bound over bushes, and dodge each other. Lesser kudus are excellent jumpers and can leap over bushes and other obstacles 2 - 2 - 5 m high with ease. When groups met at areas of abundant forage in Tsavo, no aggressive interactions were noted; rather, they showed signs of excitement such as jumping, running around, and mutual grooming (purported to be more common among captive individuals). When alarmed, all kudus emit a sharp bark. In the mixed ungulate community in Tsavo, Southern Lesser Kudus infrequently associate with other species unless some abundant resource such as fallen fruits draws them together.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139961FFDB0644FE4BF8BFFEFE.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List (under-Tragelaphus); it does not differentiate the two species of lesser kudu identified here. In the late 1990 s, the number of lesser kudus range-wide was estimated at about 118,000, with 30 % of them in protected areas. Now, populations are decreasing, with the prospect of their status changing to Vulnerable in the future. Notable populations of the Southern Lesser Kudu occur in Omo and Mago National Parks (southern Ethiopia), Tsavo National Park (Kenya), and Ruaha National Park and associated game reserves (Tanzania). The Southern Lesser Kudu is the more abundant and widespread of the two lesser kudu species, but both are threatened by human encroachment and associated habitat modifications (dryland and subsistence farming), excessive cattle grazing, disease transmission from cattle (rinderpest has been particularly hard on lesser kudus), and poaching. Kudus may be less affected by poaching than other species because of their protective habitat preferences and activity patterns, cryptic coloration, tendency to freeze in dense cover, and small group size. Highly valued as a hunting trophy, properly managed populations can bring needed revenue to conservation efforts. The Southern Lesser Kudu is represented in zoos throughout the world, but their numbers are not high (e. g. only 28 individuals in North America in 1987).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139960FFDC06D5FD0FFF73FB5C.taxon	materials_examined	“ Prom. B. Spei ” (Cape of Good Hope). Restricted by Grubb in 1999 to South Africa, southeastern Cape Province (eastern part of Western Cape Province).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139960FFDC06D5FD0FFF73FB5C.taxon	discussion	Recent evaluations of museum specimens by C. P. Groves and Grubb show that four forms of greater kudu are diagnostically different, separate from Tragelaphus and here replaced under Smith’s genus Strepsiceros. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139960FFDC06D5FD0FFF73FB5C.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Coastal SE South Africa, with isolated populations in C South Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139960FFDC06D5FD0FFF73FB5C.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. No specific measurements are available, but this speciesis not likely to be very different from the Zambezi Kudu (S. zambesiensis). The weight of malesis about 150 % of that of females. Greater kudus are the tallest of the African antelopes, after elands (7 Tawrotragus spp.), with the longest and most widely spiraled horns on males. The Cape Kudu was described in early accounts as darker than forms farther north. Coat color ranges from reddish-fawn to a pale blue-gray, particularly in older individuals; the neck tends to be darker than the shoulders and the head darker than the neck. As with other greater kudu species, Cape Kudus have a white chevron between the eyes, 2 - 3 spots on either cheek, and white upper and lowerlips and chin. The ears are very large and cup-shaped. A beard of white and darker hairs extends from the jaw to the lower throat, and a brownish mane and dorsal crest extend from the neck and withers to the tail. The color of the dorsal crest alternates from brownish to whitish, in sync with the 4 - 9 white vertical stripes on the sides of the body. The black-tipped tail is white underneath. The belly is grayish, becoming near black in the middle. The legs tend to be tawny from the hooves to knees and hocks; the pasterns are black posteriorly, with traces of whitish spots above the hooves on the front legs. The average straight-line horn length of male Cape Kudusis 89 - 5 cm, and average tip-to-tip length is 70 - 9 cm; exceptional horn lengths along the outside curve may reach 150 cm. Young males can be aged by the shape of their horns: they have a full spiral by two years of age and 2 - 5 spirals by 4 - 4 - 5 years of age. Females tend to be a more uniform fawn in body color and lack horns. Young are redder than adults, with similar but more pronounced white markings. Dental formulais 0 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139960FFDC06D5FD0FFF73FB5C.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Protective woody / shrubby cover is characteristic of Cape Kudu habitat. In Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, Cape Kudus occupy subtropical thicket vegetation, such as a non-succulent brush habitat typified by Maytenus polyacantha, Putterlickia pyracantha, Euclea undulata, and Rhus undulata; a succulent brushy habitat dominated by Euphorbia bothae, and brushlands dominated by Acacia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139960FFDC06D5FD0FFF73FB5C.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely comparable to the Zambezi Kudu (S. zambesiensis). As with other ruminants, alternating patterns of feeding and resting / ruminating typify the daily activities of greater kudus, and given their size, they spend a considerable amount of time foraging. Although greater kudus are not normally dependent on standing water, obtaining the water they need in the vegetation they eat, they will drink as they can during very dry periods.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139960FFDC06D5FD0FFF73FB5C.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The breeding and birthing periods of Cape Kudus are seasonal, with rut in April-June and the majority of births in December — February, coinciding with rainfall peaks. Males stay with their maternal group until they are about two years old and then form loose all-male groups of mixed ages, during which they begin to establish the ageand size-based absolute dominance hierarchies that carry into their breeding years. Males do not attain breeding status until they are five years old, after which they tend to live alone, forming only temporary associations with females during rut. Mature males tend to mutually avoid one another, and as a result, aggressive encounters are rare. Females are seasonally polyestrous and about 50 % of them give birth when they are two years old. Gestation is about nine months, and females isolate themselves to give birth to a single offspring. Neonates remain hidden for at least a couple of weeks, after which they may join their maternal group for brief periods during the day, less so at night. Their frequent absence from maternal groups in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, suggests a protracted hiding period, perhaps up to two months. Maximum longevity in the wild is probably about 7 - 15 years (longest for females); three females lived 22 - 3 - 23 - 5 years in captivity.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139960FFDC06D5FD0FFF73FB5C.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely comparable to the Zambezi Kudu.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139960FFDC06D5FD0FFF73FB5C.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Home ranges of Cape Kudus overlap extensively, and there is no evidence ofterritoriality. Average home ranges of male Cape Kudus in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, were larger (1: 6 km?) than those of females (0 - 97 km?). They varied depending on the habitat occupied, with larger home ranges of both sexes in non-succulent brush habitat (1 - 3 km? ® for females and 2 - 4 km? for males) than in habitats dominated by the shrubby Euphorbia bothae (0 - 5 km? and 1 - 3 km?). Groups of Cape Kudus consist of small matriarchal clans of up to several females and their offspring, but temporary aggregations of a dozen or more kudus are not uncommon. Associations among individuals are more a function of reproductive behavior and cycles than environmental conditions.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139960FFDC06D5FD0FFF73FB5C.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (included under Tragelaphus strepsiceros); it does not differentiate the four species of greater kudu identified. In the late 1990 s, the number of greater kudus rangewide was estimated at about 482,000, with 15 % in protected areas and 61 % on private land. All greater kudu species are threatened by human encroachment and associated habitat modifications (dryland and subsistence farming), excessive cattle grazing, disease transmission from cattle (rinderpest has been particularly hard on greater kudus), and poaching. Although numbers are greatly reduced from historical levels and populations are widespread, the species group is considered stable. Because greater kudus are highly prized as hunting trophies, private-land management plays an essential role in their conservation. Their horns also have been seen as symbols of male potency and used as religious artifacts, containers, and musical instruments. Cape Kudus play an important role in the growing ecotourism industry in Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, and private game reserves have an important role in their conservation.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139967FFDD0340FAA7FBEBFB60.taxon	materials_examined	Lesuma forest on the Zimbabwe — - Botswana border.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139967FFDD0340FAA7FBEBFB60.taxon	discussion	Recent assessments of the mtDNA control region of greater kudus from Namibia to northern Kenya suggested differentiation of at least chora to the north and zambesiensis, an east-central and south-western clade. S. frommi is a synonym. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139967FFDD0340FAA7FBEBFB60.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Tanzania (not extreme NW), extreme S DR Congo, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia (not extreme N), S Angola, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, and N South Africa. Demarcation of the distribution between the Zambezi Kudu and the Northern Kudu (S. chora) in S Kenya and N Tanzania requires additional research.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139967FFDD0340FAA7FBEBFB60.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 213 - 248 cm (males) and 205 - 217 cm (females), tail 41 — 75 cm, shoulder height 142 - 157 cm (males) and 121 - 132 cm (females). No specific weights are available, but male Zambezi Kudus are about 150 % heavier than females. Greater kudus are the tallest of the African antelopes, after elands (Taurotragus spp.), with the longest and most widely spiraled horns on males. Male Zambezi Kudus vary from a grayish to pale ocher to reddish gray-brown; some white hairs may be mixed in the base pelage color. Ear-tips are occasionally white, but overall, they are a darker shade of the body color. Males have a very clear chevron on the face, but it is often short. The long throat mane is straw-colored or mixed pale red-brown and black; the hair tips are often blackish. Males have a short red-brown nuchal mane that becomes a white dorsal stripe, sometimes with black hairs mixed in, and is slightly lengthened at the first lateral body stripe. Males have 8 - 11 contrasting body stripes, but this is variable. The pasterns are brown and usually not black posteriorly. The lower legs are cinnamon. The average straight-line horn lengths of male Zambezi Kudus are 95.1 - 106. 8 cm, and average tip-to-tip lengths are 74.8 - 80. 4 cm; exceptional horn lengths along the outside curve may reach 160 cm. Young males can be aged by the shape of their horns: they have a full spiral by two years of age and 2 - 5 spirals by 4 - 4 - 5 years of age. Very rarely, females have horns. Female and young male Zambezi Kudus are ocher to bright grayish brown, with longer and redder hair than males. Their nuchal manes are long on the withers and reddish, with black hairs mixed in; their throat mane is short and straw-colored. The facial chevron is poorly developed on females. Unlike males, their ears do not have white tips. Females have 5 - 10 vertical stripes on the sides of the body. The dorsal stripe is vague in parts and white except where sporadically interrupted with black after the fourth stripe. Pasterns on females are black or brown. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139967FFDD0340FAA7FBEBFB60.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Zambezi Kudus prefer woodland thickets, often on rocky escarpments and hills. Thickets along watercourses in Brachystegia woodlands often are frequented during the day. In Kruger National Park, South Africa, kudus occur in flat savannas of Acacia nigrescens and more upland savannas of Combretum apiculatum. In nearby Nylsvley Nature Reserve, savannas of Aristida bipartita — Setaria sphacelata, dominated by Acacia karroo, were used throughout the year. Throughout east-central Africa, former lowland woodland habitats have been lost to agriculture, and kudus now occur in patchy areas with suitable shrubby and forest cover and often in upland habitats. Unlike many other African antelopes, greater kudus are capable of living near human settlementif adequate cover exists.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139967FFDD0340FAA7FBEBFB60.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Herbivorous browser, selecting a wide variety of shrubs, herbs, succulents, fallen fruits, tubers, and flowers. Kudus can reach food that is about two meters above the ground, and Zambezi Kudustypically spent 33 % of their foraging time eating food at heights of 1 - 2 - 1 - 7 m. Given their size, they require large quantities of food; stomach contents from harvested individuals can weigh 30 - 38 kg. In Kruger National Park and Nylsvley Nature Reserve, South Africa, parts of more than 60 plant species are eaten, with variable selection of forage classes depending on season and location — both a reflection of availability. Kudus often eat plant parts that have structural and chemical defenses with no ill effects, and relative to availability, herbaceous species are the most preferred. Early in the growing season in Kruger and Nylsvley, 63 - 66 % of feeding time was spent eating woody browse (e. g. Grewia, Dichrostachys, and Combretum), 17 - 37 % eating herbaceous species (e. g. Schkuhria, Chenopodium, and Bidens), and 0 - 13 % eating fruits / pods (e. g. Strychnos and Acacia). Late in the growing season, in contrast, only 30 % of feeding time in Kruger was spent eating woody browse and 60 % eating herbaceous species. Time spent feeding on grasses peaked at 14 % late in the growing season in Nylsvley but was 0 - 6 % at other times ofthe year in both areas. Evergreen and semi-evergreen woody browse species (e. g. Strychnos pungens and Rhus leptodictya), even those considered to be unpalatable, were important dietary components late in the dry season when other forages were limited in availability and quality. In Zimbabwe, fallen seed pods of five Acacia species were preferred over unripe seed pods still on the trees. Although Zambezi Kudus are not normally dependent on standing water, obtaining the water they need in the vegetation they eat, they will drink as they can during very dry periods.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139967FFDD0340FAA7FBEBFB60.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Zambezi Kudus are seasonal breeders. The breeding and birthing seasons in northern Zimbabwe occur in May-August and January-April, respectively, with births coinciding with the growing season. The majority of births occur more narrowly in January-February (85 %) in Kruger National Park, South Africa, and February-March in southern Zimbabwe. Males establish an age-based dominance hierarchy and live in loose all-male groups outside the breeding season. Aggressive interactions between mature males appear to be rare, and they do not charge each other. Mature males assess each other’s strength by lateral displays and by pushing and twisting with their hornslaid together lengthwise and the spirals engaged. Males occasionally lock horns so tightly that they eventually die. Males 6 - 7 years old dominate courtship and mating; females generally are not receptive to the advances of young males. Mature males tend to associate with a particular stable female group, but there is no indication of territoriality or harem formation, and they will switch between groups of females. Mature males tend estrous females closely, frequently testing their urine with a lip curl, directing their movements, and sometimes separating them from their group. While courting, a tending male will grunt, cluck, and whine while rubbing his head and body along the female’s body and eventually pressing his neck across hers, pushing down her head. Prior to copulation, the male rests his head on the female’s rump, a behavior typical of tragelaphines. He may try to halt a female’s attempt to flee with a lateral display. After a gestation period of about nine months, a single offspring is born. Neonates are hidden for two weeks, after which they join their mother’s social group during the day; they continue to hide for 4 - 5 weeks during the night. The average nursing time is 6 - 7 minutes, and offspring are weaned at about six months. Offspring are groomed by their mother and other female group members. In Kruger National Park, males have a higher mortality rate than females; a mature male at six years old has only a 50 % chance of surviving another year and most males die by the age of nine; females may live 15 years. Sex ratios as low as 15 males: 100 females have been reported. High male mortality seems to be more a result of periodic malnutrition, coupled with the demands of a large body size, and male-biased predation by Lions (Panthera leo) than the costs of intrasexual competition during rut or the hazards of male dispersal. Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) differentially prey on female Zambezi Kudus in Limpopo Province, South Africa. African Wild Dogs (Lycaon pictus), Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus), and Leopards (P. pardus) also prey on kudus — the latter two mostly on subadult females andjuveniles. Overall survival rates also are affected by rainfall patterns and density.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139967FFDD0340FAA7FBEBFB60.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. As with other ruminants, alternating patterns of feeding and resting / ruminating typify the daily activities of greater kudus, and given theirsize, they spend a considerable amount of time foraging. In Kruger National Park, throughout the year, female Zambezi Kudus are active 73 % of the time and spend 50 - 58 % of the 24 hour cycle foraging, about 45 % of that at night. Moving, standing alert, and grooming / excreting waste occupy 14 %, 11 %, and 1 % of their time. During the dry season, when forage availability can decrease by 75 %, Zambezi Kudus increase their time spent moving, to secure adequate intake of food, and decrease their time spent in other activities; 85 % of their time can be spent foraging and seeking food. Woodlands and shrub thickets are important for cover during hot, dry weather. As ambient temperatures increase, foraging time decreases, particularly for adult females and subadults of both sexes. Temperatures above 36 ° C in the wet season and 30 ° C in the dry season restrict foraging times.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139967FFDD0340FAA7FBEBFB60.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Female Zambezi Kudus move across savanna habitats and the transition between savannas and adjacent hills in Kruger National Park during the rainy season, but males confine their activities to riverine areas throughout the year. Females return to riverine areas where forage is most abundant during the dry season. Density estimates range from 0 - 87 ind / km? in Northern Cape Province, South Africa, to 3 - 2 ind / km? in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Home ranges of females were 3 - 6 - 5 - 2 km? at Kruger, and males occupy areas greater than 11 km? Home ranges of mature males were not exclusive of other males’ home ranges, and they typically overlapped several home ranges of female groups. Groups of 2 — 4 adult females are typical throughout the year, and males are often found in larger groups of up to ten individuals during the non-breeding season. Occasionally, larger aggregations are observed. All greater kudus rely on cryptic coloration and coat patterning and typically freeze in protective cover in the face of a threat; if fleeing, they are capable of jumping 2 - 5 m. Greater kudus have one of the loudest alarm barks among the African antelopes.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139967FFDD0340FAA7FBEBFB60.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under Tragelaphus strepsiceros); it does not differentiate the four species of greater kudu identified here. In the late 1990 s, the number of greater kudus rangewide was estimated at about 482,000, with 15 % in protected areas and 61 % on private land. All greater kudu species are threatened by human encroachment and associated habitat modifications (dryland and subsistence farming), excessive cattle grazing, disease transmission from cattle (rinderpest has been particularly hard on greater kudus), and poaching. Although numbers are greatly reduced from historic levels and populations are widespread, the species group is considered stable. Because all greater kudus are highly prized as hunting trophies, private-land management plays an essential role in their conservation. Their horns also have been used in various ways: as symbols of male potency, as containers, musical instruments, and as religious artifacts. Significant and well-studied populations occur in Kruger National Park and Nylsvley Nature Reserve, South Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139966FFDD03DBFAB3F5A5FCD8.taxon	materials_examined	Eastern Sudan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139966FFDD03DBFAB3F5A5FCD8.taxon	discussion	Recent evaluations of museum specimens by C. P. Groves and P. Grubb show that four forms of greater kudu are diagnostically different. Synonym is bea. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139966FFDD03DBFAB3F5A5FCD8.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Extreme E Sudan, Eritrea, S Djibouti, Ethiopia (except inland highlands), Somalia (on the boundary with Ethiopia), NE Uganda, N & C Kenya to Tanzania border. Demarcation of the distribution between the Northern Kudu and the Zambezi Kudu (S. zambesiensis) in S Kenya and N Tanzania requires additional research.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139966FFDD03DBFAB3F5A5FCD8.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 236 - 245 cm (males) and 214 cm (one female), tail 32 - 51 cm, shoulder height 128 - 152 cm (males) and 128 cm (one female). No specific weights are available, but male Northern Kudus are about 150 % heavier that females. Greater kudus are the tallest of the African antelopes, after elands (7 aurotragus spp.), with the longest and most widely spiraled horns on males. Male Northern Kudus are pale gray-brown, with a big facial chevron and a long pale nuchal mane that has dark brown tips. They also have throat and nape manes, but the throat mane is very short and dark in some locations and restricted to the lower throat. Males have 3 - 7 stripes. Their feet have black or brown pasterns, with a whitish band above the hooves. The backs of the large cup-shaped ears are wholly black or dark gray (except rims), or may be black distally. The average straight-line horn lengths of male Northern Kudus are 83: 2 - 90. 3 cm, and average tip-to-tip lengths are 59.4 - 63 cm; exceptional horn lengths along the outside curve may reach 145 cm. Young males can be aged by the shape of their horns: they have a full spiral by two years of age and 2 - 5 spirals by 4 - 4 - 5 years of age. Female Northern Kudus are dull to pale brown, and they have full facial chevrons. Females have three stripes on the haunches, three others well spaced farther forward, and a vague stripe between the two groups of three. The backs of the ears are dark; dark rings surround all four round hooves; no mane, just very slightly lengthened hair on nape and throat. Females lack horns. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (<2) = 33.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139966FFDD03DBFAB3F5A5FCD8.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely similar to other greater kudu species, with a preference for shrub woodlands with protective cover. Early accounts suggested that populations in the east-central part of its range were not as restricted to densely wooded habitats. In Ethiopia, the Northern Kudu is reportedly found at elevations up to 2400 m.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139966FFDD03DBFAB3F5A5FCD8.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely primarily a browser and comparable to other greater kudu species. Although greater kudus are not normally dependent on standing water, obtaining the water they need in the vegetation they eat, they will drink as they can during very dry periods.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139966FFDD03DBFAB3F5A5FCD8.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely comparable to other greater kudu species. Maximum longevity in the wild is probably about 7 - 15 years (longer for females); one captive female lived almost 21 years in captivity.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139966FFDD03DBFAB3F5A5FCD8.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely comparable to other greater kudu species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139966FFDD03DBFAB3F5A5FCD8.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely sedentary and occupying relatively small home ranges comparable to other greater kudu species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139966FFDD03DBFAB3F5A5FCD8.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under Tragelaphus strepsiceros); it does not differentiate the four species of greater kudu identified here. In the late 1990 s, the number of greater kudus range-wide was estimated at about 482,000, with 15 % in protected areas and 61 % on private land. Numbers are greatly reduced from historic levels and populations are widespread; the status of the Northern Kudu is considered unsatisfactory, with little known about specific population levels. One isolated population that lived in north-central Somalia is extinct. Political strife in the region adds to the concern. Because greater kudus are highly prized as hunting trophies, private-land management plays an essential role in their conservation. Their horns have played a role in local customs, as symbols of male potency and religious artifacts. They are also used as containers and musical instruments.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139966FFDD06D0FC20F780F2FA.taxon	materials_examined	Byaya, French Congo.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139966FFDD06D0FC20F780F2FA.taxon	discussion	Recent evaluations of museum specimens by C. P. Groves and P. Grubb show that four forms of greater kudu are diagnostically different. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139966FFDD06D0FC20F780F2FA.taxon	distribution	Distribution. SE Chad, W Sudan, and isolated populations in extreme N Central African Republic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139966FFDD06D0FC20F780F2FA.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 193 - 219 cm, tail 46 - 48 cm, shoulder height 121 - 123 cm (these measurements refer to males only). No specific weights are available, but the Western Kudu is the smallest species of the genus Strepsiceros. In general, weight of males is about 150 % of that offemales. Greater kudus are the tallest of the African antelopes, after elands (Taurotragus spp.), with the longest and most widely spiraled horns on males. Male Western Kudus are pale brown with 4 - 8 vertical stripes on the sides of the body. The dorsal stripe is white or pale brown, lengthened and blacker posteriorly. The facial chevron is poorly expressed. The backs of the large cupped ears are dark gray. There is very little black around the hooves and the legs are always whitish above the dark zone. The pale mane is very short on the nape but long on the throat. Male Western Kudus have the shortest horn length of the four greater kudu species. Average straight-line horn length is 78 - 5 cm, and average tip-to-tip length is 61 - 5 cm; exceptional horn lengths along the outside curve may reach 135 cm. Young males can be aged by the shape of their horns: they have a full spiral by two years of age and 2 - 5 spirals by 4 - 4 - 5 years of age. Female Western Kudus are similar to Northern Kudu (S. chora) females; they are pale brown, with three lateral body stripes on the haunches and three others well spaced farther forward. The backs of the ears are dark, and all four hooves are surrounded by a dark ring. Females have a full facial chevron, but no nuchal mane; they do have very slightly lengthened hair on the nape and throat. Females lack horns. Dental formula is 1 0 / 3, CO 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139966FFDD06D0FC20F780F2FA.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely similar to other greater kudu species, with a preference for shrub woodlands with protective COVeT.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139966FFDD06D0FC20F780F2FA.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely primarily a browser and comparable to other greater kudu species. Although greater kudus are not normally dependent on standing water, obtaining the water they need in the vegetation they eat, they will drink as they can during very dry periods.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139966FFDD06D0FC20F780F2FA.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely comparable to other greater kudu species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139966FFDD06D0FC20F780F2FA.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely comparable to other greater kudu species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139966FFDD06D0FC20F780F2FA.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely sedentary and occupying relatively small home ranges comparable to other greater kudu species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139966FFDD06D0FC20F780F2FA.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under Tragelaphus strepsiceros); it does not differentiate the four species of greater kudu identified here. In the late 1990 s, the number of greater kudus range-wide was estimated at about 482,000, with 15 % in protected areas and 61 % on private land. All greater kudu species are threatened by human encroachment and associated habitat modifications (dryland and subsistence farming), excessive cattle grazing, disease transmission from cattle (rinderpest has been particularly hard on greater kudus), and poaching. As a group, the greater kudus have always been considered less abundant in the northern part of their range, and the specific status of populations of the Western Kudu is largely unknown. Political strife in the region adds to the concern. It was considered Vulnerable in Chad as late as 1997 with fewer than 200 individuals, and it may now be extinct in large parts of its former range.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139965FFDE0375FE20F5EBF4FF.taxon	materials_examined	S Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139965FFDE0375FE20F5EBF4FF.taxon	discussion	The two eland species are separated taxonomically from related Strepsiceros species because they have very large supraorbital foramina in very deep, wide, and elongated depressions; mesopterygoid fossa forms a wide U-shape; and ends of the parocciptal processes are short and free. Three subspecies of Common Eland are sometimes recognized, in three distributional areas: the southern oryx, the central pattersonianus, and the north-eastern / livingstonii. Recent morphometric analyses, however, suggest that a few differences, on average only, can be found between populations in southern (oryx) and eastern (livingstonii) Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139965FFDE0375FE20F5EBF4FF.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. T. o. oryxPallas, 1766 — SAfricaincludingNamibia, Botswana, Swaziland, andSouthAfrica. T. o. livingstonii Sclater, 1864 — S & E Africa; N limit through Angola and S DR Congo, then N to Rwanda, Uganda, SE Sudan, SW Ethiopia, Kenya, S Somalia, and Tanzania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139965FFDE0375FE20F5EBF4FF.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 250 - 340 cm (males) and 200 - 280 cm (females), tail 54 - 75 cm, shoulder height 135 - 183 cm (males) and 125 - 153 cm (females); weight 400 - 942 kg (males) and 390 - 600 kg (females). The Common Eland is rather oxen-like in its body form compared to African antelopes; the chest, neck, and shoulders are massive, particularly in older males; the legs are relative short and sturdy. Males generally weigh 35 - 50 % more than females. Both sexes have spiraled horns, but they are longer, thinner, and less spiraled on females (51 - 70 cm) than on males (43 - 67 cm). Both sexes have a dewlap with a terminal tuft of hair on the throat, but it does not go up to the chin as it does on the Giant Eland (7. derbianus). The dewlaps of old males become particularly long and vary enough in shape and character that an individual can be identified in the field. Only males develop a dark crest of tufted hair on their foreheads and noses (nasal brush), possibly associated with apocrine glands. Coat patterning is more pronounced in northern populations. The pelage is nearly uniform in color throughout the body and ranges from red-brown (young) to dark gray; males tend to turn blue-gray (referred to as “ gray males ”) as they age and have a darker neck, as their dark skin shows through thinning hairs. The Common Eland has a dark dorsal crest, small mane, and 2 - 12 lateral transverse stripes that are more prominent anteriorly. Individuals in the southern part of the range have a paler pelage, and the stripes are paler or nearly absent. The legs have white markings and black “ garters ” around the upper forelegs and around the large hooves; the front hooves are larger than the hindhooves, to support the concentration of weight in the front. The mouth and teeth of Common Elands are disproportionately small relative to overall mass, which reflect its selective diet. The ears are pointed and small, and the cheeks are not spotted like on the Giant Eland. The tail is long and tufted black on the end. Dental formula is I 0 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32. Diploid numbers for the Common Eland are 31 for males and 32 for females — among the lowest of the Tragelaphini.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139965FFDE0375FE20F5EBF4FF.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Common Eland is considered one of the most adaptable African ungulates and uses a variety of habitats, some arid to subdesert and most with unpredictable food availability. It can be found at elevations up to 4600 m. It occurs most commonly in open woodlands, brushy Acacia savannas, open grasslands, and associated habitat mosaics, and avoids thick forests, swamps, true deserts, and completely open grasslands. It will use cropland if available. Free water is not a critical habitat component. The great size of the Common Eland permits considerable heat storage and water conservation, and it does not congregate around water sources like many African ungulates.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139965FFDE0375FE20F5EBF4FF.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Herbivorous, classified variously as a browser or intermediate feeder, but definitely selective given its small mouth size. Throughout the year, Common Elands are predominately browsers, selecting leaves, fruits, and pods of a variety of woody and herbaceous species. Leaves and fruits of common trees and shrubs in its preferred habitats, and thus in its diet, include Acacia, Combretum, Grewia, Rhus, and Ziziphus. Common Elands also will eat considerable amounts of grasses (Setaria and Themeda), but only when growth is most succulent, for example, at the beginning of the wet season. The Common Eland usesits horns to pull down branches and dig for tubers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139965FFDE0375FE20F5EBF4FF.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating and births occur throughout the year, but peaks in births are noted late in the dry season and early in the rainy season. Males engage in lateral displays, sparring with horns, neck-wrestling (also common among juvenile males), head-shaking displays, and low-head posturing, but most observers have noted that male-to-male interactions are “ low-keyed. ” Well-developed secondary sexual characteristics of male Common Elands and their displays to one another allow males to assess competitors’ potential quite accurately and avoid direct confrontation. Dewlap size and the castanet-like knee-clicking of males (audible for about 100 m) are associated with age and body size. Gray males regularly adorn their nasal brushes and horns with wet, often urine-soaked soil and vegetation. Real combat does occur between fully mature males, but it is brief. Mature dominant males do most of the breeding by seeking and closely tending estrous females. Urine testing and subsequentlip curling are commonly performed by all sexes and ages (beginning as early as three months of age). While tending a female, a male follows her closely and stimulates her to urinate by nosing and licking her genitals, rests his chin on her hindquarters, and attempts to mount. A male often approaches a female in a low-stretch posture while rapidly flicking his tongue and salivating profusely. If not immediately receptive, females may appear aggressive by responding with horn swiping, ritualized biting, and mock attacks. If the female stops and appears receptive, the male assumes an erect posture and bleats submissively like a calf. Length of the estrous cycle is 21 days, copulation is brief (roughly four seconds), and gestation is 8 - 9 months. Gravid females seek a secluded place to give birth, usually in a lying position. Newborn Common Elands weigh about 25 - 30 kg, stand soon after birth, mimic their mothers’ feeding behavior, and are weaned at about six months. Newborns join nursery groups within a few days of birth, if available; otherwise, they remain alone and hidden for up to two weeks. Neonates only go to their mother to nurse if she calls. Females engage in communal defense of young, but otherwise they are rather disinterested parents. The young grow rapidly and can be more than 450 kg at one year of age. Young and juvenile Common Elands spend a lot of time together and become independent early in life. Average longevity is 15 - 20 years, longer in captivity; mortality is most affected by food supply, but predation of young by Lions and hyenas can be high.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139965FFDE0375FE20F5EBF4FF.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Daily activity patterns of the Common Eland are variable by season and location and are most dependent on forage availability and temperature. In very hot weather, they may rest in the shade all day to minimize heat gain and forage throughout the night. In cooler weather, a typical pattern is alternating two-hour bouts of feeding and resting / ruminating, starting at 06: 00 h and lasting throughout the day and even well into the night, until 02: 00 h if forage availability is low. Introduced Common Elands in South Africa display different seasonal patterns of activity, with two phases of feeding and resting / ruminating during the day in winter and two phases of feeding, but only one of resting / ruminating, during the day in summer.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139965FFDE0375FE20F5EBF4FF.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Common Eland is nomadic, traversing non-exclusive large home ranges in search of the best foraging opportunities. Generally, mature males are more sedentary than females and juveniles of both sexes. Male home ranges were 6 - 71 km? and female home ranges were 34 - 360 km? in Nairobi National Park, Kenya. Densities are commonly less than 1 ind / km?, often much less, but surveying the Common Eland is difficult. Given their bulk, these animals are relatively slow, but they can maintain a trot at speeds of 35 km / h for several kilometers. Young individuals are remarkable jumpers and can clear 3 m barriers from a standing position. Common Elands are gregarious and can occur in herds of 100 - 500 individuals (particularly when food is abundant), but group sizes and membership change regularly. Groups may be of mixed sexes and ages, female-only, male-only, and entirely young-of-the-year and juveniles. The only regular association is between a female and her offspring, but even that relationship is ephemeral because of the tendency of young Common Elands to prefer their own company over adults. It is not uncommon to find groups of young and juveniles, numbering two to more than 400, completely disjunct from adults. Males are less sociable than females: typically, there are 3 - 5 males / group and 10 - 12 mostly females / mixed group. Females have been shown to maintain a complex, and generally linear, dominance hierarchy in captivity; their relationships in the wild may have similar characteristics but are no doubt more fluid. Fully mature males tend to associate with males of smaller stature or occur alone.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139965FFDE0375FE20F5EBF4FF.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The total Common Eland population was estimated at 136,000 in the late 1990 s, and it is considered stable range-wide, with some populations decreasing. Extinct in Burundi. About 50 % of the extant Common Elands occur in protected areas, with another 30 % on private ranches. It is a popular trophy animal, and the meat is prized, so poaching can be a significant localized problem. Because of the economic value of their high-quality meat and milk, Common Elands are, or have been, semi-domesticated in Kenya, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Russia, Ukraine, Great Britain, and the USA. Habitat loss due to an expanding human population has reduced the historical range of Common Elands by about 50 % and represents the mostsignificant ongoing threat to their conservation.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139965FFDF064CF444F8BAF825.taxon	materials_examined	Senegambia, W Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139965FFDF064CF444F8BAF825.taxon	discussion	The two eland species are separated taxonomically from related Strepsiceros species because they have very large supraorbital foramina in very deep, wide, and elongated depressions; their mesopterygoid fossa form a wide U-shape; and the ends of the parocciptal processes are short and free. Although IUCN and others recognize two subspecies of the Giant Eland (derbianus, “ Western Giant Eland, ” and gigas, “ Eastern Giant Eland ”), recent univariate and multivariate morphometric analyses failed to demonstrate any consistent separation in geographic samples; therefore it is considered monotypic here.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139965FFDF064CF444F8BAF825.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Restricted to three disjunct populations in SE Senegal, N Guinea, and SW Mali, and perhaps E Guinea-Bissau; N Cameroon, SW Chad, and maybe E & C Nigeria; and Central African Republic, SE Chad, SW Sudan, and maybe NE DR Congo and NW Uganda.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139965FFDF064CF444F8BAF825.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 290 cm (males) and 220 cm (females), tail 90 cm, shoulder height 150 - 176 cm; weight 440 — 950 kg (males) and 440 kg (females). The common name Giant Eland is misleading, because it is generally smaller in mass than the Common Eland (7. oryx); the name refers to the spiraled horns of the Giant Eland, which are 80 - 123 cm in length and form a V-shape. Male Giant Elands are heavier and have longer horns and dewlaps than females; otherwise, the sexes are similar. The smooth pelage of both sexes is strikingly reddish-brown, chestnut, or sandy (males tend to turn gray as they age) and highlighted by a short brown to black spinal mane from the neck to the middle of the back and vertical white stripes on the torso. The stripes are often obvious on the hindquarters as well. Individuals in the one western population tend to be smaller and richer in color and have 14 - 15 white stripes vs. twelve white stripes in the two eastern populations. The lips are white, with several white dots along the jaw, and the bridge of the nose is black with a tan chevron between the eyes. Males develop a chocolate to reddish fulvous tuft of hair on their nose (nasal brush) as they age. In contrast to the tufted dewlap of the Common Eland, which begins on the throat, the fringed dewlap of the Giant Eland begins under the chin and ends about mid-neck, with an upward sweep of dark hair forming a collar. Both eland species have a shoulder hump, but it tends to be more obvious in the Giant Eland in part because of the dark collar reaching up to the anterior beginning of the hump. The chest and inside of the legs are white, but the belly has a black stripe from front to back. The legs are relatively slender; all four have two separate garters of white and blackjust about the hooves, and the upper forelegs have a posterior black spot. The ears are larger and more rounded than those of the Common Eland. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32. Diploid numbers for the Giant Eland are 31 for males and 32 for females — the same as the Common Eland and among the lowest of the Tragelaphini.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139965FFDF064CF444F8BAF825.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Giant Eland is more constrained in its habitat preference than the Common Eland. It is restricted to broad-leafed woodland savannas, often dominated by Isoberlinia doka, and forested mosaics, and it is uncommon in grassland savannas; hilly and rocky habitats are common in Giant Eland habitat. Free water is not an important habitat component, but it will drink daily if wateris available.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139965FFDF064CF444F8BAF825.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Giant Eland is a browser and eats leaves, emerging shoots, herbs, and fruits and less commonly grasses. It is said to be particularly fond of the young leaves of the Isoberlinia doka tree and will use its horns to break branches and obtain forage. Shoots and flowers of Gardenia also are a favored food item. The flush of herbaceous vegetation that appears after fires is attractive to Giant Eland.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139965FFDF064CF444F8BAF825.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no set birthing and breeding season, and young can be observed throughout the year. Breeding behavior of the Giant Eland has not been reported in detail, but it is probably comparable to the Common Eland and low-keyed. Males are not territorial but presumably establish a dominance hierarchy for breeding based on mass and horn length. Gestation is 8 - 9 months, and single births are the norm. In captivity, obvious signs of labor begin 85 minutes before birth, which occurs in a lying position. The neonate stands after about 45 minutes. Weaning occurs at about six months. In the wild, Lions (Panthera leo) and Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) prey on young. Longevity is probably 15 - 20 years in the wild and longer in captivity.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139965FFDF064CF444F8BAF825.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Mainly crepuscular, but likely also active at night.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139965FFDF064CF444F8BAF825.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Limited ecological studies have been conducted on the Giant Eland, and no specific information is available for home range size. The distribution and availability of the tree Isoberlinia doka, a preferred forage, are said to guide the movements of the Giant Eland. Although these elands are swift, wary, and capable of speeds of 70 km / h, their regular movements are likely less extensive than those of the Common Eland, which inhabits more arid areas with less predictable food resources. The Giant Eland is gregarious, and typical group size is 10 - 30 individuals, but groups of 60 or more are not uncommon. Mature males are often solitary. Group sizes of the Giant Eland are stable and do not change as much seasonally as do groups of the Common Eland.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139965FFDF064CF444F8BAF825.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Eland once ranged in a continuous band across Central Africa from Gambia to the White Nile. It is now extinct in Ivory Coast, Gambia, Ghana, and Togo. The total population of Giant Eland is estimated at only 15,000 - 20,000, but is considered stable over parts of its remnant range, particularly in Cameroon and Central African Republic, where human densities are low but political instability can be high, hampering conservation activities. Only 200 or fewer Giant Elands occur in West Africa, most in Niokolo-Koba National Park, Senegal. Individuals from Niokolo-Koba were captured and moved to two other facilities in Senegal, Bandia Reserve in 2000 and later Fathala Reserve, with a goal of breeding them to establish new populations; 30 captive births occurred in 2000 - 2006. Giant Elands are highly prized as trophies because of their splendid long and spiraled horns, affording opportunities for enhanced conservation through controlled hunting. Loss of habitat from an expanding human population and poaching are ongoing conservation challenges.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139979FFC20376FE7BF8A3F35E.taxon	materials_examined	Cape Colony.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139979FFC20376FE7BF8A3F35E.taxon	discussion	Numerous subspecies have been described; all are considered invalid here except for R. a. occidentalis, which is herein considered a separate species. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139979FFC20376FE7BF8A3F35E.taxon	distribution	Distribution. DR Congo S to N Namibia and N Botswana, and S through Zimbabwe, S Mozambique (approximately S of Zambezi River), NE South Africa (including KwaZulu-Natal), and Swaziland; an isolated population is found in S Gabon. No studies have attempted to distinguish the exact geographical range of R. arundinum from that of the Zambian Reedbuck (R. occidentalis) where the two populations meet.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139979FFC20376FE7BF8A3F35E.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 130 - 160 cm (males) and 120 - 140 cm (females), tail 18 - 30 cm; shoulder height 80 - 150 cm (males) and 65 - 95 cm (females), weight 51 - 95 kg (males) and 39 - 85 kg (females). The Southern Reedbuck is significantly larger than the sympatric Southern Mountain Reedbuck (R. fulvorufula) in southern Africa. Males are larger than females. The dorsal pelage is uniform buff or grayish-fawn, finely grizzled with brown; the underparts are white. A vertical black stripe marks the fronts of the forelegs; similar markings are usually present on the lower hindlegs. The tail is very bushy; the upper surface is fawn like the body, while the underside and tip are white. The head and neck tend to be brighter and more yellowish-brown than the rest of the body. The face is generally unmarked, although a patch of darker brown is occasionally present on the lower face or forehead. The upperlips, underside of the jaw, and a small area on the upper throat are white; a whitish spot is also present at the inner corner of each eye and may extend into a pale ring around the eye itself. The ears are pointed; at the base of each ear is a glandular area (present in both sexes) that is usually covered with hair, but appears as a distinctive bare black circle when the subauricular glands are active. Horns are present only in males, and have a distinct concave curvature with the horn tips pointing forward. Transverse ridges occur on the basal two-thirds; the horn tips are smooth. Diverging from base to tip, the horns are the longest among the genus Redunca, growing 25 — 45 cm. The degree of divergence is extremely variable; tip-to-tip distances may range from 24 cm to 52 cm. A conspicuous pale crescent of swollen tissue is present at the base of each horn. Dental formula is 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139979FFC20376FE7BF8A3F35E.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Tall grass savannas and savanna-woodlands associated with year-round water supplies. Cover, provided by tall grass, is an essential refuge; most other ungulates avoid these areas, and general habitat selection is correlated with an absence of other ungulate species. Grassland habitats dominated by Trachypogon spicatus, Hyparrhenia dissoluta, or Elionurus argenteus are used extensively after the grasses have grown tall enough to provide cover (beginning in November in South Africa). During the dry season (June-October in South Africa), riverside habitats dominated by Phragmites australis and associated bush are frequently used due to the lack of sufficient food and coverin savannas. Overall population densities are generally less than 0 - 2 ind / km?. In protected areas, average densities of 1: 4 - 7 - 6 ind / km? have been recorded, with pockets of favorable habitat supporting localized densities of 25 - 35 ind / km?.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139979FFC20376FE7BF8A3F35E.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Various grasses make up the bulk of the diet of the Southern Reedbuck across seasons; herbs and shoots / leaves are consumed only in very small amounts. The Southern Reedbuck avoids competition with sympatric ungulates by feeding on relatively unpalatable grasses. Principal grass species consumed in the savanna-woodland of north-eastern South Africa are Heteropogon contortus, Trachypogon spicatus, and Hyparrhenia dissoluta (the latter may compose 90 - 95 % of the food eaten in a foraging bout). Panicum maximum is a winter staple, being one of only a few grasses consumed when dry. Themeda triandra and Urochloa mosambicensis grow only in low densities but are consumed year-round when present. In riverine habitats in the same area of South Africa (used in June — October), the principal grasses consumed are Leersia hexandra and Phragmites australis. Herbs play a larger dietary role in this dry season habitat: Cyperus spp., Commelina africana, Klingia spp., Polygonum spp., and Pycreus polystachyos are all eaten, and the leaves from the shrub Albizia harveyi may be consumed regardless of the stage of leaf development. The Southern Reedbuck is a thorough forager, covering approximately one square meter per minute while feeding. In marshy terrain, this species has been recorded wading into water to a depth of 20 cm to feed.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139979FFC20376FE7BF8A3F35E.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The Southern Reedbuck reproduces throughout the year, but shows seasonal trends. In eastern South Africa, a peak in breeding behavior has been observed in March — - May (Natal Highlands) and May-June (Kruger National Park). The majority of births (over 50 %) occur between November and January in the Natal Highlands; in Kruger National Park, this peak is between December and April. Courtship involves repeated cycles of following and pausing (the pauses including naso-anogenital contact between the trailing male and the female). A female’s urine, sampled by the male either in midstream or from the ground, is tested with the flehmen response. Ritualized foreleg kicking, or “ laufschlag, ” is conspicuously absent from the courtship repertoire of male Southern Reedbuck; this may serve to prevent hybridization with other Redunca species. Copulation attempts begin after 1 - 3 cycles of following; several additional repetitions may be required before mounting is successful. Copulation lasts approximately two seconds, and mounting attempts cease after ejaculation. The gestation period is estimated at 233 days; litter size is one. For at least six weeks after birth, the infant is hidden in dense vegetation, adopting a prone position with the body, neck, and head pressed close to the ground. During this caching period, the mother remainsin the vicinity of the infant (rarely venturing more than 200 m away), but only visits sporadically for nursing and grooming. A single visit during hours of daylight (usually midday) is normal, but if there are disturbances in the area the infant may go all day without nursing. Scent appears to be used by the female to determine the location of the infant, who will remain prone until the motheris within 1 - 2 m. Nursing lasts for 2 - 5 — 4 - 5 minutes, after which the infant caches itself in a new spot (hiding spots are not reused). Mothers are highly protective of their offspring and have been observed fending off predators such as Chacma Baboons (Papio ursinus). At three months, juveniles accompany their mothers, remaining within 15 - 30 m but lagging behind and then running ahead rather than following closely. Separation from adults while resting continues until after weaning (at approximately four months) and full independence occurs at 11 - 12 months, just prior to the birth of the next offspring. The horns of males begin to grow at 6 - 8 months. Young females tend to leave their natal home range earlier than males (usually before two years for females vs. 2 - 3 years for males); females also disperse greater distances. Maximum longevity in captivity is over 16 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139979FFC20376FE7BF8A3F35E.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Active throughout the day and night, with peaks in activity around dawn and dusk. The hours after sunset are a principal active time of the Southern Reedbucks in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. In winter, temperature fluctuations appear to drive daily activities: in early morning (05: 00 - 06: 00 h), there is an uphill movement from valleys to higher hills where the sun hits first. After foraging at higher elevations for several hours, there is a gradual downward movement (with intermittent grazing), returning to sources of cover around rivers in valley bottoms. Grazing bouts are interspersed with periods of rest and rumination that may last for 2 - 3 hours. In tall grass habitats, Southern Reedbucks may simply lie down to rest, then rise and resume foraging; in open habitats, they will retire to cover.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139979FFC20376FE7BF8A3F35E.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Southern Reedbuck has a very loose social system; associations between adults appear to be a function of location rather than a true social bond. This species is usually observed singly, in pairs, or in small groups that frequently change in composition. Solitary individuals of both sexes are common; lone males are most frequently seen leading up to the breeding season (January-April), whereas females tend to be most solitary from April to July. Family groups of 2 - 3 animals (with at least one adult of each sex) occur from the end of the breeding season (May or June) until the beginning of summer (November); group size increases during the dry season (July-September) when populations congregate around water sources. As males become more solitary prior to the breeding season, all-female groups become common. Groups tend to be more dispersed in open grassland and stick closer together in dense cover. Individual Southern Reedbucks inhabit well-defined home ranges, the boundaries of which fluctuate seasonally (expanding slightly during the summer when vegetation is more widely available), but which remain relatively constant between years. Fidelity to the home range is only broken due to environmental events such as fire or drought. Average home range size varies from 0 - 22 km? ® to 0 - 54 km? * in different parts of the species’ distribution. Home ranges of females are larger than those of males, and subadults range more widely than settled adults. The home ranges of females show significant overlap, but males differ in their degree of territoriality. Where food and cover are limited, territorial resource-defense is used to gain access to females. When the same resources are plentiful, males defend access to females themselves; in this situation, male home ranges tend to overlap and be smaller (0 - 05 km? ®), with adjacent males forming a dominance hierarchy.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139979FFC20376FE7BF8A3F35E.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Hunting and habitat loss have been the greatest threats. The Southern Reedbuck is most abundant in South Africa, with an estimated population exceeding 13,000 individuals; Kwa-Zulu-Natal holds the greatest concentration. The Zimbabwean population contains at least 3000 individuals, and there is a significant population in central Mozambique (Gorongosa National Park). Southern Reedbucks have been extirpated from Lesotho due to habitat destruction and hunting, and numbers are greatly reduced in Swaziland, where only a few fragmented populations survive in nature reserves. Populations in the north-west of the species’ distribution have been greatly reduced as a result of intense hunting for meat; the species may be extinct in the Republic of the Congo, and recent records are very rare from some areas of DR Congo and Gabon.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC303DAFE8EFD45F651.taxon	materials_examined	Near Fort Jameson, Zambia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC303DAFE8EFD45F651.taxon	discussion	The Zambian Reedbuck was formerly classified as a subspecies of R. arundinum; it is elevated to species status here, but further studies are needed to clarify the differ ences in morphology and distribution between the two taxa. Many references treat all records north of the Zambezi River as belonging to R. occidentalis, but skull measurements indicate that this species is restricted to the general vicinity of Lake Malawi. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC303DAFE8EFD45F651.taxon	distribution	Distribution. E Zambia, Malawi, S Tanzania, and N Mozambique; despite the specific epithet occidentalis (“ western ”), the Zambian Reedbuck appears to be confined to E Africa. No studies have attempted to conclusively delimit the geographical range of the Zambian Reedbuck from that of the Southern Reedbuck (R. arundinum).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC303DAFE8EFD45F651.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Weight 57.7 - 65. 5 kg (males from E Zambia) or 66.4 - 67. 7 kg (males from Malawi), and 44.5 - 55 kg (females). No confirmed body length measurements for the Zambian Reedbuck are available, but are presumed to be similar to those of the Southern Reedbuck. The pelage is rusty gray or tawny over the body; the limbs and tail tend to be suffused with gray. The undersides are white, and this coloration expands to cover the buttocks. The legs have a black stripe on their front surfaces. The underside of the tail and its tufted tip are white. The head and neck are paler and grayer than in the Southern Reedbuck. A blaze of darker brown runs along the bridge of the nose. The ears are large, and a black glandular patch is present beneath each ear base. The forward-curving horns are borne only by males; these are shorter and less curved than those of the Southern Reedbuck. The skull has a larger occipital crest than that of the Southern Reedbuck. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC303DAFE8EFD45F651.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Savanna zones (including floodplains and montane grassland) with ready access to water. Population density on the Nyika Plateau (Malawi) was estimated to be 1 - 9 ind / km? based on aerial counts; this method has a tendency to underestimate numbers, and thus actual density is likely in the range of 4 ind / km?.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC303DAFE8EFD45F651.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. A grazer; the dietary habits of the Zambian Reedbuck are poorly known, but are likely similar to those of the Southern Reedbuck.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC303DAFE8EFD45F651.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but aspects of reproduction are presumably similar to those of the Southern Reedbuck.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC303DAFE8EFD45F651.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Primarily crespuscular and nocturnal. This species is reportedly active throughout the night, and retires into cover at 08: 00 - 09: 00 h for the day. Zambian Reedbucks are reluctant to leave their resting places unless closely approached by a potential threat.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC303DAFE8EFD45F651.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Pairs or threesomes are typical in Zambia. Larger groups of 4 - 5 or even up to twelve animals have been recorded. Preliminary observations indicate thatthis species, like the Southern Reedbuck, is sedentary and concentrates all activities in a restricted home range. When startled, this species flees with bounding jumps rather than at a smooth run; the Zambian Reedbuck frequently stops while fleeing, and observes the threat, holding the head high and the ears pricked.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC303DAFE8EFD45F651.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under R. arundinum). Due to the imprecise delineation of the distributional limits of the Zambian Reedbuck, population figures are unknown; over 6700 animals are believed to live in protected areas in Malawi.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC303C6F59EF61BFA29.taxon	materials_examined	Senegal, Goree Island.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC303C6F59EF61BFA29.taxon	discussion	The species name R. redunca formerly included R. nigeriensis, R. cottoni, and R. bohor as subspecies. Under the current classification, R. redunca is restricted to western Africa. This species is considered monotypic here.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC303C6F59EF61BFA29.taxon	distribution	Distribution. W Africa, from Senegal to SW Nigeria; the Niger River is provisionally used to separate the distributions of the Western Reedbuck and the Nigerian Reedbuck (R. nigeriensis).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC303C6F59EF61BFA29.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Few measurements available. Shoulder height c. 68 cm. Based on skull measurements, the Western Reedbuckis the smallest of the four northern reedbucks (Western Reedbuck, Nigerian Reedbuck, Sudan Reedbuck, R. cottoni, and Bohor Reedbuck, R. bohor). The pelage is a uniform golden yellow over the body, neck, and head, and has only minimal grizzling. The coat is relatively long, imparting a slightly shaggy appearance. The legs are the same color as the body and characteristically lack any dark markings. The tail is short and not particularly bushy, with a bright white underside. Subauricular glands are visible as dark circles beneath the ears. Males possess a pair of short, stout horns up to 25 cm long. Typical of reedbucks, the horns have a forward curvature; the horn tips of the Western Reedbuck are sharply hooked forward and inward. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC303C6F59EF61BFA29.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Savanna woodlands near permanent water sources, with a preference for areas with tall grass. Riverine areas are used extensively during the dry season. This species may colonize abandoned agricultural areas. In Benin, population densities of 0 - 14 - 0 - 7 ind / km? * have been recorded in both protected areas and regions with severe hunting pressure.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC303C6F59EF61BFA29.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, butit is a grazer.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC303C6F59EF61BFA29.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but the maximum recorded longevity in captivity is ten years and eight months.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC303C6F59EF61BFA29.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely similar to the Bohor Reedbuck.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC303C6F59EF61BFA29.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely similar to the Nigerian Reedbuck and the Bohor Reedbuck.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC303C6F59EF61BFA29.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (this status combines the populations of four separate species: R. redunca, R. nigeriensis, R. cottoni, and R. bohor). Although formerly widespread, populations of Western Reedbuck have undergone significant declines in recent decades. Numbers are very low and fragmented across much ofits distribution; viable populations are generally restricted to protected areas, such as Boucle du Baoule and Bafing Protected Areas in Mali, Niokolo-Koba National Park in Senegal, and the Arly-Singou Protected Area and Nazinga Game Ranch in Burkina Faso. Ongoing threats include overhunting, habitat destruction and desertification, and competition with domestic livestock.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC406D0FA72FDBFFE2D.taxon	materials_examined	Ibi, Northern Nigeria.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC406D0FA72FDBFFE2D.taxon	discussion	The Nigerian Reedbuck was formerly included as a subspecies under R. redunca. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC406D0FA72FDBFFE2D.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Nigeria to W Sudan. The Niger River is provisionally used as the boundary between the Nigerian Reedbuck and the Western Reedbuck (R. re dunca) to the west.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC406D0FA72FDBFFE2D.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. No confirmed measurements are available. The pelage is relatively short and lies close to the body. The overall color is a uniform golden fawn; the midline of the back tends to be slightly darker or more richly colored than the flanks. The underparts are white. A grayish stripe, which may be quite dark, is present on the fronts of the forelegs below the carpus. The dorsal surface of the tail is dark (approaching black in some specimens), contrasting strikingly with the white underside. A pale ring surrounds each eye; otherwise the head is the same golden color as the body. The interior surfaces of the ears are dark. A dark circular patch, the location of the subauricular gland, is present beneath each ear. Horns are present only in males; in form, they extend backward and diverge before curving forward at the tips. The horn bases are particularly stout and possess transverse ridges. Horn length is typically 23 - 27 cm, with a tip-to-tip distance of 11 - 20 cm. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC406D0FA72FDBFFE2D.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Grasslands and wooded savannas close to permanent water. In northern Cameroon, the Nigerian Reedbuck uses a variety of habitats, with a preference for open Anaogeissus leiocarpus woodlands; this habitat occurs principally along watercourses. Estimated population densities are relatively low: 0 - 3 - 2 - 81 ind / km? ®.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC406D0FA72FDBFFE2D.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Nigerian Reedbuck is a grazer. No formal studies on dietary habits have been performed; its diet is presumed to resemble that of the Bohor Reedbuck (R. bohor).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC406D0FA72FDBFFE2D.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but most aspects of the reproductive biology are probably similar to those of the Bohor Reedbuck.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC406D0FA72FDBFFE2D.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely active both night and day like the Bohor Reedbuck.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC406D0FA72FDBFFE2D.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Because ofits shy and retiring nature, little is known aboutthis species. The Nigerian Reedbuck is generally either solitary (44 - 70 % of observations) or found in small groups of up to five or six animals. In northern Cameroon, single individuals and pairs are most frequently observed; the average group size of 41 groups was 1 - 4 animals. Often, the only sign ofthis speciesis the flashing of the white underside of the tail as it flees.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139978FFC406D0FA72FDBFFE2D.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under R. redunca). The Nigerian Reedbuck has been extirpated from large parts ofits former distribution, and is generally found in scattered, low-density populations. It is most common in Cameroon and Central African Republic, where the combined population is approximately 7500 individuals; population numbers are quite low in Chad and Nigeria. Expansion of human activities, such as agriculture and livestock grazing, and uncontrolled hunting are principal threats. Droughts and desertification may contribute to population declines in northern parts of the species’ distribution.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997FFFC40348FE7BFCD7F400.taxon	materials_examined	Kordofan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997FFFC40348FE7BFCD7F400.taxon	discussion	The Sudan Reedbuck was formerly classified as a subspecies of R. redunca. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997FFFC40348FE7BFCD7F400.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Sudan, NE DR Congo, N Uganda, and far W Ethiopia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997FFFC40348FE7BFCD7F400.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. No confirmed measurements are available, but the Sudan Reedbuck tends to be several kilograms heavier than the neighboring Bohor Reedbuck (R. bohor), which it generally resembles. The pelage is pale golden brown with white underparts. A grayish stripe extends down the front of the forelegs, and is typically more prominent in males. Male Sudan Reedbucks are easily distinguished from other reedbucks by their long, thin, and widely diverging horns (females are hornless). Thin transverse ridges occur along most of the horn length; the tips curve inward, but do not form a strong hook. Typical horn length in mature males is 33 - 40 cm. The amount of divergence varies widely, averaging 30 cm between horn tips across the species’ range (general range 19 - 46 cm). However, individuals from the Mongalla area of Sudan may have a horn spread of up to 67 cm. The horns are, on average, 6 cm longer and with a spread 16 cm greater than those of the Bohor Reedbuck. Dental formula is 10 / 3, C 0 / 1,. P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997FFFC40348FE7BFCD7F400.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Sudan Reedbuck inhabits grassy savannas and floodplains. Areas dominated by Hyparrhenia grasses are frequented during December (wet season); Oryza communities closer to deep swamps are used as the dry season progresses (through March). Average population densities across available habitat are generally 0 - 3 - 0 - 6 ind / km?, but localized densities of 63 ind / km * have been recorded during the wet season. Concentrations may reach 110 ind / km? ® during the late dry season; the long horns of males are thought to correlate with increased competition resulting from sustained high population densities.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997FFFC40348FE7BFCD7F400.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Sudan Reedbuck feeds primarily on grass; fecal analysis indicates the diet contains, on average, 88 % grass, 9 % forbs, and 3 % shrubs. Species consumed include the sedge Cyperus laevigatus and Echinochloa grasses. Hyparrhenia grasses are also thought to be a principal food source, based on availability and the preferences of the related Bohor Reedbuck.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997FFFC40348FE7BFCD7F400.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Breeding is likely seasonal, but remains poorly studied. Young have been observed accompanying adults in February (the dry season), and are likely born several months earlier. Other aspects are presumably similar to the Bohor Reedbuck.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997FFFC40348FE7BFCD7F400.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but presumably similar to the Bohor Reedbuck.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997FFFC40348FE7BFCD7F400.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. While some Sudan Reedbucks are resident in certain areas year-round, this species is generally migratory; seasonal movements are driven by changing water levels and vegetation abundance. During the rainy season, when forage is plentiful and water levels are high, the Sudan Reedbuck disperses across floodplains. At this time, the species tends to live alone or small groups of 2 - 5 individuals, although herds of 10 - 30 are also regularly seen. Average group size increases as individuals concentrate closer to permanent water sources during the dry season, when aggregations of over 100 animals have been recorded. During the dry season in Dinder National Park, Sudan, half of the reedbuck population may be found in these extremely large herds (up to 400 individuals). The Sudan Reedbuck uses the typical predator avoidance strategy of reedbucks: freezing in position, crouching low to the ground, or slowly retreating into cover when a potential threat is detected.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997FFFC40348FE7BFCD7F400.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (under R. redunca). The Sudan Reedbuck is common in several localities and still occurs locally at high population densities. No complete population surveys have been performed recently, but numbers in southern Sudan are estimated at approximately 13,600 animals, with the majority (c. 11,000) occurring outside of protected areas in the Jonglei area.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997FFFC50348F44FFE1FFC8E.taxon	materials_examined	Central Abyssinia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997FFFC50348F44FFE1FFC8E.taxon	discussion	The Bohor Reedbuck was formerly classified as a subspecies of R. redunca. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997FFFC50348F44FFE1FFC8E.taxon	distribution	Distribution. SE Sudan, W Ethiopia, S & W Kenya, Uganda, E DR Congo, E Rwanda, E Burundi, and Tanzania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997FFFC50348F44FFE1FFC8E.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 100 - 130 cm, tail 18 - 20 cm, shoulder height 75 - 89 cm (males) and 69 - 76 cm (females); weight 43 - 55 kg (males) and 36 - 45 kg (females). In general size, the Bohor Reedbuck tends to be larger than the Western Reedbuck (R. redunca) and smaller than the Sudan Reedbuck (R. cottoni). Physically, this species closely resembles the Nigerian Reedbuck (R. nigeriensis). The coatis typically shaggy and oily; the overall color is yellow-fawn, with some grizzling apparent at close quarters. The white underparts meet the golden flanks in an abrupt line. The front surfaces of the legs are marked with black; these markings tend to be stronger in individuals from the southwestern parts of the species’ distribution. The face is golden brown like the body; the lips, chin, underside ofjaw, and upper throat are whitish. Paler markings may also be present around the eyes. The ears are densely lined with white hairs. Subauricular glands, present as bare black patches below the base of each ear, are inconspicuous and covered with hair when inactive. Horns are present only in males; they are lyrate in form, bending backward and outward at the base and then forward toward the tips, creating a sharp inward hook. Circumferential ridges are heaviest at the horn base, and extend along most of the length. Horn length is typically 23.5 - 35 cm; the distance between tips varies from 11 - 5 cm to 30 cm. Dental formula is 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997FFFC50348F44FFE1FFC8E.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Grasslands at elevations up to 3750 m. Surface water is a principal habitat requirement, and the Bohor Reedbuck is rarely found far from water. Areas of short grass (less than 20 cm tall) are typically used for grazing, and stands oftall grass provide cover and shelter. Typically dominant species in preferred habitat include the grasses Sporobolus robustus, Echinochloa spp., and Cynodon spp., and Cyperus sedges. Marshes and low-lying grasslands are particularly important during the dry season. Woodlands and regions with dense shrub cover are generally avoided, although this species may be common in Acacia xanthophloea stands that grow along rivers. It is occasionally seen foraging in farmland. Population densities are typically 10 - 21 ind / km?; concentrations of up to 28 - 2 ind / km? have been recorded in the Ethiopian highlands.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997FFFC50348F44FFE1FFC8E.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Bohor Reedbuck is a grazer, selectively foraging on young shoots of various grasses. Observations in Uganda indicate a preference for the grasses Hyparrhenia filipendula, Sporobolus robustus, Heteropogon contortus, and Themeda triandra. In south-western Tanzania, this species has been noted foraging on Imperata, Leersia, and Vossia grasses, the last being an important food source in the dry season. Cyperus subulatus is consumed in large quantities during the dry season in the eastern parts of DR Congo; Bohor Reedbucks may also browse on the leaves of the shrub Capparis tomentosa at this time.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997FFFC50348F44FFE1FFC8E.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Records of breeding activity and births are scarce; isolated observations of infants have been made during April, September, and November in Tanzania and Uganda. It has been suggested that birth rates are lowest during the dry season (peak drought conditions occur in March). While in estrus, females show increased subauricular gland activity. During courtship, a male approaches an estrous female with his neck stretched out low and the head tilted so that the nose is elevated. The flehmen response is used to evaluate urine to determine the female’s receptivity. Throughout the courtship performance, the male may make “ toy trumpet sounds. ” The gestation period has not been accurately measured, but it is thought to be 7 - 5 - 8 months. Litter size is one; observations of young animals are rare because infants are well hidden in dense vegetation for at least two months. Life span, as measured in captivity, is at least ten years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997FFFC50348F44FFE1FFC8E.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. The Bohor Reedbuck is generally active both day and night, except at midday. Activity levels are higher during the dry season, when 50 % ofthe daily activity budgetis spent in foraging (compared to 40 % during the wet season). Foraging typically begins in the early morning at 06: 00 h, with peak activity lasting until 08: 00 h (09: 00 h in the dry season). Middayis spent resting in dense cover and shaded areas; a second peak in foraging activity occurs in the late afternoon from 16: 00 h to 18: 00 h. Activity is most frequent between 10: 00 - 20: 00 h and 24: 00 - 04: 00 h during the wet season; this second nocturnal peak is usually earlier in the dry season, 22: 00 - 02: 00 h. Although occasionally reported as being most active after dusk, no significant differ ence was found between daylight and night-time activity levels of Bohor Reedbuck in central Ethiopia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997FFFC50348F44FFE1FFC8E.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Daily movements depend on season and forage quality. In high-quality areas, individual Bohor Reedbuck may travel 1 - 4 km / day, whereas in poorer-quality habitats daily movements may be 3 - 6 km. Males are territorial and often solitary, defending an area of 0 - 2 — 0 - 3 km? ®. Territorial boundaries are not obviously marked; resident males appear to delineate their defended areas by producing a whistling call when other males approach the edge of the territory. An individual male’s territory is closely overlapped by the home ranges of 1 - 5 (occasionally up to seven) adult females. United by their home ranges, an adult male and several females form a loose harem group that is rarely seen together in its entirety. Females may associate together in groups of 2 - 5 individuals, but individuals join and separate frequently; likewise, the territorial male may temporarily accompany any of the females, sometimes forjust a few hours. Young females remain with their mothers for at least one year (until after the birth of her next offspring). However, adult males show a low tolerance for subadult males, and force them to disperse once their horns begin to grow. Juvenile, subadult, and non-territorial adult males often associate in bachelor groups in areas not occupied by resident males. These groups may be tolerated by territorial males in the absence of females. However, they are quickly displaced upon the arrival of females by a range of behaviors, from subtle gestures to vigorous chases. Large herds, thought to be temporary aggregations of different family groups, are seen throughout the year in some locations. Herds of up to 38 individuals have been recorded in the wet season, and in the dry season, when Bohor Reedbuck are concentrated in swampy areas with good foraging, up to 59 individuals have been seen together.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997FFFC50348F44FFE1FFC8E.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under R. redunca). The Bohor Reedbuck remains the most common reedbuck in northern savannas, with an estimated population of over 37,000 in Tanzania alone. The population is generally stable and inhabits numerous protected areas in the eastern parts of its distribution, although western populations in Rwanda and Burundi are significantly reduced as a result of human encroachment. Illegal hunting and the expansion of settlement and agriculture are the principal threats outside of protected areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997EFFC503C6FCDAF6DCF7C8.taxon	materials_examined	eastern Cape Colony.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997EFFC503C6FCDAF6DCF7C8.taxon	discussion	The Southern Mountain Reedbuck is sometimes taken to include Chanler’s Mountain Reedbuck (R. chanleri) and the Adamawa Reedbuck (R. adamauae) as subspecies. This species is considered monotypic here.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997EFFC503C6FCDAF6DCF7C8.taxon	distribution	Distribution. SE Botswana, E South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997EFFC503C6FCDAF6DCF7C8.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 100 - 124 cm, tail 13 - 20 cm, shoulder height 60 - 80 cm; weight 31 kg (22 - 37 kg) for males and 27 kg (22 - 35 kg) for females. Male Southern Mountain Reedbucks are larger than females and have a significantly longer tail. Body condition may vary dramatically between seasons, with a decline in body weight of up to 20 - 40 % occurring during winter. The pelage is dense and woolly; the overall color is grayish-fawn with a rufous tinge. There is a sharp demarcation between the gray upperparts and the white belly partway up the flanks. The inner surfaces of the legs are white, and the gray outer surfaces lack conspicuous markings. The tail has a bushy white underside. The face has a rufous or fulvous cast, and the chin and upper throat are pale, approaching white. A black glandular patch, devoid of hair, is located beneath each ear. Males alone possess horns; the bases are heavily ridged and the profile has only a slight forward curve. Horn length in large malesis 18 - 22. 5 cm; the distance between horn tips is usually 7.5 - 15 cm. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997EFFC503C6FCDAF6DCF7C8.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Montane grasslands. The Southern Mountain Reedbuck shows a marked preference for areas with rocky terrain, steep slopes, and brushy cover. Flat, open areas tend to be avoided; when threatened, this species typically hides on rocky hillsides or in areas of long grass. The Southern Mountain Reedbuck is usually observed on slopes of 20 - 30 °, a habitat that is unused by other ungulates. North-facing slopes are most frequently inhabited, but this is one of the only ungulate species in its range to use south and south-easterly aspects. In the Drakensberg mountain range, South Africa, this species is predominantly found in the sandstone montane belt (1400 - 1900 m), an area with more steep cover than higher-elevation plateaus. Winter temperatures may drop below freezing in some areas. Population densities average 5 - 7 ind / km?, with reported values of 3 - 1 - 11 - 5 ind / km?.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997EFFC503C6FCDAF6DCF7C8.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. A grazer. The diet is composed almost entirely of monocotyledonous plants (98 % of 46 rumen content samples), of which the great majority are grasses. The Southern Mountain Reedbuck is a selective feeder, preferentially choosing the leaves of grasses over stems. Coarser stems are consumed during winter, when forage quality and leaf availability are reduced. A preference for the grasses Chloris virgata, Digitaria spp., Eragrostis spp., Panicum maximum, Rhynchelytrum repens, and Urochloa spp. was observed in one captive female kept on native pasture. Dicotyledonous plants are consumed in very low quantities, with a slight increase in use at the beginning of the dry season. The Southern Mountain Reedbuck appears to be water-dependent, generally drinking every other day during the dry season (winter).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997EFFC503C6FCDAF6DCF7C8.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The reproductive cycle of the Southern Mountain Reedbuck is largely dependent on resource availability. In areas with harsh winters, births are largely confined to the summer months (particularly November). In other regions, breeding is observed year-round, although there is often a slight peak in births in November — January and a notable drop in the birth rate during the winter months. Females are polyestrous and cycle until they become pregnant; the estrous cycle is estimated to be 2 — 4 weeks in length. Courtship generally resembles that of the Southern Reedbuck (R. arundinum), with a male following an estrous female, licking and smelling her vulva, and flehming (after smelling the vulva or urine). Females often adopt a submissive posture with the head held low when approached by a male. Ritualized foreleg kicks directed between the hindlegs of the female called “ laufschlag ” serve as a precursor to mounting. Numerous mounting attempts may occur before successful intromission. After each attempt, the female moves forward 2 - 20 m and the male performs an abbreviated version of the courtship ritual. After successfully copulating (which lasts less than five seconds), both sexes begin grazing within 1 - 2 minutes. A single field observation of a known female indicated a gestation period of 236 - 251 days; general trends based on peak breeding and birthing times also correspond to an eight-month pregnancy. Litter size is one, and weight at birth is approximately 3.3 - 8 kg. Neonates are cached in dense vegetation for at least four weeks, during which time they are visited by their mothers for nursing. Females exhibit a postpartum estrus 2 — 4 weeks after birth, although ongoing lactation appears to prevent conception. The birthing interval is typically one year. Young females experience theirfirst estrus before twelve months of age (but rarely become pregnant at this time), and are considered fully mature at 18 - 24 months. Horn growth in males begins at 4 - 7 months, and young males tend to disperse from their natal groups at 9 - 15 months of age. Spermatozoa may be produced at twelve months, but full reproductive maturity (as indicated by testicular development) is not reached until 27 months. Social maturity, when males are capable of holding a territory, may not occur until laterstill. Life span in captivity may exceed 14 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997EFFC503C6FCDAF6DCF7C8.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Active throughout the day (50 % of daylight hours) and night (72 % of nocturnal hours). The Southern Mountain Reedbuck is most active in the early morning and late afternoon, continuing after sunset. Between these peaks in activity, there are distinct resting periods in the afternoon (13: 00 - 15: 00 h) and during the night (20: 00 - 21: 00 h and 03: 00 - 04: 00 h). Overall, feeding occupies approximately 30 % of the activity budget. Individuals tend to be more active on overcast days; this species appears to be intolerant of high midday temperatures. Activity levels are lower during the wet season, and the elevated diurnal activity levels during the dry season are believed to result from less abundant food sources and cooler temperatures. Pregnant and lactating females have higher activity levels than males.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997EFFC503C6FCDAF6DCF7C8.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Southern Mountain Reedbuck is a social species; groups of 3 - 8 individuals (females and juveniles) are common. The composition of these groups is fluid and unstable; individual female Southern Mountain Reedbucks regularly leave one group and join another. Females occupy large home ranges, averaging 0 - 57 km? (0 - 36 - 0 - 76 km?, with some reported to exceed 2 km?). In contrast, males are often solitary and territorial; the average size of defended territories is between 0 - 15 km * and 0 - 28 km?, depending on the study area (observed range: 0 - 08 - 0 - 48 km? ®). The home ranges of females thus cross the territories of numerous males, who maintain territorial boundaries regardless of the presence or absence of females. Males compete for access to cover, rather than food or water, in order to attract females: female Southern Mountain Reedbucks prefer territories with larger areas of steep slopes. As a result, male territories rarely occur in flat terrain and are centered around hilly areas. Territorial boundaries often coincide with landmarks such as streams and hilltops. Boundaries are not marked with dung or scent marks (despite the large subauricular glands); it appears that subtle posturing, such as an alert stance orstiff-legged jump, and whistling vocalizations, communicate territorial limits. Peripheral areas of male home ranges may overlap 5 - 35 %. Non-territorial and immature males often form small bachelor groups.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997EFFC503C6FCDAF6DCF7C8.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as R. f. Jfulvorufula). The total estimated population is approximately 33,000 individuals. Numbers are relatively stable in South Africa, where this species occurs in relatively large numbers in protected areas and private reserves. Little information is available on the status of the Southern Mountain Reedbuck in the margins of its distribution in Botswana; it is uncertain whetherit currently inhabits southern Mozambique.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997EFFC606DEF714F813FEE1.taxon	materials_examined	mountains east of Kenia, British East Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997EFFC606DEF714F813FEE1.taxon	discussion	Chanler’s Mountain Reedbuck was formerly considered to be a subspecies of R. fulvorufula. Two forms have been described based on the presence or absence of a facial blaze, but these are no longer considered taxonomically distinct. This species is considered monotypic here.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997EFFC606DEF714F813FEE1.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S Ethiopia, SE Sudan, E Uganda, W Kenya, and N Tanzania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997EFFC606DEF714F813FEE1.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 110 - 136 cm, tail 20 cm, shoulder height 65 - 76 cm; mean weight for males 30 kg (22 - 38 kg) and for females 29 kg (19 - 35 kg). The soft, woolly coat is pale gray in color; females tend to be more drab in coloration than males. A line of sharp contrast separates the gray upperparts from the white underparts. When compared with the Southern Mountain Reedbuck (R. fulvorufula), the pelage of Chanler’s Mountain Reedbuck is paler and has very little reddish tint; the two species are otherwise quite similar. The bushy tail has a white underside; the dorsal surface of the tail is the same color as the back. The head tends to be more rufous than the body, and in some individuals is marked with a stripe of darker brown from between the eyes to the nose. The chin, lips, and upper throat are pale. A prominent glandular patch of bare black skin is found beneath each ear. Only males possess horns; the bases are ridged, and the tips have a slight forward curve. The horns typically grow 14 - 38 cm long, and are longer than those of the Southern Mountain Reedbuck. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997EFFC606DEF714F813FEE1.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Hillside savannas and thickets. Chanler’s Mountain Reedbuck inhabits broken, hilly country, where its sure-footedness and cryptic coloration serve to protect it from predators. Open, flat grasslands are used only reluctantly. Areas dominated by grasses such as Cynodon spp. are used for resting. Observations are generally from elevations above 1500 m, and this species has been observed at 5000 m on MountKilimanjaro, Tanzania. Throughout its high-elevation distribution, Chanler’s Mountain Reedbuck encounters a wide range of environmental extremes, including freezing temperatures and snow. Density estimates are 11 - 30 ind / km?, but this species may occur at up to 100 ind / km? in some areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997EFFC606DEF714F813FEE1.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Monocotyledonous plants compose, on average, 99 - 5 % of the diet. Chanler’s Mountain Reedbuck feedsselectively, choosing soft, green grasses and avoiding dry grass leaves and stems. Preferred grass species are Themeda triandra, Hyparrhenia spp-, and Cymbopogon pospischilir. Other grass species are consumed less frequently, including Bothriochloa insculpta and Enneapogon schimperanus. The dominant grass within its habitat, Cynodon spp., is consumed in large quantities but far less than expected based on its relative abundance. Toward the end of the dry season (February and March), there is an increase in the consumption of leaves from shrubs and bushes. Two months after the rains set in, there is a notable drop in time spent feeding due to the flush of favored new growth.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997EFFC606DEF714F813FEE1.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Chanler’s Mountain Reedbuck reproduces throughout the year, although a peak in births occurs in the March — May rainy season. Courtship resembles that of the Southern Mountain Reedbuck. A territorial male will approach individual females to ascertain their reproductive status; a female responds by stopping, lowering her head, and lifting her tail, allowing the male to smell and lick the vulva. Receptive females will typically urinate when stimulated, allowing the male to examine urine hormones by flehming. After moving several meters ahead, the female will stop again, and if she is in estrus the male will follow. Courtship progresses with stiff foreleg kicks directed between the hindlegs of the female, a ritualized precursor to mounting. Copulation is brief, and regular grazing activities resume shortly afterward. A single offspring is born after a gestation of eight months. Females experience a postpartum estrus as soon as 2 — 4 weeks after birth, but conception appears to occur only if the female has stopped lactating (i. e. lost her infant) at this time. Young females experience theirfirst estrus at 9 - 12 months of age; pregnancies have been recorded in several females approximately 18 months of age. Sexual maturity of males is less well studied, but sperm production starts at 8 - 12 months and young males are forced to disperse from their maternal groups by 15 months of age. Full maturity is likely to occur after two years of age as in the Southern Mountain Reedbuck. Maximum life span recorded in captivity 1 s over twelve years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997EFFC606DEF714F813FEE1.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Active during the day and night, with patterns strongly influenced by temperature. Chanler’s Mountain Reedbuck is most active during cooler periods, especially while rain is falling. Diurnal activity occurs mainly in the early morning, when the reedbucks ascend hills, and late afternoon, when they descend. Activity levels are lowest at midday, with the decline beginning at 09: 00 h and the lowest level reached around 12: 00 h. This midday period is often spent resting in cover alongside the open grasslands at the bases of hills. Rumination is not closely tied to resting; indeed, there is a notable decrease in rumination rates during the hottest part of the day, particularly from 14: 00 h to 17: 00 h. From the late afternoon into the evening, activity levels rise. Nocturnal activity levels are generally higher; there are periods of reduced activity at 20: 00 h and 01: 00 - 03: 00 h, but these are not as distinct as during midday. Valley bottoms are not used at night, presumably to avoid the areas where cold air settles. Throughout the day, males tend to be more active and less likely to lie down than females, which may be related to territorial defense.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997EFFC606DEF714F813FEE1.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Chanler’s Mountain Reedbuck is most frequently observed in small groups. Females tend to live in small herds of 2 - 6 individuals, although groups of up to eleven animals have been recorded. Group size is smallest during May and June, the period following the birthing peak when females are tending to their offspring. Group structure is extremely fluid, and aggregations form and disperse based on feeding conditions. Males are territorial and tend to be solitary; they occupy exclusive home ranges and opportunistically join transient female herds. The mosaic of territories remains relatively fixed across time; 22 males observed in south-western Kenya occupied the same ranges for the duration of one seven-month study. Male territories are typically 0 - 02 - 0 - 05 km ®. Higher-quality territories are smaller and more densely packed. Females frequently crossterritorial boundaries while foraging, but appear to prefer territories with high cliffs and increased bush level cover; female preference is not associated with food resources. Territorial males do nottolerate the presence of other males, and small bachelor groups of young males thus frequently form in marginal areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997EFFC606DEF714F813FEE1.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The [UCN Red List (as R. fulvoru-Sula chanleri). The total population of Chanler’s Mountain Reedbuck is conservatively estimated to be 2900 individuals. Overall numbers are believed to be declining as a result of increasing human settlement and illegal hunting. The species’ status is unknown in Sudan and Uganda, and it is rare and highly localized within the Ethiopian Rift Valley. In Tanzania, most populations outside of extant protected areas are extremely endangered or extinct. Kenya remains the stronghold of Chanler’s Mountain Reedbuck, containing the majority of the population.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997DFFC60645FE2FF8B7F3C6.taxon	materials_examined	le Massif de I’Adamaoua.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997DFFC60645FE2FF8B7F3C6.taxon	discussion	The Adamawa Reedbuck was formerly classified as a subspecies of R. fulvorufula, but is herein elevated to a separate species because of its cranial morphology and exceptionally distinct distribution. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997DFFC60645FE2FF8B7F3C6.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Endemic to the mountains of E Nigeria and the Adamawa Massif and surrounding areas in W Cameroon.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997DFFC60645FE2FF8B7F3C6.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 97 - 110 cm (four specimens), tail 12 cm (from a single male), shoulder height 58 - 73 cm (four specimens); no specific weights are available. The Adamawa Reedbuck is the smallest Redunca species. Males tend to be larger than females. In both sexes, the coatis thick and relatively long. The pelage of femalesis a drab grayish-brown; adult males are bright reddish-brown overall, with a yellowish cast to the flanks. Banded hairs, with gray bases and red tips, give a slightly grizzled appearance to the pelage of males when viewed closely. The belly and inner aspects of the upper legs are white. The legs are strong and stockier than those of the sympatric Nigerian Reedbuck (R. nigeriensis). In males, the outer surface of each leg is marked with a brown stripe approximately 2 cm wide, which is made especially prominent by a border of pale hairs. The tail is very bushy and has a white underside. The head is the same color as the body; the chin is pale, turning to white on the upper throat. In adult males, the reddish cheeks contrast with a chestnut-brown blaze that extends from the muzzle and upperlip to base of horns; this blaze may be bordered on either side by a zone of grizzled grayish hairs. The long, slender ears are slightly paler than the body externally, and are lined with long white hairs on the inside. Beneath the ears, subauricular glands appear as bare black ovals 2 - 3 cm long. Horns are present only in males and are more slender and less divergent (nearly parallel in some individuals) than in other reedbucks; there is only a slight forward curve. Transverse annulations mark the basal one-third of the horns. Horns from three specimens measured 12: - 5 - 13. 5 cm. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997DFFC60645FE2FF8B7F3C6.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. High-elevation montane grasslands interspersed with rocky terrain and scattered woodland. Individuals have been observed at elevations of 1300 - 1923 m, although the elevational range of the Adamawa Reedbuck has not yet been fully quantified. Limited observations indicate population densities can be 3 - 5 ind / km? (seven individuals observed in an area of approximately 2 km?).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997DFFC60645FE2FF8B7F3C6.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, butit is presumed to feed principally on grass, like other Redunca species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997DFFC60645FE2FF8B7F3C6.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but most aspects of reproduction are likely similar to the closely related Southern Mountain Reedbuck (R. fulvorufula) and Chanler’s Mountain Reedbuck (R. chanleri).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997DFFC60645FE2FF8B7F3C6.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, although active animals have been observed during daylight hours. Probably active throughout the day and nightlike the Southern Mountain Reedbuck and Chanler’s Mountain Reedbuck.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997DFFC60645FE2FF8B7F3C6.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Generally observed in small groups of females and their young accompanied by a single adult male, although solitary individuals and pairs (male-female and female — female) are sometimes seen. Group size is generally 2 - 5 animals; the largest recorded group held twelve individuals. Young males may form bachelor herds. The stability of these groups is unknown, although males in the company of females may chase away any intruding males. The alarm call is a whistling snort. The Adamawa Reedbuck is extremely agile on steep, rough slopes and generally flees uphill when threatened, disappearing over rocky summits.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713997DFFC60645FE2FF8B7F3C6.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List (as R. fulvoru-Sula adamauae). The total population is estimated to be approximately 450 individuals, scattered among several isolated subpopulations; there is an overall declining trend in numbers. The Adamawa Reedbuck is very rare in Nigeria; recent sightings confirm that it still persists in Gashaka Gumti National Park, but no records have been reported from the Gotel Mountains to the south since 1989. In Cameroon, much of the species’ range occurs outside of protected areas. Competition with domestic cattle occurs across its distribution, and the resulting habitat degradation and disturbance by humans are thought to be primarily responsible for recent decreases in populations. Pressure from illegal hunting is high in certain localities.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139973FFC8034AFE2CF70BF62F.taxon	materials_examined	Banks of the river Zoaga, lat. 21 °. Restricted by Smithers in 1971 as Boteti River, near Lake Ngami (Botswana).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139973FFC8034AFE2CF70BF62F.taxon	discussion	K. leche was formerly used as a parent taxon that encompassed all lechwe populations (i. e. leche, anselli, kafuensis, and smithemani) as subspecies. This species is considered monotypic here.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139973FFC8034AFE2CF70BF62F.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Scattered locales in E Angola, E Namibia (Caprivi Strip), N Botswana, and W Zambia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139973FFC8034AFE2CF70BF62F.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 150 - 175 cm (males) and 134 - 162 cm (females), tail 35 - 40 cm, shoulder height 94 - 112 cm (males) and 87 - 101 cm (females); weight 88 — 135 kg (males) and 52 - 89 kg (females). The body condition of both sexes is lowest during the hot — dry season. Males are approximately 50 % heavier than females and have a large and muscular neck. The pelage of both sexes is rather coarse. Overall color is bright reddish-brown; the dorsum is particularly bright, and the flanks and thighs tend to be paler. The belly and inner surfaces of the legs are white, and a wide white stripe runs from chest to chin on the underside of the neck. The forelegs are marked with a bold black stripe on their front surfaces; similar markings are present on the hindlegs below the hocks. Immediately above the elongated hooves is a broad white band. The tail is slender, with a black terminal tuft. A white ring around each eye and another around the nose and lips constitute the facial markings. Horns are present in males only. Horn length in Botswana averages 55 cm, with a maximum of 66 cm; they are shorter than those of male Kafue Flats Lechwe (K. kafuensis). The horns diverge and extend backward from the skull, growing increasingly parallel and curving upward toward the tips. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139973FFC8034AFE2CF70BF62F.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Red Lechwe inhabits seasonal floodplains and shallow swamps adjacent to open water. The interface between inundated and dry grasslands is the most extensively used habitat: this zone is characterized by short grasses (maximum height c. 20 cm) such as Panicum repens, Cynodon dactylon, and Sporobolus spp., with occasional dense stands of tall grasses and reeds. This species tends to avoid woodlands that fringe the floodplains, and it is rarely found in water deeper than 50 cm. Movement through water is facilitated by a bounding gait where all four feet touch the ground and launch into the air simultaneously. This efficient movement through flooded terrain provides the principal means of escape from predators; low water levels correlate with increased predation by Lions (Panthera leo) and African Wild Dogs (Lycaon pictus). Overall population densities of 0 - 03 — 4 - 78 ind / km? occur in the Caprivi Strip of Namibia. In the Linyanti Swamps of Botswana, densities average 7 - 12 ind / km?, although in the breeding season, local densities may reach 70 - 90 ind / km?.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139973FFC8034AFE2CF70BF62F.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Perennial grasses form the principal dietary component. Brachiaria latifolia, Eragrostis rigidior, Setaria sphacelata, Hemarthria altissima, and Eulalia geniculata are preferentially consumed along the Chobe River during December and January. When floodwaters rise and Red Lechwe move to higher ground in May, grasses such as Burnatia enneandra, Sacciolepis africana, Trichoneura grandiglumis, and Acroceras macrum are preferred. As water levels recede and expose new growth on the floodplains in July and August, feeding is concentrated on just two principal species (Brachiaria latifolia and Vossia cuspidata); at this time, grazing often occurs in shallow water. Panicum repens and Eragrostis inamoena may be intensively grazed where present. Other plants, such as the sedges Vetiveria nigritana and Cyperus spp., are mostly fed upon during December. Consumption of annual grasses is largely restricted to January.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139973FFC8034AFE2CF70BF62F.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating in the Linyanti Swamp of northern Botswana is concentrated in the four-month-long rainy season (December-March); the breeding season may extend slightly later (until May) in the Okavango Delta to the south. Territorial males, which defend areas of dryland, attract the majority of estrous females. Preliminary courtship involves the male licking and smelling the female’s anogenital region; receptivity is determined by an inconspicuous performance of flehming after tasting a female's urine stream. Gentle taps of the female’s hindlegs and abdomen with a lifted foreleg (“ laufschlag ”) are followed by tentative mounting attempts (without an erect penis); if the female responds to these final stages of courtship by standing still, copulation takes place. Gestation is approximately 7 - 8 months. In Linyanti, most calves are born from August to October; this is correspondingly later in the Okavango Delta, where December — January is the peak birthing season. In both areas, this coincides with the recession of floodwaters and a subsequent flush of grass growth. Litter size is one; weight at birth is approximately 6 - 5 kg. Infants are usually born in stands of reeds or tall grasses and remain hidden within these areas until approximately two months of age. Nursing occurs during sporadic visits by the mother, especially in the early morning and late afternoon. Each bout of nursing lasts 5 - 10 minutes, and both scent and bleating vocalizations serve to reinforce the maternal bond. Juveniles are weaned at seven months. Sexual maturity of females is highly dependent on body condition. In the Linyanti population, sexual maturity is delayed until 2 - 3 years of age; even mature females will not successfully carry a pregnancyif their body weightis not above a certain threshold. Among males, testicular development begins at 1 - 5 years, although males tend to be at least 4 - 5 years old before they are able to maintain territories and gain access to mates.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139973FFC8034AFE2CF70BF62F.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. The temperature-mediating effects of inundated floodplains permit Red Lechwes to be active during the hottest parts of the day when flood levels are high. A bimodal distribution of activity, with peaksjust after sunrise and before sunset, is more evident when water levels are low; a midday rest at these times is often spent in the shade of scattered trees. Resting during high-water periods often occurs on elevated termite mounds, although individuals have also been observed standing in shallow water. Females are generally more active than males, with a noticeable differ ence in the time spent feeding (56 % of daily activity vs. 35 - 40 %); this is likely due to the increased energy demands of pregnancy and lactation. While foraging during the day, there is a general dispersal over the floodplain; at night, individuals concentrate on dryland adjacent to water. Behavioral patterns at night have not been well studied, although there is indirect evidence that Red Lechwe may continue to move and forage in the dark.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139973FFC8034AFE2CF70BF62F.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Red Lechwe is generally sedentary, with individuals undertaking short seasonal movements to follow their preferred shoreline habitat as water levels rise and fall. Unlike other lechwe species, the Red Lechwe does not congregate in immense herds; males are often solitary, and females associate together in small groups ofless than ten animals. Mixed-sex herds tend to be larger, with up to 20 individuals; occasional groupings of up to 120 individuals have been recorded in Botswana. Regardless of size, groups form and break up regularly, often within the course of a few hours. This lack of structure is also seen when a threat appears: individuals scatter in all directions rather than responding as a herd. Group sex ratios vary widely; females predominate in large groups during summer (December — January) when males are either territorial or associate in small bachelor groups; group sex ratios approach unity in the winter. The territorial system of K. leche is based on the defense of feeding and resting sites, and thus territories are usually clustered into a “ territorial complex ” of 15 - 20 territories along the interface between flooded and dry regions. Where interface habitats are plentiful (in areas with numerous islands and inlets), territoriality declines. Females are often herded by territorial males in an attempt to prevent them from leaving their defended area. Territory sizes are 0 - 005 — 0 - 06 km?; these areas are occupied year-round, but bachelor males are often tolerated on territories outside of the breeding season, particularly at night. Depending on their condition and the degree of competition, males may maintain the same territory for two weeks to 20 months. Other males entering a defended area are threatened or chased by its occupant. Agonistic interactions are always short (less than five minutes) but show extreme variability in intensity, ranging from a brief pressing together of the horns to intense pushing or twisting with horns locked together.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139973FFC8034AFE2CF70BF62F.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as K. leche leche). Approximately 98,000 Red Lechwe are believed to survive in the wild, the vast majority of which (85 %) are found in the Okavango Delta of Botswana. Numbers have been greatly reduced throughout much of the species’ distribution due to unsustainable hunting. Population densities are consistently higher in protect ed areas. The Busanga Plain, part of Kafue National Park, currently supports the largest population of the Red Lechwe in Zambia, where it was proven that Red Lechwes have the potential to rapidly recover with protective measures; the region supported only 140 Red Lechwes in 1951, but the population expanded to 1160 in 1971 and 4500 in 1999 after illegal hunting pressures were controlled. Other populations inhabit the Linyanti Swamps of Botswana and the Caprivi Strip of Namibia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139973FFC90645F670FB06F93F.taxon	materials_examined	Katobwe, Lualaba River, Upemba Swamps 8 ° 51 ' S, 26 ° 05 ' E.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139973FFC90645F670FB06F93F.taxon	discussion	Until 2005, the Upemba Lechwe was treated as a taxonomically indistinct subpopulation of K. leche, but it has recently been elevated to species status. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139973FFC90645F670FB06F93F.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Endemic to the Upemba Swamps in Katanga, S DR Congo.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139973FFC90645F670FB06F93F.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. No confirmed measurements are available. The Upemba Lechwe is a relatively small lechwe based on museum skull and skin specimens; live animals have not been well studied. In general form, this species is lightly built and most resembles the Black Lechwe (K. smithemani). The pelage of both sexes is bright reddish-brown; the flanks and neck are paler. The underparts are white, and a white stripe 1 s present on the underside of the neck, which generally terminates before reaching the upper third of the neck. The forelegs have a thin blackish-brown stripe on their anterior surface; the lower hindlegs are dark. The long tail is sparsely furred with reddish hair exceptfor the bushy terminal tuft, which is black. The forehead and bridge of the nose are darker and more richly colored than the rest of the pale reddish-brown face. Circles of white hair surround the eyes and ears; the lips and chin are also white. The backs of the ears are light brown; the front and back edges, as well as the interior, are white. In some specimens, the tips of the ears are dark. The relatively slender horns are borne only by males. Strong annulations are found along most of the horn length. As the horns emerge from the skull, they diverge outward and curve backward before becoming approximately parallel and bending upward at the tips. Horn length averages 54 - 6 cm (15 specimens, range 41 - 66. 7 cm), and the tip-to-tip interval averages 31 - 5 cm (19.4 - 47. 4 cm in the same 15 specimens). Dental formula is 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139973FFC90645F670FB06F93F.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Wetlands dominated by extensive swamps of Phragmites spp. and Cyperus papyrus, and seasonally flooded grasslands. Water is an important resource. The Upemba Lechwe formerly occurred at densities greater than 50 ind / km?, but numbers are now significantly reduced.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139973FFC90645F670FB06F93F.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but other Kobus species are grazers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139973FFC90645F670FB06F93F.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but presumably similar to the closely related Black Lechwe.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139973FFC90645F670FB06F93F.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably like the Black Lechwe.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139973FFC90645F670FB06F93F.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Seasonal movements follow the rise and fall of annual floods, so shallow-water habitats are occupied year-round. Other habits are unknown, but are presumed to be like the Black Lechwe.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139973FFC90645F670FB06F93F.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (included within K. leche). Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List (as K. leche anselli). The Upemba Lechwe was formerly found throughout the Kamalondo depression between Lake Kabwe and Lake Kabamba along the northern border of Upemba National Park. The current distribution is significantly restricted. In the late 1970 s, the Upemba population was estimated at approximately 20,000 individuals; current data suggest that fewer than 1000 survive. An isolated population of lechwe from Luapula south of Lake Mweru (tentatively assigned to K. leche but potentially related to K. anselli) is believed to be extinct. Intense poaching for meat is believed to be responsible for the recent decline in population numbers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139972FFC903DBF885F998F360.taxon	materials_examined	Am unteren Kafue im sl Nordrhodesien (Kafue Flats, Zambia).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139972FFC903DBF885F998F360.taxon	discussion	The Kafue Flats Lechwe closely resembles the Red Lechwe (K. leche), of which it was formerly considered a subspecies. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139972FFC903DBF885F998F360.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Restricted to the Kafue Flats floodplain of the Kafue River, S Zambia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139972FFC903DBF885F998F360.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body c ¢. 160 cm, tail 35 cm, shoulder height 99 - 112 cm (males) and 90 - 106 cm (females); weight 103 kg (87 - 128 kg) for males and 79 kg (62 - 97 kg) for females. Males are larger than females and are readily identified by the presence of horns. Body condition is lowest at high flood, when this species is forced into more marginal habitats. The general form is very similar to that of the Red Lechwe. The hindlegs are especially powerful and the rump is 10 - 12 cm above the level of the shoulders. Both sexes are a bright reddish-brown. The belly, inside surfaces of the legs, and a stripe that extends along the throat from the chest to the underside of thejaw are all white. There is a sharp line of demarcation between the red and white pelage along the throat stripe and where the two colors meet low on the flanks. Clear white circles are present around the eyes, lips, and chin. The front surfaces of the forelegs are rich black in color, as are the fronts of the lower hindlegs. In male Kafue Flats Lechwe, the foreleg markings extend upward, forming a dark patch on the shoulders and extending along the lower margins of the white throat stripe. These markings are a principal diagnostic difference from male Red Lechwe; females of the two species are nearly indistinguishable. The horns of male Kafue Flats Lechwe are, on average, longer than any other lechwe species: mean length is 71 cm (range 62 - 83 cm) and maximum recorded length is 92 cm. Tip-to-tip distance is 48 - 76 cm. The horns sweep backward from the forehead and curve upward, diverging from base to tips. Prominent transverse ridges are present for most of the horn length; these begin 20 - 25 cm from the tip and become compressed toward the base. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139972FFC903DBF885F998F360.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Open grasslands and floodplains associated with lakes, floodwaters, and streams. Kafue Flats Lechwes are rarely seen more than 3 km away from surface water; inundated territory provides preferred food resources and security against predators. Seasonal movements are undertaken to follow the floodline. Dense brush is avoided. Although restricted in distribution, the habitat can support localized population densities exceeding 1000 ind / km?.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139972FFC903DBF885F998F360.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Predominantly a grazer. Grass leaves are preferred over grass stems, although at the end of the dry season stems make up the largest proportion of the diet as a result of availability. Important dietary grass species include Vossia cuspidata, Echinochloa stagnina, E. holubii, and E. pyramidalis, and Brachiaria rugulosa, B. latifolia. Small amounts of Panicum repens, Leersia denudata, Setaria anceps, and S. sphacelata have also been recorded in the diet. Sedges may be consumed in inundated grasslands. Dicotyledonous plants, such as Aeschynomene fluitans and Sida alba, are consumed in limited quantities; these are most important in the diet at the beginning of the rainy season. The species selected likely depends on both availability and growth stage. Kafue Flats Lechwe may feed in nearly shoulder-deep water, although most grazing occurs on dryland or in shallow flooded regions.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139972FFC903DBF885F998F360.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Reproduction shows strong seasonal trends, although some mating occurs year-round. Breeding coincides with rising water levels. Traditionally (prior to the construction of hydroelectric dams), male breeding ground (lek) use and testis weight were highest between November and March. With dams now controlling the flood cycles of the Kafue River, the breeding season has shifted; the number of females on leks currently peaks during May-July as water levels rise. Most mating activity occurs on leks, in which numerous males defend very small territories. Breeding activity in large herdsis largely unsuccessful due to high levels of harassment by numerous males and frequent interruptions of mating. Estrous females arrive on leks in small parties and tend to congregate in groups of 10 - 20 on a few popular territories; such female preference is based on olfactory cues (particularly the concentrated urine of previous estrous females). Mate selection is indirect; males compete among each other for occupancy of preferred territories. While on the lek, females move across territorial boundaries freely and frequently (approximately once every ten minutes); a male may circle a departing female to encourage her to stay on his patch of land, but they do not make contact. Estrus lasts for approximately 24 hours. The gestation period has not been measured, but based on peak breeding and birthing times it is estimated at eight months. The traditional calving season (two-thirds of births) occurred from July to September / October, when flooding receded, exposing high-quality forage; with flood control, births now peak in January-February. At birth, the single young weighs approximately 5 kg. Females reach sexual maturity at 1 - 5 - 2 years and are fully grown at 3 — 4 years. Males begin to show signs of sexual development around 15 months; horn growth begins at 5 - 6 months and mature horn length is reached at 3 - 4 years, but males are not considered fully mature until 4 - 5 years. Life span in the wild is approximately ten years; longevity in captivity may exceed 24 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139972FFC903DBF885F998F360.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. The diurnal activity budget is predominated by feeding (50 %) and resting (35 %), with the remaining 15 % split between standing and moving. This species tends to move closer to water at night. Nocturnal activity patterns are unknown.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139972FFC903DBF885F998F360.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Kafue Flats Lechwes live in large herds with an unstable social structure. Females are highly social and stay together in tight groups, although there do not appear to be strong associations between individuals. Large aggregations of both sexes are regularly recorded during the height of the floods and may exceed 5000 individuals. Males may also be found in single-sex bachelor herds of 50 - 3000 individuals. As water levels recede, pre-parturient females disperse in small groups up to 20. Males remain in large herds. They become territorial when the floodwaters begin to rise, and may either defend a stand-alone territory 100 - 200 m in diameter or congregate on a lek. Unlike the Uganda Kob (K. thomasi), lek use in the Kafue Flats Lechwe is strictly during the principal breeding season. Leks tend to be located on raised areas above the waterline; each lek territory is only 5 ~ 10 m in diameter, and the entire lek is confined to an area of 0 - 01 - 0 - 2 km ”. Interactions between neighboring lek males are very frequent but largely symbolic: short chases and prancing displays (with the head held high and tail wagging) are more common than physical contact. A series of staccato grunts is used to advertise territorial ownership. However, when competing for territories, Kafue Flats Lechwe males fight vigorously, locking horns and attempting to throw each other off-balance. Such fights show few ritualistic precursors. The displacement of one male from a territory often leads to a chain reaction in adjacent territories, creating a highly charged atmosphere on the lek.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139972FFC903DBF885F998F360.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (included under the umbrella taxon K. leche). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as K. leche kafuensis). The Kafue Flats Lechwe population has undergone significant declines in the past century. In 1931, 250,000 Lechwes were estimated in the Kafue Flats region; by 1970, this had dropped to approximately 94,000. Competition with domestic cattle at the floodplain peripheries and poaching are thought to have been responsible for these declines. Traditional hunting occurred in regions preferred by females, resulting in a population skew toward males and a lowered reproductive potential. The damming of the Kafue River both upstream and downstream from the Kafue Flats has significantly impacted the natural flooding patterns and reduced the available habitat for this species; the completion of the dams, particularly the upstream Itezhi-Tezhi Dam, was followed by a population decline of nearly 50 %. The current population is approximately 40,000 individuals; most are found in Blue Lagoon National Park (on the northern bank of the Kafue River) and Lochinvar National Park (on the southern bank).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139972FFCA06DEF2AFF8AEF8D4.taxon	materials_examined	neighbourhood of Lake Mweru.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139972FFCA06DEF2AFF8AEF8D4.taxon	discussion	The Black Lechwe was formerly included as a subspecies of K. leche. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139972FFCA06DEF2AFF8AEF8D4.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Endemic to the Bangweulu Basin in C Zambia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139972FFCA06DEF2AFF8AEF8D4.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body c ¢. 160 - 180 cm, tail ¢. 30 - 45 cm; weight 45 - 75 kg (males) and 40 - 60 kg (females). Body condition tends to be lowest in the late dry season, from August to November, when food resources are at their lowest. The Black Lechwe displays sexual dimorphism in both size and color: males are larger and darker. Females and juveniles are generally rufous; the flanks tend to be paler than the dorsal surface. The belly and inner surfaces of the legs are white; along the flanks, the white underparts and rufous upperparts abut in a sharp line. A narrow pale stripe runs along the underside of the neck from the throat to the chest. Dark stripes are present on the front of the forelegs. The tail has a bushy black tip. The face has the same overall coloration as the body, with white markings on the lips and above (and less distinctly behind and below) the eyes; the insides of the ears are also white. As males mature, the reddish areas darken to brownish-black, accentuating the white markings. The infusion of black hairsis first apparent on the shoulders, and subsequently extends up the throat (on either side of the white stripe) to the lower cheeks as well as encompassing the entire outer surfaces of the forelegs (the inner surfaces remain bright white). The lower flanks follow, strengthening the demarcation with the white underparts before gradually spreading dorsally. There is considerable variation in the extent of this dark coloration between individual males as well as between seasons. In mature males, the entire body may be rich brownish-black, although rufous patches typically remain on the forehead and upper neck, the rump, and the upper hindlegs in even the darkest individuals. This coloration is thought to develop during, and regress after, the breeding season: dark males are seen in significantly higher numbers at this time. Aside from their coloration, males are easily identified by the presence of lyre-shaped horns. The horns are relatively short compared to other lechwes, but have a stronger curve. From the skull, the horns first bend backward, then upward and forward toward the tips. Twenty to 25 rings are present along the length of each horn, which may grow 51 - 615 cm in good specimens. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139972FFCA06DEF2AFF8AEF8D4.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Edges of permanent swamps, seasonally inundated floodplains, and associated peripheral grasslands. Black Lechwes congregate in areas covered in shallow water 2 - 6 cm deep, and follow the seasonal rise and fall of water levels to remain in their preferred habitat. Water deeper than 60 cm is generally avoided, although it may be sought as refuge to escape from Spotted Hyena (Crocuta crocuta), the principal natural predator. Temporary dispersal into drier habitats may be induced by sporadic heavy rainfall. During the dry season, the Black Lechwe is found in permanently flooded areas dominated by grass genera including Oryza, Typha, Phragmites, and Miscanthus; in peak drought conditions, permanent swamps and areas dominated by Vossia and Eleocharis are used. Wet season habitats are best represented by shallow-water floodplains of Oryza, Acroceras, Leersia, Echinochloa, Paspalum, and Sacciolepis grasses. Drier intermediate grasslands (with grasses Themeda, Setaria, and Loudetia) are most used when floods are highest, and are easily recognized by the presence of termite mounds. As a result of variations in habitat availability and seasonal movements, localized population densities are highly variable. Floodplain density of 22 ind / km? has been recorded at the end of the dry season (October); the same region may support 135 ind / km? ® during the wet season (January).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139972FFCA06DEF2AFF8AEF8D4.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. A selective grazer, the Black Lechwe feeds primarily on the leaves of wetland grasses. Soft green grasses are preferred, although more grass stems are eaten with increased frequency during the dry season. The grass Echinochloa stagnina is consumed in large quantities throughout most of the year, and may account for 60 % of food consumed in the wet season. Other grasses are preferentially consumed at different times of the year, including Acroceras macrum (January-June), Leersia hexandra (January-August), and Vossia cuspidata (July-December). Oryza barthii and Eleocharis sedges are most frequently eaten during the dry season. The high water content of wetland grasses eliminates the need to drink water.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139972FFCA06DEF2AFF8AEF8D4.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Seasonal. The breeding season (rut) begins in December, with reproductive activities peaking in mid-February and continuing until late March or early April. The Black Lechwe is polygynous; successful males occupy territories with raised ground (used for resting), which is thought to attract females. The gestation period is approximately 260 days; births occur between November and January, coinciding with the start of the rainy season. Pre-parturient females isolate themselves and move into deeper swamps, where the single offspring is born in a protected papyrus thicket or other well-vegetated area. The neonate remains hidden for a few days, with the mother close by, especially at night. After the infantis stable on its feet, mother and offspring return to floodplain grazing areas. Nursing occurs at least four times per day, with each interval lasting around five minutes. The bond between mother and infant is loose; infants frequently congregate in nursery groups and only occasionally associate with their mothers. Weaning has not been well documented, but two isolated observations suggest it occurs at approximately three months; at approximately this time, dams will typically conceive again. Females reach sexual maturity at about one year of age; approximately 67 % of yearling females (1 - 2 years old) are pregnant. Timing of male sexual maturity is less well understood. Horn growth begins at six months of age and the mature shape is achieved by four years, although the horns continue to grow until age seven. Mature coloration is achieved at four years of age. It is unlikely that young males (even if sexually mature) are able to successfully compete for territories and mates before this time.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139972FFCA06DEF2AFF8AEF8D4.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. The Black Lechwe is thought to be active both day and night, although most studies have only observed this species during daylight hours. Feeding activity is highest in the morning, gradually waning from a peak at 06: 00 h until 12: 00 h. Midday is spent resting; individuals will lie down if dry ground is available, but in flooded pastures all remain standing. Feeding activity increases again between 17: 00 h and 18: 00 h and may continue after sunset. Social behaviors are most frequent in the afternoon, especially 14: 00 - 16: 00 h. In the dry season, days are typically spent in open areas, with herds retreating into denser swamp vegetation at the waterline for the night. Such vegetation is not available during the wet season; herds remain on the open floodplains day and night.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139972FFCA06DEF2AFF8AEF8D4.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Water levels define the seasonal migrations of the Black Lechwe. Unusual among ungulates, populations are more concentrated during the wet season (December — April) than during the dry season. Herd structure is poorly understood, but it appears to be relatively loose and lacking cohesion. Large herds containing both sexes are most common during the wet season, with the average herd size peaking at 2500 animals in March. During the dry season (from June through January), herd size is usually less than 500. Small herds ofless than ten females may be seen during the early wet season as they move to central swamps in order to give birth. Bachelor herds are also common during the wet season, and are most frequently seen on peripheral grasslands, since territorial males displace them from floodplain areas. Territoriality occurs only during the breeding season; defended territories are 0 - 005 - 0 - 02 km?, and are often clustered around raised dry islands within flooded habitats. These territories are vigorously defended: fights between males may result in severe injury or death. However, aggressive encounters in bachelor herds are extremely rare. Dry season groups show less stratification between the sexes.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139972FFCA06DEF2AFF8AEF8D4.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under K. leche). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as K. leche smithemani). Early 20 " century counts estimated 200,000 Black Lechwes within the Bangweulu basin, but only 16,500 were counted in 1971. Illegal hunting is believed to be a principal cause of this decline, as well as a shift in distribution away from areas of human occupation near Lake Bangweulu. In recent decades, Black Lechwe numbers have stabilized at approximately 30,000 individuals, split among five principal subpopulations around Lake Bangweulu. The available habitat there is thought to be able to support over 150,000 animals; ongoing hunting pressures are believed to be the principal limiting factor, because predators and disease are relatively minor pressures. Ongoing protection efforts such as the formation of protected wetland areas and work within local communities may permit the population to increase in coming decades.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139971FFCB065FF81BFD9AF50F.taxon	materials_examined	Awan, Bahr-el-Ghazal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139971FFCB065FF81BFD9AF50F.taxon	discussion	This species is monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139971FFCB065FF81BFD9AF50F.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S Sudan and W Ethiopia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139971FFCB065FF81BFD9AF50F.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body ¢. 160 - 180 cm (males) and ¢. 130 - 170 cm (females), tail 45 - 50 cm, shoulder height ¢. 100 - 105 cm (males) and c. 80 - 85 cm (females); weight c. 90 - 120 kg (males) and c. 60 - 90 kg (females). The Nile Lechwe exhibits significant sexual dimorphism in both bodysize and coloration. Pelage is relatively long and shaggy in both sexes, especially on the sides and underside of the jaw (giving the appearance of bulging cheeks); adult males may have a mane of longer hair on the neck. The tail is long and slender, with a terminal tuft. The hooves are elongated. In females and juveniles, the overall color is ocher-yellow; the dorsal coloration is richer than on the flanks and underparts. A distinct horizontal demarcation between the ocher dorsum coloration and the paler haunches is present on either side of the tail base. Facial markings are indistinct; a pale superciliary streak is present, and the area below and in front of the eyesis often washed with darker gray. In contrast, adult males are rich blackish-brown with striking white markings. A large patch of white hair sits saddle-like above the shoulders; the nape of the neck may also be white. In males, the face is dark with white markings: on the chin and upperlip, a stripe that passes in front of and over each eye, a wedge between the back of eye and ear, and a large spot on the back of the head. The middle of the abdomen, inner surfaces of the hindlegs, and the underside of the otherwise dark tail are also white. Horns are present in males only; these are lyrate in form, diverging and curving backward from the base and bending upward and inward toward the tips. Prominent transverse ridges occur along the entire horn, save for the very tips. Horn length is typically 50 - 87 cm. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139971FFCB065FF81BFD9AF50F.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Swamps and seasonally flooded grasslands. Flooded plains are used during the wet season, when water levels are typically 10 - 40 cm deep across large tracts of land. As the water recedes in the dry season (beginning in October), Nile Lechwes concentrate in permanent marshy areas. The inundated nature of these habitats results in low predator densities, and this reduced predation risk may have permitted the bold coloration of males to evolve. Areas dominated by Cyperus papyrus appear to be avoided.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139971FFCB065FF81BFD9AF50F.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. A grazer on marsh vegetation. Oryza longistaminata is consumed during the early wet season; grasses from the genera Leersia, Echinochloa, and Vossia are used during the rest of the year.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139971FFCB065FF81BFD9AF50F.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Wild births of Nile Lechwes are apparently concentrated in November — January; breeding activity is highest in April. In captivity, births may occur throughout the year, but tend to be concentrated from March to May. Based on observations in captivity, a dominant male will segregate an estrous female from a group and use horn displays and contact to prevent other individuals of either sex from approaching. Gestation has only been imprecisely estimated: the reported range is 210 - 290 days, averaging c. 240 days. Litter size is one. Recorded captive birth weights average 6 - 4 kg for males and 5 - 62 kg for females. Infants lie concealed in protected areas away from the herd for up to two weeks. During this time, the neonate lies pressed to the ground, rising only when visited by the mother to nurse. Mothers are protective of their young and may threaten other herd members that approach their calf in a captive setting. Weaning usually occurs at 5 - 6 months. The average interbirth interval in captivity is 11 - 6 months; in the wild, this is likely an annual cycle. Sexual maturity in captive individuals of both sexes occurs at 19 - 20 months (sometimes as early as twelve months); males tend to mature slightly later than females. Horn development occurs more rapidly than the development of mature coloration: males with well-developed horns may still show some ocher and lack the white markings of mature individuals. Several captive individuals have lived to 21 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139971FFCB065FF81BFD9AF50F.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139971FFCB065FF81BFD9AF50F.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Poorly known in the wild. Seasonal movements may extend over 30 - 40 km as the animals follow flood lines. This speciesis found closer to the permanent swamps than the similar White-eared Kob (K. leucotis), which makes large-scale migrations. Nile Lechwe herds with 50 to several hundred individuals have been observed; group size appears to be linked to habitat quality. Mixed groups, composed of adult females, several adult males, and juveniles are most common; adult and subadult males also associate in bachelor herds. Around female herds, males form a strict hierarchy that appears to be closely linked with coloration. Mature males will tolerate lower-ranking males (fully horned, but lacking the distinctive white patches) in relative proximity to females. Closely matched adult males, however, may fight intensely for dominance or possession of females; in captivity, such fights have resulted in injury or death. Dominance fights in the wild tend to be intense but brief (horn wrestling often involves submerging heads under water); the victor will then chase the loser for a short distance. Males dominate females and juveniles in captive herds, displacing them from food resources. Dominant males will urinate onto their throat mane, and may subsequently rub this onto females. Females also sort themselves into a loose hierarchy through aggressive interactions such as displays, biting, and head-butting.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139971FFCB065FF81BFD9AF50F.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Population estimates from 1977 to 1983 were of 30,000 to 40,000 individuals. No full surveys have since been performed, but an aerial survey in 2007 counted approximately 4300 animals in the Jonglei region of southern Sudan. The population from eastern Sudan and western Ethiopia is at risk due to its low numbers (less than 1000 animals) and rapidly expanding human activities in the area. Three protected areas within Sudan (Zeraf, Fanyikang, and Shambe game reserves) are home to the Nile Lechwe. However, the seasonal movements typical ofthis species result in frequent movements outside of these protected zones into adjacent lands used by herds of cattle. Increased resource competition with livestock is a principal threat, as is the habitat destruction and fragmentation resulting from extensive livestock use. Long-term civil war in Sudan has negatively impacted the Nile Lechwe, principally from increased hunting due to increased availability of weapons and resettlement of displaced people. The inaccessible core habitat of this species is its primary protection against human threats, although the ongoing reconstruction of the Jonglei Canal in southern Sudan could have a profound negative impact by eliminating vast tracts of habitat.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139970FFCC03CAF558FE59FC05.taxon	materials_examined	Upper Guinea.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139970FFCC03CAF558FE59FC05.taxon	discussion	Buffon’s Kob formerly encompassed all kob species from western, central, and eastern Africa. Based on skull characteristics, the four former subspecies have been elevated to species, and K. kob is now taken to be restricted to Africa west of Nigeria. This species is considered monotypic here.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139970FFCC03CAF558FE59FC05.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Senegal to W Nigeria.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139970FFCC03CAF558FE59FC05.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body ¢. 160 - 180 cm, tail 10 - 15 cm, shoulder height 90 - 100 cm (males) and 82 - 92 cm (females); weight 60 kg (males) and 45 kg (females). Buffon’s Kob is a relatively small kob. The pelage is short and smooth. The overall color is golden brown or orange, and the underparts and inner surfaces of the legs are white. The outer surfaces of the legs are the same color as the body. An indistinct black stripe is present on the front of all four limbs, and a white band is present above the hooves. On the face, white markings are present around the eyes, at the base of each ear, and on the muzzle and lips. The ears have pale interiors and golden backs with blackish tips. The lyre-shape horns are present only in males; as with body size, the horns of Buffon’s Kob tend to be smaller than those of other kobs. Average length in mature males is 48 - 55 cm; their spread at the tips may be 14 - 37 cm depending on the degree of divergence at the base and the inward curvature at the tips. Dental formula i 510 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139970FFCC03CAF558FE59FC05.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Savannas and alluvial plains. Buffon’s Kob inhabits grasslands closely associated with lakes and rivers; it is rarely found more than a few kilometers away from a permanent water source, particularly during the dry season. Open savannas are the principal habitat during the wet season (approximately 70 % of sightings occur in this zone). In the dry season, grass savannas with trees (especially Combretum, Terminalia macroptera, and Detarium) and bushes are preferred (at a similar rate of 70 % of sightings). Dense gallery forests are avoided. Historically, population densities of Buffon’s Kob were highest in savannas, averaging 9 - 20 ind / km?; the onset of the rainy season (April) produced extremely high local densities of up to 97 ind / km?. However, as a result of habitat destruction and hunting, current population densities across the range of Buffon’s Kob are generally less than 1 ind / km?, in some cases below 0 - 1 ind / km?.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139970FFCC03CAF558FE59FC05.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. A selective grazer. Buffon’s Kob feeds on grass throughoutthe year, but tends to be less selective during the wet season. Dry season burns coupled with the rains create a flush of new growth at the start of the wet season; grasses like Andropogon africanus, A. gayanus, A. tectorum, Echinochloa colonum, and Brachiaria mutica are favored at this time of year. In the wooded savannas used during the dry season, Hyparrhenia subplumosa, Schizachyrium sanguineum, and Vetiveria fulvibarbis are preferentially consumed; Buffon’s Kob will also occasionally browse on the young leaves of woody plants (e. g. Digitaria ciliaris). This species drinks daily, and may consume mineral-rich soils, particularly during the dry season when the mineral content of grasses is lowest.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139970FFCC03CAF558FE59FC05.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Buffon’s Kob may breed throughout the year, although a peak in matings is seen in February and March. Births are usually concentrated at the start of the dry season (December — January in Ivory Coast). The breeding system appears to be density-dependent. Lekking, as seen in the Uganda Kob (K. thomasi) and the White-eared Kob (K. leucotis), formerly occurred in areas where population density exceeded approximately 15 ind / km?; these densities are rare in modern West Africa, and lekking is now uncommon. Breeding males tend to be territorial; females pass freely through territories without any attempt on behalf of the male to prevent their egress. A male will follow an estrous female with his neck stretched forward and head low. Ritualized foreleg kicks (“ laufschlag ”) are a prelude to mounting. Other reproductive parameters are unknown but are likely similar to those of the Uganda Kob. Interbirth intervals tend to be longer than twelve months. Juvenile males are generally forced from their natal herds at eight months of age. Life expectancy in the wild is estimated to be 6 - 7 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139970FFCC03CAF558FE59FC05.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Buffon’s Kob tends to be active throughout the day and night. Diurnal observations of captive animals indicate a peak in foraging from 09: 00 h to 11: 00 h and from 17: 00 h to nightfall. Unusually, these animals were observed to rest and ruminate in the early morning, a time when activity levels among ungulates are often high; whether the animals were using the early hours to warm up after night-time foraging or were expressing an artifact of their captivity is unknown. A more typical period of rest and rumination occurs at midday, from 12: 00 h to 15: 00 h. Of the daylight activity budget, 43 - 3 % is spent feeding; a similar proportion (38: 3 %) is spent ruminating. Activity levels, as measured by distances traveled, are higher during the day (average displacement of 2 - 4 km) than at night (1 - 9 km). Distances covered tend to be greater during the dry season (December — March) in response to less abundant food resources.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139970FFCC03CAF558FE59FC05.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Buffon’s Kob displays a variety of social patterns, from solitary individuals to large herds of 100 animals or more. A documented decline in population numbers has been accompanied by a shift in social organization toward smaller herds and largerterritories. The largest groups are observed during the dry season (December-March), when Buffon’s Kobs travel en masse to drinking sites. These large herds are usually temporary, fragmenting after returning to wooded savanna where most dry season foraging occurs. Large herds also form at the beginning of rainy season (April-July) when the species emerges onto open grasslands. In 1974, the typical group size across the year was estimated to be 20 animals; however, herds of 1 - 5 animals now account for over 70 % of observed groupings. Buffon’s Kob herds are very flexible: individuals often join or leave, so the composition of any given group is usually different after a five-hour period. Females constitute the majority of individuals in large herds. Males are more solitary, although young males associate in bachelor herds (these male-only herds are largest during the wet season). Solitary Buffon’s Kobs account for a significant proportion of observations. Isolated males are often territorial and exclude other males from their home ranges even when no females are present. Average territory size is between 0 - 63 km * and 0 - 92 km * (range 0 - 36 - 1 - 27 km?); this is significantly smaller than the average home range of females (2: 46 km?). In the 1970 s, reported territory size was much smaller (0 - 03 - 0 - 13 km?): the disparity is thought to be due to continued declines in population densities. In Ivory Coast, males show territorial tendencies beginning at three years of age, and most (c. 90 %) adult males maintain a territory. Territorial boundaries are maintained using displays, including a “ proud gait ” in which the head is held high and erect. Fights are generally rare. As in the related reedbucks (Redunca spp.), distinctive whistles may indicate to other males that a territory is occupied. Males occupy their territories throughout the year and, although they may leave to drink during droughts, the boundaries themselves are not affected by season. Females frequently shift their home rangesin the late wet season (August-November) to take advantage of changing food resources.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139970FFCC03CAF558FE59FC05.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (under K. kob kob; this classification also includes western populations of K. loderi). Buffon’s Kob is severely threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture and excessive hunting by humans; it has been extirpated from large parts of its former range. The majority of surviving Buffon’s Kobs are restricted to protected areas, and even these populations have declined (some by over 90 %) in recent decades. The total population is likely 40,000 — 75,000, with a large proportion (¢. 26,000) inhabiting Niokolo-Koba National Park in Senegal. Other significant populations are found in Arli National Park (Burkina Faso), Comoé National Park (Ivory Coast), and Mole and Bui National Parks (Ghana).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139977FFCC034FFC53F7FEFA55.taxon	materials_examined	“ type locality unknown. ”	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139977FFCC034FFC53F7FEFA55.taxon	discussion	Loder’s Kob is a relatively unrecognized member of the kob species complex, formerly described as the subspecies K. kob loderi. Most recent treatments have recognized only three kob groupings (K. kob, K. thomasi, and K. leucotis), ignoring K. lodert. Populations west of Sudan are often ascribed to K. kob sensu stricto, and populations in DR Congo and Sudan are usually listed under K. thomasi. The species is considered to be unique on the basis of skull morphology. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139977FFCC034FFC53F7FEFA55.taxon	distribution	Distribution. E Nigeria to W Sudan and N DR Congo. The divisions between the ranges of K. loderi, K. leucotis, and K. thomasi in Sudan are poorly understood.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139977FFCC034FFC53F7FEFA55.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. No confirmed measurements are available. This species is generally similar to Buffon’s Kob (K. kob). Males are the larger sex and have prominent muscle definition, especially on the neck; females are more slender and lightly built. The overall color of both sexes is tawny to reddish-brown; males tend to be more richly colored (brighter and darker) than females. Specimens from the eastern parts of the species’ distribution may have a speckling of black hairs throughout the coat. Underparts are white. A black line marks the fronts of the lower legs; the forelegs are more heavily marked than the hindlegs. The pasterns are white, except where bisected by the aforementioned black lines. The neck and face are paler than the rest of the body. Facial markings are generally inconspicuous, comprised of a thin area of white above each eye and white lips, but are generally inconspicuous; the markings may be more prominent in eastern specimens. The inner surfaces of the ears are white; the outer surfaces range from fawn to whitish. Females are hornless. The horns of males are stout and possess a sigmoid flexure, rising vertically from the skull, then curving backward, and finally upward at the tips. Prominent transverse ridges are present along most of the horn length. The horns tend to be shorter than in Buffon’s Kob; the type specimen has horns 53 cm long. Horns from Sudanese specimens tend to have a greater span than those from Central Africa. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139977FFCC034FFC53F7FEFA55.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Floodplains and savanna grasslands. In Cameroon, preferred savanna habitats are interspersed with Terminalia laxiflora woodland. Loder’s Kob is rarely found more than 10 km from a permanent source of water. Population densities are generally low, typically 1 - 2 ind / km? but sometimes as high as 12 ind / km?.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139977FFCC034FFC53F7FEFA55.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. As with other kobs, Loder’s Kob feeds primarily on grasses. The grass species Echinochloa pyramidalis, E. stagnina, Vossia cuspidata, Paspalum orbiculare, Hyparrhenia spp., and Jardinea congoensis are commonly consumed during the dry season. Data from Cameroon indicate that other ground-level plants (forbs) may comprise up to 25 % ofthe diet. Shrubs may also be consumed during the dry season when grass quality is low. Loder’s Kob drinks regularly.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139977FFCC034FFC53F7FEFA55.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Loder’s Kob breeds throughout the year in Cameroon. A peak in breeding behavior occurs during the dry season (February-March). Lek breeding has not been recorded. Courtship often involves a parallel walk by a pair. Gestation is approximately nine months; littersize is one. Prior to giving birth, a female isolates herself and seeks out dense brush. This cover provides protection for the neonate, which remains concealed in the birthing location for at least the first week of life; the dam forages nearby and visits the infant intermittently to nurse. After 8 - 14 days, the infant leaves the thicket and accompanies its mother as she forages, often resting nearby. Grasses are tested beginning at 3 — 4 weeks, and weaning occurs at approximately three months. Both sexes reach sexual maturity at 12 - 16 months of age, but males are not socially mature (i. e. able to maintain a territory and thus breed) until after their third year. Longevity in captivity may exceed eleven years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139977FFCC034FFC53F7FEFA55.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely similar to the closely related Buffon’s Kob.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139977FFCC034FFC53F7FEFA55.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The reliance of Loder’s Kob on permanent water year-round precludes widespread dispersal during the wet season, although they are more evenly distributed across available habitat types at this time. During the dry season, Loder’s Kob tends to concentrate around water sources. Large herds composed of both sexes may be seen at this time; in Waza National Park, Cameroon, such herds may number in the hundreds. However, these large groupings no longer occur in much of the species’ distribution, and herds with more than 25 individuals are rarely seen. The mean groupsize across the year in Bénoué National Park, Cameroon, is 3 - 7 animals; single sex herds are most frequently observed. Females are generally gregarious; mature males are often solitary. This pattern is especially prominent during the breeding season when males become territorial and exclude other males from their vicinity. Territories are delineated with urine, feces, and scent marks along the boundaries. They are also visually declared: males will stand on raised areas such as anthills to advertise their presence to neighboring males. Closely matched males may fight vigorously overterritorial ownership. After an initial “ sizing up ” phase, the rival males will rush toward each other, crashing their horns together and then grappling, with horns interlocked, trying to throw each other off-balance. Non-territorial males (typically immature males and very old individuals) form bachelor herds. Because mature males are often territorial, they do not form permanent attachments to female groups. “ Harem groups ” (with one male and numerous females) may form briefly as female herds pass through a male’s territory. Juveniles around six months old often associate in “ nursery groups ” accompanied by a few adult females; bouts of chasing, jumping, sparring, and other forms of play are frequent in these herds.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139977FFCC034FFC53F7FEFA55.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (under K. k. kob). The distribution of Loder’s Kob has contracted significantly in recent decades, with most large populations now existing in protected areas. Population numbers have also declined; rinderpest was responsible for a massive die-off in Waza National Park, Cameroon in 1982 - 1983, but ongoing illegal hunting is thought to be the main limiting factor. No complete population estimates exist, but based on available information, at least 30,000 Loder’s Kobs survive.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139977FFCD0647F99EF9B5F79E.taxon	materials_examined	Berkeley Bay, Victoria Nyanza.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139977FFCD0647F99EF9B5F79E.taxon	discussion	The Uganda Kob was formerly classified as a subspecies of K. kob but is considered a unique species here. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139977FFCD0647F99EF9B5F79E.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Far E DR Congo, W Uganda, and S Sudan. The divisions between the ranges of the Uganda Kob, the Whiteeared Kob (K. leucotis), and the Loder’s Kob (K. loderi) in Sudan are poorly understood.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139977FFCD0647F99EF9B5F79E.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body c. 160 - 180 cm, tail c ¢. 10 - 15 cm, shoulder height c. 82 - 100 cm; weight 94 kg (85 - 121 kg) in males and 63 kg (60 - 77 kg) in females. The Uganda Kob is the largest of the four kob species, particularly in weight and shoulder height. Mature males are approximately 50 % larger than females, and have distinctly muscular necks. The smooth pelage is reddish-brown, often with golden tones, and the belly and inside upper portions of the legs are white. Distinct black markings are present on the fronts of the legs. The tail is relatively narrow; the dorsal surface is reddish with a blackish tip, and the underside is white. The head is colored similarly to the body, although the center of the face tends to be slightly darker or more richly toned. A well-defined arc of white is present at the medial corner of each eye, becoming narrower and more buff in color as it circles the eye dorsally; these markings are much larger than those seen in the neighboring Loder’s Kob. The lips and underside of the jaw are white; a white bib is situated on the upper throat and is particularly well defined in adult males. The ears of females are tawny; as males age, their ears pale to white except at the tips. Only males have horns, which are lyre-sshaped and form a distinctive sigmoid shape when viewed in profile (sweeping backward at the base and upward at the tips). The horns are stout and have prominent transverse ridges between the two principal curves; the tips are smooth. The horn bases of mature males have only thin ridges. Typical horn length is 50 - 61. 6 cm. Dental formula is 1 0 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 302) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139977FFCD0647F99EF9B5F79E.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Open grasslands interspersed with low-density Acacia woodland. The Uganda Kob is most frequently found in short-grass communities dominated by Bothriochloa, Chrysochloa, Sporobolus, or mixed Hyparrhenia and Themeda. Females in particular alter ranging patterns to maximize their use of short green grass, especially in the dry season. Areas of tall grass and swampy regions are avoided. The Uganda Kob is able to sustain high population densities in suitable habitat. Localized density of 182 ind / km? has been recorded in Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, although densities average 13 ind / km? across the park. Regional densities of 20 - 50 ind / km? occur in Rwenzori Mountains National Park, Uganda, although the park-wide density is 8: 6 ind / km?. Patches of high and low population density occur within apparently suitable habitat for undetermined reasons.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139977FFCD0647F99EF9B5F79E.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Uganda Kob is a selective grazer, preferentially foraging on short green grasses. Based on stomach content analyses, the grasses Chloris gayana, Heteropogon contortus, Hyparrhenia filipendula, Sporobolus pyramidalis, and Themeda triandra are heavily used (all present in at least 70 % of 72 stomach samples); Bothriochloa sp., Brachiaria platynota, Cynodon dactylon, and Hyparrhenia dissoluta are eaten with less frequency. Cenchrus ciliaris, Panicum repens, and Sporobolus consimilis are also consumed. Diet selection between grass species varies slightly between wet and dry seasons, and during dry seasons, shrubs such as Sida sp. and Capparis sp. are browsed with greater frequency.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139977FFCD0647F99EF9B5F79E.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Aseasonal; calves are regularly observed throughout the year. The unusual lek system of breeding in the Uganda Kob has been well studied. Within an arena of small, densely packed male territories, estrous females exercise mate choice; the majority of copulations occur on just a few lek territories (breeding is rare outside of the lek). Female preference is for the territory itself and only indirectly for the male guarding it; selection is governed by olfactory clues (likely from urine of previous estrous females). Males holding such territories must be large and well conditioned to successfully compete for the increased access to mates. Leks are used year-round, although there is constant turnover of males. Leks are populated by the highest number of males during the late wet seasons (April-June and October-December) when plentiful forage reduces the energetic costs associated with such confined territories. A similar wet-season increase of female lek use occurs, although the number of estrous females shows much less seasonality. Males use a prancing display to attract the attention of estrous females, flashing their leg markings and throat bib. During courtship, a male will approach and smell the female, typically inciting her to urinate; the male uses the flehmen response to determine receptivity. Courting proceeds with ritualized “ laufschlag, ” the gentle tapping of the female’s underside with one of the male’s forelegs. Mounting may occur up to 20 times before copulation is successfully achieved, and a single female may breed with several males (as many as nine recorded) during a visit to the lek. The gestation period is an estimated 240 - 266 days. The single infant lies concealed in dense grass or thicket for 6 - 8 weeks, being visited periodically for nursing. After two months, the youngster emerges and begins to regularly follow its mother. Weaning occurs around six months of age. Young females may begin breeding as early as 13 months; post-parturient females may breed shortly after giving birth and females are thus frequently pregnant. The horns of young males begin to emerge at five months; sexual maturity may be reached after one year, but males are not able to hold a territory until after three years of age. Male life span in the wild is estimated at eight years; females likely live to around ten years, although in captivity they may survive until 18 years of age.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139977FFCD0647F99EF9B5F79E.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Diurnal activity of Uganda Kobs has been well established, but nocturnal behavior remains largely unknown. Days are spent on feeding grounds; as night falls, herds travel to different areas. Females generally travel 2 - 5 km / day while foraging, although if they are attending to a young infant this may be substantially less. Such movements are rarely straight-line distances; the meandering pattern results in an average displacement of 1 km between morning and evening.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139977FFCD0647F99EF9B5F79E.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The social system of the Uganda Kob is loose, and long-term associations between individuals are rare. Herds are often temporary aggregations; a single individual may be found in dramatically different sized herds over the course of 24 hours. Mixed groups of 30 - 50 Uganda Kobs are common, and usually have a much greater proportion ofadult females than adult males. In areas of high population density, average herd size may be as high as 185, with a range from less than 20 up to 600 - 1000 individuals. The largest herds are most frequent during the wet season, when this species congregates on short-grass pastures. After grass fires burn through tall-grass habitats, large Uganda Kob aggregations disperse to feed on young shoots. At low population densities, group sizes are much smaller; solitary individuals and pairs are frequent, and small bachelor herds and mixed sex groups with 5 - 7 animals (occasionally up to 30) are also seen. Regardless of population density, females occupy large overlapping home ranges. The average home ranges of radio-collared females are 15 - 20 km?, with core area of approximately 3 km? *. Home ranges of males are much smaller, 2 - 5 km? ®, with a core range of only 0 - 05 km *. Approximately half of Uganda Kob males are territorial at any given time. Two-thirds of these males hold large, dispersed territories 0 - 2 - 4 km? * in size, often with a central area of very closely cropped grass. The remaining third maintain very small territories within a lek. A single lek may contain 5 - 65 territorial males, although 10 - 20 is typical; each territory is only 15 - 35 m in diameter, and total lek area is 0 - 03 - 0 - 12 km *. Lek site fidelity may last for decades. Vocal and visual advertisements, such as whistling calls and strutting with head high and ears lowered, signify the occupancy of a territory and help delineate boundaries. Neighboring males may briefly clash horns to maintain mutual borders. Serious fights occur whenever other males try to displace a territory holder; such fights are frequent in central territories that are highly attractive to females. Turnover in occupancy may occur within a few hours, although some males maintain their status for several weeks. The extreme energetic cost of defending a territory that contains very few resources is responsible for such a high rate of replacement. Lek males spend considerable time defending theirterritory (8 % of daily activity compared to 1 % on single territories); increased patrolling and sexual behavior further reduce the time available to feed or rest. Territories tend to enlarge at the periphery of a lek, gradually increasing to the size of single territories. Lek males may occupy single territories when not on a lek, or they may join subadult and nonterritorial males in a bachelor herd. Regardless of territory size or location, females move freely across territorial boundaries. Both males and females show lek-fidelity, usually visiting the same lek year after year.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139977FFCD0647F99EF9B5F79E.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as K. kob thomasi, and including some eastern populations of K. loderi). The distribution of the Uganda Kob has been significantly reduced due to agricultural development, widespread cattle grazing, and diseases such as rinderpest. The Uganda Kob was extirpated from SW Kenya in the 1960 s; populations in Tanzania (around Lake Victoria) have also been eliminated. Provided with adequate protection, however, the Uganda Kob has proven to be extremely resilient. The present population trend is stable or slightly increasing; current total numbers are estimated to be 40,000 - 100,000 individuals. This species is most common in Murchison Falls National Park, Queen Elizabeth National Park (where numbers have increased dramatically in recent decades), and the Toro-Semliki area of Uganda.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990BFFB00341FE8AF610FADA.taxon	materials_examined	Swamps of the White Nile.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990BFFB00341FE8AF610FADA.taxon	discussion	The White-eared Kob is sometimes given as a subspecies of K. kob, although it is elevated to species level here. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990BFFB00341FE8AF610FADA.taxon	distribution	Distribution. SE Sudan and W Ethiopia; occasional groups are seen in N Uganda. The divisions between the ranges of the White-eared Kob, Loder’s Kob (K. loderi), and the Uganda Kob (K. thomasi) in Sudan are poorly understood.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990BFFB00341FE8AF610FADA.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body c. 160 - 180 cm, tail c. 10 - 15 cm, shoulder height c. 82 - 100 cm; weight 55 kg (males) and 40 kg (females). White-eared Kob males are significantly heavier than females; both sexes weigh less than the neighboring Uganda Kob, but body measurements are believed to be similar. Coloration shows extreme sexual dimorphism in this species. Juveniles and adult females are a golden brown to reddish color with white undersides. Dark markings are generally present on the front of the forelimbs. The face has paler markings around the eyes and ears. In contrast, mature males are rich black, sometimes with dark brown overtones. This dark pelage juxtaposes with the bright white underparts, meeting in a sharp line along the lower flanks. The inside surfaces of the legs are white and the outer surfaces are black, except for a white band just above the hooves. The face is prominently marked with white circles around each eye and ear. The White-eared Kob is aptly named; the backs of the ears of adult males are white. The lower face, including the lips, jaw line, and underside of the jaw, as well as a large patch on the upper throat, are white. Males begin the transition to this adult coloration at approximately three years of age; intermediate color phases are seen as they mature. In addition to their distinctive coloration, males can be identified by the presence of lyre-shaped horns. The horns emerge almost vertically from the forehead, curving backward then upward at the tips. Horn length in mature males is approximately 55 cm. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990BFFB00341FE8AF610FADA.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Open grassland with scattered wooded areas. The White-eared Kob is found farther from permanent swamps than the similar sympatric Nile Lechwe (K. megaceros), but is rarely found more than 10 km from surface water. Dry season habitats (January — March) are typified by swampy Echinochloa pyramidalis meadows. During the wet season, White-eared Kobs migrate to Hyparrhenia rufa savannas interspersed with woodlands dominated by tree species such as Acacia sieberiana, Combretum fragrans, Balanites aegyptiaca, and Ziziphus mauritiana. Across its annual distribution, population densities are 5 - 20 ind / km? *. However, localized densities in excess of 1000 ind / km * may be found in areas near water during the dry season.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990BFFB00341FE8AF610FADA.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The White-eared Kob feeds primarily on grass. The leaves and stems of short stoloniferous grasses, such as Echinochloa pyramidalis and E. stagnina, are consumed year-round. Such grasses are especially important in the dry season as they continue to produce green shoots. Tall grasses like Hyparrhenia sp. are avoided if other options are available; when they are consumed, only the leaves are selected. A Whiteeared Kob will consume approximately 1 kg of vegetation per day (estimated during dry season). Their frequent grazing, especially in restricted dry season habitats, keeps grasses evenly mowed — Ieaves and stems are consistently cropped around 2 - 5 cm from the ground.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990BFFB00341FE8AF610FADA.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The White-eared Kob reproduces in a broadly seasonal pattern; breeding is spread between January and April, with births coinciding with the late wet season (September — December). Throughout the mating season, males cluster together on small territories within traditional breeding grounds (leks). Estrous females show a distinct preference for central territories; these regions attract three times as many females as would be predicted based on a random distribution. Males tend to court individual females (rarely up to seven females may be present in a territory simultaneously) and actively try to prevent them from dispersing to neighboring males. Gestation is thought to be approximately eight months, based on that for the closely related Uganda Kob. A single young is typical, and neonates are tucked away in tall grass and thickets for several weeks. Weaning typically occurs by May orJune, just over six monthsafter birth. Females reach sexual maturity after their first year. Timing of male sexual maturity has not been measured, but social maturity (measured as the ability to hold a territory within a lek) does not occur until full mature coloration is achieved. Maximum life span in captivity is 16 years; individuals up to 13 years old have been noted in the wild.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990BFFB00341FE8AF610FADA.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Active both day and night, usually with a rest during the hottest parts of the day. During the dry season, this activity pattern becomes particularly pronounced; individuals will feed in swampy meadows at night and move into wooded areas during midday. Females are significantly more active (walking and foraging) than males, likely due to the increased energy requirements associated with pregnancy and lactation.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990BFFB00341FE8AF610FADA.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The migrations of the White-eared Kob represent the second largest migratory ungulate population in Africa after the Serengeti White-bearded Wildebeest (Connochaetes mearnsi). Migratory movements are driven by the availability of water. Very large herds, containing at least 700,000 animals of both sexes and all ages, travel 150 - 200 km between dry and wet season ranges. During the dry season (beginning in January), White-eared Kobs concentrate along river systems in the northern parts of the species’ distribution; water and green vegetation are rare elsewhere. Typically confined to swampy meadows, unexpected rain (and subsequent vegetation growth) may cause temporary dispersal into surrounding areas. Territoriality among males is only observed during the dry season, when lek territories are occupied. Twenty to sixty-five males each defend a small territory within a lek; all are usually found within a rough circle only 100 - 250 m in diameter. Leks are usually located near prime feeding areas so as to attract females; their location may remain constant between years or shift with changing movement patterns. On the lek, levels of aggression are very high, particularly at the start of the breeding season. This 1 s especially true on the central territories that achieve the highest breeding success: aggression may serve to disrupt adjacent males from successfully copulating or to attract mates from neighboring territories. Heavy rains, beginning in May and continuing into July, trigger the southward migration to drier wooded savannas; migration 1 s thought to be a strategy to avoid areas with surface flooding. The northward migration back to the swamp meadows usually begins in October; infants are born during this migration, which may increase neonatal survival by reducing the impacts of predation.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990BFFB00341FE8AF610FADA.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as K. kob leucotis). Despite having the smallest range of the four kob species, the White-eared Kob is the most numerous. The current population in southern Sudan is estimated to be at least 753,000 animals, most occurring around Boma National Park. This is a slight decline from estimates made in 1985, when the Boma population exceeded 800,000. The preferred habitats and transient nature of the White-eared Kob offer much protection because large areas are relatively inaccessible to humans. This species is heavily hunted in some regions, but the harvest appears to be less significant to population numbers than the limitations imposed by food resources during the dry season. The most notable decline in numbers has been in the eastern periphery of the species’ range in Ethiopia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990BFFB10647FA2EFC4BF517.taxon	materials_examined	Chobe Valley, Zambesia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990BFFB10647FA2EFC4BF517.taxon	discussion	Two subspecies have been described, but are considered invalid here. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990BFFB10647FA2EFC4BF517.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Patchily distributed in Angola, E Namibia, NE Botswana, Zambia, SE DR Congo, N & W Malawi, and SW Tanzania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990BFFB10647FA2EFC4BF517.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 126 - 156 cm, tail 28 - 32 cm, shoulder height 77 - 94 cm; weight 77 kg (males; range 67 - 91 kg) and 66 kg (females; range 48 - 78 kg). Males are generally larger than females; territorial males also develop heavy neck musculature (non-territorial males have significantly thinner necks). The pelage of the Puku is long and somewhat rough. Overall coloration is a uniform golden-yellow; the underparts are pale. A dark patch is present on the lowersides of the neck ofterritorial males, caused by the deposition of a greasy secretion from the preorbital glands; these patches are most often seen in May-November. The Puku is easily distinguished from the similar kobs by the absence of black markings on the fronts of the legs, although the distal surfaces may be slightly browner than the body. The pasterns are generally unmarked, although in some individuals a faint white band is visible above the hooves. The tail has a black tip. The face is indistinctly marked with a narrow white ring around each eye and a pale area on the chin. Active preorbital glands are associated with a small tuft of black hair. The ears are generally golden brown externally, but the black tips may covera third of the ear surface in some individuals; the insides of the ears are white. Males are easily distinguished from females by the presence of stout horns. There is relatively little verticalrise from the skull before the horns are deflected backward; when seen in profile, the horns resemble the upward-scooped horns of waterbucks more than the sigmoid-curved horns of kobs. Heavy ridges are present over the basal three-quarters of the horns; typical horn length is 40 - 54 cm. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990BFFB10647FA2EFC4BF517.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Floodplains and adjacent well-watered grasslands. Seasonally flooded swale habitats are preferred by the Puku, usually containing a mixture of vegetation communities including sedge (Cyperus esculentus), forbs (Heliotropium spp.), and short grasses (Hemarthria altissima and Cynodon dactylon). Shrubland may be used when floodplains are inundated; in Zambia, mopane (Colophospermum mopane) woodland is used extensively by non-territorial males during the wet season. Dry savannas and areas dominated by annual grass are avoided, as are areas heavily used by domestic cattle. Population densities overall are 1 - 5 — - 7 - 6 ind / km? *. However, in areas of preferred habitat, densities of 6 - 55 ind / km * (average of 36 ind / km * in central Zambia) are typical, and densities up to 126 ind / km? have been recorded.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990BFFB10647FA2EFC4BF517.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Puku is a grazer; perennial grasses are the principal dietary component across seasons (85 - 9 - 97 - 8 %, based on observations of foraging individuals). Favored grass species in northern Botswana include Brachiaria latifolia and B. brizantha (December — March and July / August, respectively), Eragrostis lappula and E. rigidior (July / August, December), Setaria sphacelata (December — January), Vossia cuspidata (December), and Digitaria setivalva (January). Annual grasses are eaten in small amounts in all seasons, but are most consumed during the peak of the dry season (July and August); forbs are also consumed more at this time. Foraging generally occurs on land, but Puku are occasionally observed feeding in water up to 15 cm deep.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990BFFB10647FA2EFC4BF517.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Breeds year-round. Conflicting reports suggest varying peak breeding seasons; recent evidence suggests that mating peaks during the June-July dry season. During courtship, a male follows an estrous female with his head stretched forward and low. Copulation is preceded by ritualized “ laufschlag ” in which the male lifts a front leg between a female’s hindlegs and taps her abdomen. Copulation itself lasts for less than five seconds. Length of gestation has not been measured, but is presumed to be approximately eight months. In Zambia, the majority of births occur in the wet season, from January to April; in Botswana, this peak extends from January to June. Neonates weigh approximately 5 - 8 kg (recorded from a single three-day-old calf) and remain hidden in dense vegetation for a few weeks. After emerging, young Puku show a poorly developed following response, and if startled often flee away from their mothers. Nursing has been observed most frequently in the early morning, but also occurs at other times during the day. Young males disperse from their mothers before one year of age, whereas a young female may remain loosely associated with her dam into adulthood.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990BFFB10647FA2EFC4BF517.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Puku may be observed feeding or moving throughout the day, although activity levels tend to be highest around dawn and dusk. Groups are usually observed foraging in the pre-dawn and early morning, with peak activity subsiding by 08: 00 h. Resting often occurs around midday; bedding sites are often in full sun, such as on sand banks or on open grassland, rather than in the shade. Toward the late afternoon, activity levels generally rise again and are sustained into the evening. Anecdotal evidence indicates that foraging may continue after sunset until at least 24: 00 h.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990BFFB10647FA2EFC4BF517.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Puku are most commonly seen in small groups, sometimes intermingled with groups of Common Impalas (Aepyceros melampus). Females associate in loose groups of 6 - 20 individuals; males are either solitary or found in bachelor herds, which are often structured into subgroups of similaraged males. There do not appear to be strong long-term associations between individuals of either sex. During the dry season, Puku aggregate in areas of good habitat close to water, where groups of up to 46 individuals have been recorded. Females follow vegetation patterns across seasons, shifting their areas of occupancy to coincide with the highest forage quality. In poor-quality habitat, female home ranges average 0 - 33 km *. In good habitat, the average home range decreases to 0 - 24 km ®. Adult males are territorial and remain in the same home range throughout the year; the reproductive benefit of defending an area preferred by females during the breeding season is thought to offset the energetic costs of not following food resources. In poor-quality habitat, territories are relatively large, averaging 0 - 14 km?; this may be in response to low female density or poor resource availability. In good-quality habitats, territories tend to be smaller (average 0 - 05 km? *) and show a clumped distribution. Such grouped territories may represent an intermediate stage toward lekking as seen in the Uganda Kob (K. thomasi) and the White-eared Kob (K. leucotis). Females move freely across territorial boundaries with relatively little interference by the resident males. Intruding males, especially bachelors, are driven off in short but intense chases. Territorial ownership is advertized by a series of 2 — 4 sequential whistling vocalizations and visually by the dark neck patch of territorial males. A single whistle also serves as an alarm call for both sexes; if disturbed, Puku may flee into cover or into water.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990BFFB10647FA2EFC4BF517.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Puku was once distributed widely throughout south-central Africa, but it is now restricted to isolated pockets of grassland and floodplain habitat. Currently declining populations are the result of illegal hunting, habitat loss, and competition with domestic livestock, especially cattle. The total population is estimated to be 76,000 - 130,000 individuals. This species is most common in the unprotected Kilombero Valley region of Tanzania (approximately 75 % of total numbers); the remaining majority is found in Zambia. In some regions, notably Chobe National Park in Botswana, Puku numbers are increasing, likely due to the habitat modification caused by recovering populations of other large herbivores such as African Savanna Elephants (Loxodonta africana).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990AFFB203C0F55CFF1BF9A7.taxon	materials_examined	district between Lataku and the west coast, South Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990AFFB203C0F55CFF1BF9A7.taxon	discussion	Numerous subspecies of waterbucks have been described based on regional differences, but their validity requires additional study. Two broad groups of waterbucks are well recognized: Ellipsen Waterbuck and Defassa Waterbuck (K. defassa). These are treated as separate species here, although the latter is sometimes classified as a subspecies of K. ellipsiprymnus. Genetically, these two waterbuck groups are distinct, although hybridization occurs in regions of sympatry (e. g. Nairobi National Park and Samburu National Park, Kenya), resulting in intermediate phenotypes. Pending further review, this species is considered monotypic here.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990AFFB203C0F55CFF1BF9A7.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S Somalia and E Kenya to E Botswana and NE South Africa. The distribution of the Ellipsen Waterbuck is separated from that of the Defassa Waterbuck by the Muchinga escarpment in Zambia; the two species coexist in C Kenya but are roughly separated by the Rift Valley.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990AFFB203C0F55CFF1BF9A7.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 175 - 235 cm, tail 33 - 40 cm, shoulder height 120 - 136 cm; weight 250 - 275 kg (males) and 160 - 180 kg (females). The pelage is long, shaggy, and coated with an oily secretion. The hair on the neck is especially long and coarse and forms a rough mane. Overall color is a uniform gray-brown; each hair has a light base and dark tip, creating a grizzled appearance on close inspection. The dorsum is slightly darker than the flanks, and the underparts are scarcely paler except for the ventral midline, groin, inner thighs, and underside of the tail, which are white. A white band is present just above the hooves on the otherwise dark brown legs. The Ellipsen Waterbuck is readily distinguished from the related Defassa Waterbuck by a conspicuous white ring on the rump that runs above the base of the tail and circles the buttocks (in some individuals there is a gap in the white band at the base of the tail). The forehead is often brighter than the gray-brown cheeks, and a darker blaze is present from the eyes to the nose. A white line encircles the rhinarium, lips, and chin. White markings are also present at the medial corner of each eye, extending over the eye as a superciliary stripe. A white crescent-shaped bib marks the upper throat immediately below the angle of the jaw. The white markings of females (on both the face and rump) tend to be less conspicuous than those of males. The short, rounded ears are very hairy; the backs are dark and the inner surfaces white. Males alone possess horns; these lack the double-curvature typical of the genus Kobus and instead follow the profile of the nose before scooping upward. The basal three-quarters of each horn has heavy ridges. Horn length is typically 79 - 92 cm in mature males, with a tip-to-tip distance of 33 - 5 — 74 cm. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990AFFB203C0F55CFF1BF9A7.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Open grassland and wooded savanna, usually near water. Habitat selection is driven by food resources. During the rainy season, this species is often widespread in wooded areas (accounting for 42 - 72 % of observations). In Zimbabwe, woodlands dominated by Brachystegia spp. and Hyparrhenia filipendula grasslands are preferred, although grassy areas with Loudetia simplex and Aristida junciformis are also used. As water becomes increasingly scarce during the hot-dry season (September — - November), Ellipsen Waterbucks alter their habitat use to exploit the green food resources in shoreline sedge habitats and shallow water papyrus beds. In favorable regions, the Ellipsen Waterbuck occurs at population densities of 2: 6 — 4 - 8 ind / km?.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990AFFB203C0F55CFF1BF9A7.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Ellipsen Waterbuck is predominantly a grazer, although browse is seasonally consumed. In northern Botswana, perennial grasses comprise 92 - 100 % of the diet based on observations of foraging individuals. Preferred species vary throughout the year and between regions as evidenced by several studies. Across the southern parts of its distribution, the perennial grasses Brachiaria spp., Cynodon dactylum, Digitaria spp., Heteropogon contortus, and Themeda triandra are generally consumed. Annual grasses, such as Panicum spp., are consumed primarily when the young plants are growing during the rains (generallyJanuary-March in southern Africa). The use of browse and ground-level forbs is concentrated in the dry season (May — - October) when grass quality decreases. Plant communities immediately surrounding permanent water provide the majority of forage consumed during the late dry season. Unlike the Defassa Waterbuck, Ellipsen Waterbucks will readily wade into water to forage, consuming mostly plant parts that extend above the surface of the water. Hydrophytic species found in the diet include Setaria spp., Hemarthria altissima, Cyperus spp., Phragmites spp., and Typha spp.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990AFFB203C0F55CFF1BF9A7.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Reproduction occurs throughout the year, although in Umfolozi Game Reserve, South Africa, births tend to occur in December — June (with a peak in February-March), a time when grassis plentiful. A courting male follows an estrous female while licking at her anogenital region, testing the female’s urine using an exaggerated flehmen response. Ritualized foreleg kicks (“ laufschlag ”) do not appear to be universal in the courtship of Ellipsen Waterbuck. The gestation period is estimated to be eight months, after which a single offspring is born. Infants spend the first 2 — 4 weeks oflife lying hidden in cover, with the mother visiting to nurse sporadically. After this lying-up period, offspring may group together in pairs or trios. Young Ellipsen Waterbucks are especially prone to infestations of the brown ear tick (Rhipicephalus appendiculatus) in January-March, which may lead to death; oxpeckers (Buphagus spp.) are not tolerated by waterbucks of any age. Both sexes of Ellipsen Waterbuck are slow to mature. Potential longevity in the wild is at least eleven years, and captive individuals have lived past 20 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990AFFB203C0F55CFF1BF9A7.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Ellipsen Waterbucks are most active around sunrise and sunset. Activity levels tend to be lowest around midday; resting may occur in shaded wooded areas or in the open. This pattern ofactivity and resting is poorly defined, and individuals or groups may be active at any time during the day. In the late afternoon, Ellipsen Waterbucks frequently emerge from cover into open grasslands. They may remain in the open at night, but nocturnal activity is poorly documented.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990AFFB203C0F55CFF1BF9A7.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Females and juveniles live in small groups of up to 20 individuals. Group size is smallest during the rainy season, when the average is 4 - 4 ind / group, and highest during the hot-dry season, with an average of 6 - 9 ind / group. Female group composition is very flexible, with individuals joining and leaving on a daily basis. Perhaps as a result ofthis fluidity, there is no hierarchy or defined leader within these herds. Males are either solitary or live in bachelor groups of 4 - 6 males. In contrast to the flexible female groups, male herds are relatively stable and have a strong age-based hierarchy reinforced by sparring. Solitary adult males often (but not always) defend territories. Territory size appears to be based on resource availability rather than population density; the average size is 0 - 9 km *. Adjacent territories may have an area of overlap 50 m wide along their borders. Boundaries are maintained with ritualized broadside displays, with exaggerated head movements and postures to emphasize the horns of that resident male; vigorous horning of the ground or bushes may also signal territorial occupancy. Physical conflicts, usually tests of strength with horns locked together, occur primarily when a bachelor attempts to displace a territory holder. Relative to male territory size, female home range is very large: two females in Zimbabwe were found to range over 3 - 64 km * and 6 - 45 km ®. Males thus defend prime feeding resources to attract females to their territory. This is most obvious during the hot-dry season, when all individuals concentrate around water sources. Bachelor males must forage within defended territories at this time; they are generally tolerated by territorial males except around shoreline zones of Phragmites — a habitat highly preferred by females. When food resources are more available during and following the rains, bachelor males disperse widely and avoid territories. Submissive displays, in which the head of the subdominant male is nodded up and down to flash the white collar, help reduce conflict when bachelor males infringe on territories. During these displays, the occupying male adopts a “ proud ” posture with the head held high and is able to send subordinate males off with a sharp forward sweep of the horns. The positioning of the tail also conveys important social signals; the conspicuous rump ring may help emphasize these movements.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990AFFB203C0F55CFF1BF9A7.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as K. e. ellipsiprymnus). The wild population has shown a declining trend; recent estimates place the population at approximately 105,000 individuals. The Ellipsen Waterbuck was once widespread wherever appropriate habitat was available, but because of the expansion of agriculture and settlement the species is now found in scattered populations and is often confined to protected areas. The largest numbers are found in South Africa and Kenya. Namibia, Malawi, Mozambique, and Swaziland have very low numbers. The Ellipsen Waterbuck formerly occurred in south-eastern Ethiopia (along the Shebelle River). This region has been extensively modified for agriculture and the speciesis believed to be regionally extinct.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139909FFB3037DF9F2FB63F941.taxon	materials_examined	Near Lake Tana, Abyssinia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139909FFB3037DF9F2FB63F941.taxon	discussion	The Defassa Waterbuck was formerly included as a subspecies of K. ellipsiprymnus. However, microsatellite analysis shows significant differentiation between these two waterbuck groups. Hybridization has been observed in regions of sympatry (e. g. Nairobi National Park and Samburu National Park, Kenya), resulting in intermediate phenotypes, although genetic introgression appears to be limited. Numerous subspecies belonging to the Defassa Waterbuck group have been described based on morphological differences, but significant variation may also exist between individuals within a population. Pending further review, this species is considered monotypic here.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139909FFB3037DF9F2FB63F941.taxon	distribution	Distribution. From Senegal and Gambia to N Ethiopia and Eritrea, and S to Zambia ;; isolated populations exist in S Gabon, W Republic of the Congo, and Angola. The Rift Valley in C Kenya and C Tanzania forms the E distributionallimit; distribution to the S is restricted by the Muchinga escarpment in Zambia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139909FFB3037DF9F2FB63F941.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 175 - 235 cm, tail 33 - 40 cm, shoulder height 120 - 136 cm; weight from Ugandan specimens: 198 - 262 kg (males) and 161 - 214 kg (females). The pelage of the Defassa Waterbuck is coarse and shaggy, particularly on the neck. Glandular secretions give the hair an oily feel and a “ sweet and musky ” odor. Coat coloris generally reddish-gray. Individual variation may range from bright rufous to grizzled gray, but Defassa Waterbucks are generally redder than Ellipsen Waterbucks (K. ellipsiprymnus). The underparts and inner surfaces of the legs vary from white to dusky brown. In contrast to the Ellipsen Waterbuck, the rump is entirely white, and this rump patch does not extend above the base of the tail. The legs are dark, and a narrow white band is present above the hooves. The forehead is often bright rufous, and a distinct brownish-black blaze extends along the bridge of the nose from the eyes to the nose. White superciliary stripes, markings around the nose and lips, and a bib on the upper throat are similar to those seen in the Ellipsen Waterbuck. The ears are short and rounded; the inner surfaces are covered with tracts of white hair in individually distinct patterns. Aside from their largersize, males are readily distinguished from females by the presence of horns. The horns extend backward from the forehead and then curve upward; when viewed from the front, they diverge at their bases, becoming increasingly parallel (and sometimes converging slightly) toward the tips. Horn length in mature males is 75 - 84 cm. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139909FFB3037DF9F2FB63F941.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Defassa Waterbuck is most common in grasslands, although open forest and scrub habitats are also used. Adult females show greater use of open forest compared to adult males, which primarily inhabit open grassland. Savannas dominated by Heteropogon contortus and Hyparrheniafilipendula are generally preferred; open forests of Capparis tomentosa and Euphorbia candelabrum are favored over other tree communities in Uganda. The Defassa Waterbuck is always found within a few kilometers of water, and even arid zones may be colonized if a water source is nearby. Unlike many other Kobus antelopes, the Defassa Waterbuck does not use wateras a refuge from predators, fleeing into dense brush instead. Dense forests are avoided. Population densities vary widely with habitat type and region. Very high densities, averaging 30 ind / km?, were formerly recorded around Lake Nakuru in Kenya; local densities in this region were as high as 100 ind / km?. Current estimates for this region are lower, butstill exceed an average of 10 ind / km? This species is considered common in parts of Uganda, where densities average 2 - 1 ind / km? but can be as high as 10 - 9 - 17 - 7 ind / km? in localized areas. Densities are much lower in West Africa: 0 - 4 ind / km? in Senegal and 0 - 02 - 0 - 21 ind / km? in Comoé National Park, Ivory Coast.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139909FFB3037DF9F2FB63F941.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Defassa Waterbuck is primarily a grazer, although the diet fluctuates throughout the year to make use of available greenery. The flush of growth associated with rain results in a diversification of plants consumed. Annual grasses comprise over 50 % of plants in the diet during the rainy season in Benin. In drier periods, the diet becomes increasingly restricted; perennial grasses increase in importance (to over 50 % of the diet) and leaves may be browsed from trees (up to 35 % of diet in Benin, but much less in southern regions). Frequently consumed grasses in the eastern and southern parts of the Defassa Waterbuck’s range include Aristida spp., Bothriochloa spp., Brachiaria spp., Chloris spp., Cynodon dactylon, Digitaria spp., Heteropogon contortus, Hyparrhenia filipendula, Panicum spp., Sporobolus pyramidalis, and Themeda triandra. In Benin, the grasses Panicum anabaptistum, Echinochloa stagnina, and Andropogon gayanus are consumed year-round. Adult females and territorial males feed in prime habitats; bachelor males, which are excluded, must forage on more marginal resources. Unlike the Ellipsen Waterbuck, the Defassa Waterbuck will not wade into inundated grasslands to feed. However, this species needs to drink regularly and may travel over 1 - 5 km between grazing areas and water sources during the dry season.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139909FFB3037DF9F2FB63F941.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Breeds throughout the year. Peaks in birth rates are generally correlated with rainy seasons, and thus vary between regions: in Kenya, most births occur between July and January (particularly December — January); in Uganda, birth peaks occur in March-April and October-November; and in Zambia, they are largely confined to November — April with a distinct peak in late January. A male courts an estrous female by following her while champing his lips; if the female stops and urinates, the male lets the urine flow over his nose and mouth, then performs flehming by curling the lips distinctively. Mounting is presaged by gentle kicks of the male’s forelegs directed between the hndlegs to the abdomen of the female (“ laufschlag ”). Full estrus may last for 18 hours and numerous copulations (up to nine recorded) may occur; successive copulations are generally with the same male, but on occasion multiple partners are involved. The moment of ejaculation is marked by a slight jump: the hindfeet of the male are off the ground for a fraction of a second. Gestation has been estimated at approximately 240 days, although captive observations suggest thatthis is an underestimate; six reported values range from 272 days to 287 days. Litter size is typically one, although infants may associate together, leading to unsubstantiated reports of twinning. A single full-term fetus weighed 14 - 2 kg. Neonates are hidden in dense vegetation, usually a thicket or woodland, by their mothers for 2 - 4 weeks. During this time, the mother remains within a few hundred meters, visiting sporadically throughout the day and night to suckle the infant. Young animals are recognizable by their short, fluffy coat, which they retain until weaning at 6 - 8 months of age. Females begin to mature sexually at two years of age, and are generally fully mature at three years. The development of males is more protracted. They typically disperse from their mothers by eleven months and join a bachelor group. Puberty begins at two years of age; full spermatogenesis occurs by four years of age and testicular development plateaus at b — 6 years. By the sixth year, full adult size and horn length have been reached, at which point males begin to establish territories. Average life span of males in the wild is eleven years. Females generally live for 13 years (although an individual 18 - 5 years old was observed in the wild); in captivity, one female lived to 23 years and four months.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139909FFB3037DF9F2FB63F941.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Defassa Waterbucks may be active throughout the day and night. During daylight hours, there are peaks in activity (feeding and moving) in the morning and evening, although foraging may occur at all hours of the day. Resting increases with higher solar radiation; the greatest proportion of resting occurs between 10: 00 h and 14: 00 h, with a peak at 13: 00 - 14: 00 h. On average, 37 % of daylight hours are spent feeding, 15 - 5 % standing, 37 - 8 % lying, and 6 - 7 % walking; the remainder is accounted for by other less frequent behaviors such as grooming and sexual activity. Females spend significantly more time foraging than males (38 - 4 vs. 26: 4 %), at the expense of resting. Conversely, bachelor males spend significantly more time lying down (51 - 7 %), which is thought to correspond with increased rumination due to lower quality food intake. Midday rests and overnight periods are often spent in wooded areas; foraging generally occurs in open grasslands. Daily movements rarely exceed 1 km. Limited nocturnal observations of males indicate that foraging occursless frequently at night, peaking between 24: 00 h and 02: 00 h. Much of the night is spent ruminating, and little time is spent resting or sleeping. Deep sleep is rare and lasts for 4 - 6 minutes when it occurs.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139909FFB3037DF9F2FB63F941.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The social system of the Defassa Waterbuck has been well documented, particularly in Uganda. Females live in small maternal groups that frequently change in size and composition; associations between individuals are temporary (no long-lasting social bonds have been observed). Female group size is smallest (3 - 6 individuals) during the rains; as populations condense around water sources in the dry seasons, associations may number up to 25 animals. Home ranges of individual females are approximately 6 km? although movements are confined to a smaller area at the peak of drought conditions. Male home ranges are generally less than 1 - 5 km? and thus a female’s range overlaps those of several males. Mature males are generally territorial, although in high-density populations only a fraction of them (as little as 7 %) may be able to maintain a territory at any given time. Territories are defended year-round against other territorial males, but non-territorial males may be tolerated during parts of the year (such as the late dry season in Zambia) and are only forcibly excluded during the breeding season. Thesize of each defended area varies between 0 - 04 km? and 1 - 5 km? (averaging 0 - 8 km?); the largest territories are maintained by prime males between seven and nine years of age. Males often defend shorelines of lakes or rivers, and are thus able to attract females due to constant access to green vegetation. Females are herded away from territory borders, but these actions are rarely successful in preventing females from leaving. Territorial boundaries are not marked, but they are maintained using visual displays between neighbors. Lateral displays with the head held high andtail stiffly horizontal occur frequently, as do horn displays, where the ground may be dug up or bushes thrashed. Such posturing is very effective, and adjacent males rarely contest established boundaries. However, fights between resident and intruding males may be vigorous; puncture wounds inflicted by the horns may be fatal. In the high-density population around Lake Nakuru, territory holders may have an alliance with 1 - 3 other adult males (called “ satellite males ”) who are tolerated within the territory throughout the year. These other males are submissive to the territory holder and help drive away competitors; in return, satellite males receive access to prime feeding areas and a much greater chance of gaining a territory themselves (twelve times greater than bachelor males). Young, non-territorial males (between nine months and six years of age) generally associate in bachelor herds. Old males ousted from a territory often remain solitary. Unlike female groups, bachelor herds are stable, with a hierarchy based on size. Male herds average 5 - 3 individuals, with pairs being particularly common. Typically ranging over 1 km? the home range of bachelor males is dependent on season and the occupancy of male territories.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139909FFB3037DF9F2FB63F941.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List (as K. ellipsiprymnus defassa). The Defassa Waterbuck has a wider geographical range than the closely related Ellipsen Waterbuck, but is less common and much more patchily distributed. The total population is estimated to be 95,000 individuals. Illegal hunting and displacement due to agriculture and settlement have resulted in significant declines in population numbers; the species has been eliminated from much of its former range in West Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139908FFB303D5F84BF585F2FE.taxon	materials_examined	Cape Colony.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139908FFB303D5F84BF585F2FE.taxon	discussion	The Rhebok is a distinctive antelope that has sometimes been separated into its own tribe, the Peleini. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139908FFB303D5F84BF585F2FE.taxon	distribution	Distribution. South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139908FFB303D5F84BF585F2FE.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 105 - 125 cm, tail 10 - 20 cm, shoulder height 70 - 80 cm; weight 18 - 30 kg, average 22 kg (males) and 20 kg (females). Males are generally 10 % larger than females. Both sexes have soft, woolly coats of pale gray fur. The legs, neck, and head generally have a fulvous or fawn tinge, and the fronts of the legs tend to be somewhat darker. The underparts are marginally paler than the dorsal pelage except for the inguinal region and inner thighs, which are white. The underside of the bushytail is white, and the dorsal surface is gray except for the white tip. The most notable feature of the face is the bulbous black rhinarium; this bare nasal skin extends back a considerable distance from the nostrils. The rhinarium accentuates the white markings on the front of the muzzle and lips. An indistinct pale ring is present around each eye, and the skin of the upper and lowerlidsis strikingly black. The exceptionally long, narrow, erect ears are also distinctive; their insides are black with tracts of white hair. Only males have horns. They are straight and slender, rising nearly vertically from the forehead with a very slight forward curve. The horns are generally parallel, with a tip-to-tip distance of 5 - 17 cm; typical length is 20 - 29 cm. Dental formula is I 0 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139908FFB303D5F84BF585F2FE.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Montane grasslands interspersed with rocky areas, usually at elevations of 1400 - 3300 m. In the Drakensberg mountain range, South Africa, Rheboks are most common in the subalpine zone between 1800 m and 2300 m. They are generally confined to open habitats such as Themeda — Festuca grassland, open woodland, and Erica — Helichrysum heath; areas with dense cover or tall grass are avoided. Steep slopes are used as refugia from predators, and an abundance of steep terrain is correlated with smaller home ranges. Winter temperatures may drop below freezing, and the woolly coat may provide some protection from such temperatures. However, juveniles are particularly susceptible to hypothermia, especially during wet weather or snow. Population densities are generally 0 - 5 — 1 - 7 ind / km?, although local densities of approximately 6 - 5 ind / km? have been recorded in several South African locales.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139908FFB303D5F84BF585F2FE.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Many older reports suggest that the Rhebok is a grazer, but numerous recent studies involving feeding habits, rumen content analysis, and fecal analysis have shown that this species is almost exclusively a browser. Leaves from dicotyledonous shrubs and forbs comprise, on average, 96 - 9 % of rumen contents sampled. Disparago spp. and Metalasia spp. are preferentially consumed in Bontebok National Park, South Africa, especially in October — April. Other important plant genera in the diet include Aspalathus, Hermannia, and Helichrysum. Flowers of the shrubs Leucosidea sericea, Cliffortia nitidula, and Euryops sp. are consumed in Orange Free State, South Africa; in south-western South Africa, blossoms, roots, and seeds are eaten in greater amounts during the dry winter (June through October). Grass is fed upon commonly but in low quantities throughout the year (only 2: 7 % of rumen contents, but present in 19 of 26 samples); Themeda triandra appears to be the grass most frequently consumed. Grasses are more heavily used during the winter in Bontebok National Park, but in Orange Free State their use peaked is in summer and autumn. The Rhebok generally does not require drinking water, although it has been observed drinking regularly in winter.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139908FFB303D5F84BF585F2FE.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Seasonal. Courtship and breeding usually occur in summer or autumn, depending on the region. An estrous female remains still when approached by the harem male, often lifting her tail and urinating when the male is close by. The male stays near the receptive female, licking at her vulva and shoulder region periodically, until she is ready to mate. Copulation follows after a distinctive “ mating march, ” in which a female slowly walks forward, closely followed by the male, who taps the female’s underside with a front leg at nearly every step. Gestation lasts for approximately seven months. Births in eastern South Africa are concentrated around January (91 % occur between November and February). In the Western Cape Province, most births occur in August. These differences are largely attributed to different rainfall patterns and thus availability of fresh vegetation around parturition. A single offspring is typical, although twins are reported rarely. A pre-parturient female will separate from conspecifics 2 - 3 days priorto giving birth to seek an area of dense cover. Neonates are hidden in long grass for at least three weeks, during which time the mother typically remains at least 50 m, but not more than 500 m, away. The mother will visit sporadically (usually early and late in the day) to nurse the infant. At 3 - 5 weeks of age, the infant begins to follow its mother, butstill seeks refuge in cover for extended periods; by six weeks it has joined the herd and is fully mobile, closely following the mother. Weaning occurs at 6 - 8 months. Females may conceive by 16 months of age, and they are generally pregnant by two years of age. Males begin to develop horns at three months; the tolerance of adult males for juvenile males gradually decreases until they reach 9 - 11 months old. At this time, harem males begin to aggressively chase young males, forcing them to disperse from their natal territory before the next year’s offspring are born. Males are thought to reach sexual maturity at 1 - 5 - 2 years. Life span may exceed twelve years in captivity.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139908FFB303D5F84BF585F2FE.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. The Rhebok does not show any distinct activity patterns, and it tends to be active both day and night. Intervals of moving and feeding, typically 1 - 2 hours long, are alternated with similarly timed bouts of resting. Resting occurs at the highest frequency during the middle of the day, but this pattern is not as distinct as in other members of the Reduncini. Rheboks usually rest in open, exposed areas rather than in cover. The predominant peak in feeding activity occurs in the late afternoon. Overall, 56 - 60 % of the Rhebok’s daytime activity budget is spent “ active ”; a similar level of activity (57 %) has been recorded at night. Females typically spend more time feeding than males, and both sexes forage for longer periods during the winter, when food is scarce.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139908FFB303D5F84BF585F2FE.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Rheboks display a very fixed social system of harem groups and solitary males. Groups are no larger than 12 - 15 individuals, composed of a single adult male, 1 - 6 adult females, and their recent offspring. These harem herds are extremely stable, without immigration and with only sporadic emigration of the younger age classes. When on the move, the herd is led by a female; the harem male brings up the rear. Young males, after being forced to disperse, remain solitary until they can obtain a territory and attract young females that disperse from neighboring areas. Herds occupy distinct home ranges with little overlap (less than 10 %) among neighboring groups. Annual home range size averages 0 - 62 km ® (range 0 - 29 - 1 - 03 km?); the entire area is used during the winter, but summer home ranges may be one-half that size, because the animals do not wander as widely. Males are territorial and defend the herd’s home range against other males. Territorial boundaries are delineated with small amounts of feces deposited at visual landmarks such as termite mounds, tufts oftall grass, and vertical posts; secretions from preputial glands also make the urine more conspicuous. These “ signposts ” are thought to be olfactory in nature, because males make little attempt to make them visually noticeable. Territorial marking increases in frequency during early summer (October-December) in eastern South Africa, the time when young males are chased away from natal herds.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139908FFB303D5F84BF585F2FE.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Populations of Rheboks are widely fragmented, but their preference for marginal habitats make them less susceptible to ongoing habitat loss than many other African ungulates. Poaching by humans and hunting by feral dogs may occur outside of protected areas. The total population is thought to be 10,000 - 18,000 individuals and appears to be relatively stable. The Rhebok is the most common bovid in Lesotho. The Drakensberg mountain range in Lesotho and KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, are the stronghold for this species. The Rhebok has been extirpated from south-eastern Botswana.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990DFFB60374FE70F607FA50.taxon	materials_examined	Inconnue. Restricted by Grubb 1 n 1999 to “ South Africa, Western Cape Prov., Plettenberg Bay ”.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990DFFB60374FE70F607FA50.taxon	discussion	Usually, about six subspecies have been recognized on the basis of differences in pelage. Average color differences exist over the huge area of distribution. Females with tan-colored foreheads are common in Tanzania, Kenya, and the White Nile district (the rest of the face is black, and the foreheads of males are black). Individuals in East Africa average larger than elsewhere. DNA analysis tends to distinguish Roan Antelopes from West Africa from those from central, eastern, and southern Africa. This species is considered monotypic here.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990DFFB60374FE70F607FA50.taxon	distribution	Distribution. From W Africa (Senegal & Guinea-Bissau) to W Ethiopia, then S through W Uganda, SW Kenya, WC Tanzania (not the coastal region) to Angola, NE Namibia, N Botswana, and Kruger National Park in NE South Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990DFFB60374FE70F607FA50.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 200 - 219 cm, tail 60 - 75 cm, shoulder height 126 - 145 cm, ear 35 - 38 cm, hindfoot 52 - 55 cm; weight 235 - 300 kg (males) and 215 - 280 kg (females). Body color from nearly white (with a slight reddish cast) through fawn through medium / dark brown; the face is largely black, this color extending onto the sides of the neck, with white streaks in front of the eyes that extend down onto the sides of the face, and a white muzzle. Neonates are reddish or buffy colored, with at most vague dark markings; by about four months, the young have acquired adult coloration. The ears are very large and slightly curved backward toward the tips, with noticeable tufts. There is an erect brown mane, with whitish hair bases, running along the neck to just behind the withers, and a shorter mane down the throat to the brisket. The tail is blackish with a long black tuft. Both sexes have horns. The horns are relatively short, a little longer than the head, and strongly curved backward, even in a semicircle in some males; they are ridged along almost the entire anterior surface except for the tips. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990DFFB60374FE70F607FA50.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Roan Antelope occurs mostly in wooded savanna, especially moist savanna, mostly in long-grass areas. It will use semi-arid habitat but nearly always near permanent water, except during rains. It will selectively graze in recently burned areas when the flush of new vegetation appears. At Madrid Game Ranch, South Africa, Roan Antelopes consistently used areas with denser canopy cover than other ungulates and favored bottomlands. In Nylsvley Nature Reserve, South Africa, Roan Antelopes generally used open grasslands more than woodland savanna, and in contrast, they preferred medium-closed to open woodland in Weenen Provincial Nature Reserve, South Africa, where they have been reintroduced.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990DFFB60374FE70F607FA50.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Herbivorous and grazers in most places. Stable isotope analysis of dental enamel from Roan Antelopes indicates that 91 % of the diet in southern Africa and as much as 100 % in eastern Africa consist of grasses. In Burkina Faso, West Africa, during the hot-dry season, Roan Antelopes adopt a mixed-feeding strategy, consuming legumes and shrubs and less than 50 % grass. Roan Antelopes tend to eat the higher parts of grasses, usually down to about 80 mm above the ground; green shoots are cropped down to 20 mm. In Nylsvley Nature Reserve, forage quantity is most important in the late wet and early dry seasons, and food quality is more important in the early wet and late dry seasons. Roan Antelopes may stand in quite deep water to feed on aquatic plants.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990DFFB60374FE70F607FA50.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Breeding is non-seasonal. Females and calves, like males, usually test female urine for hormones. Estrus lasts for one or two days, during which a female copulates frequently. The female performs submissive gestures, and the two circle round each other, the male following and lifting his foreleg, with the knee bent alongside the female’s hindquarters or between her hindlegs. Gestation is 276 - 287 days. A female moves away from the main herd several days before giving birth, and she stays with the calf for aboutfive days, then leaves it in concealment. Dominant females have a shorter period of isolation than subordinate ones. The mother returns to the calf early in the morning for suckling, and sometimes at night; they contact each other with low calls, or, if they have lost each other, with loud bird-like twitters. Weaning occurs at about six months of age. There is a postpartum estrus. Females ovulate within about a month of calving, and thus may breed every ten months or so. Females become fertile at two years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990DFFB60374FE70F607FA50.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Largely diurnal, grazing until about 10: 00 h and then resting in the heat of the day, with additional feeding bouts in late afternoon and evening and often into the night. Roan Antelopes drink frequently, especially in the dry season.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990DFFB60374FE70F607FA50.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Roan Antelopes live in herds of 6 - 20 females and young, but occasionally they aggregate into gatherings of over 100. The herds occupy home ranges of 40 - 120 km? which include territories of several males, or they may share a territory with a single male, or there may be separate wet and dry season ranges. A herd will stay in a portion of its home range for a considerable period and then move to another part of it. Herd members tend to be fairly widely dispersed. There is a clear dominance hierarchy among members, with frequent supplanting and dominance displays (arched-neck broadside display). The dominant cow leads herd movements; if there is a bull in association, he follows the dominant cow. Juveniles and subadults may move separately from the females for some hours, or even a few days. Males disperse at about two years of age and join bachelor herds, and after about six years of age, they attempt to gain territories. Territorial males patrol the boundaries of their territories, marking them with dung; unlike sable antelopes, the territorial males do not scrape the ground before defecation. They beat bushes and low trees with their horns. A territorial male defends the herd that is in his territory (even if the herd is only there temporarily), together with an area 300 - 500 m around it (the intolerance zone). Males threaten with the same gestures as do females, and may fight challengers by pushing with horns and forehead, dropping to their knees, lashing their tails, and twitching their prominent ears.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990DFFB60374FE70F607FA50.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Present numbers across Africa are estimated at about 76,000. Some populations are stable, others declining; 60 % of the population is in protected areas. About 500 or fewer remain in South Africa (with a yet unexplained steep decline to near extinction in Kruger National Park, perhaps most related to predation, exacerbated by persistent drought and habitat deterioration), less than 2000 in Zimbabwe, 1000 in Botswana, less than 1000 in Namibia, and somewhat under 2000 in Malawi. Numbers are unknown in Mozambique and Angola. In all these countries of southern Africa, it is threatened, mostly declining. Only in Zambia, where there are over 5000, mainly in the national parks, is its status satisfactory. Farther north, there are fairly large populations in Burkina Faso (more than 7300), Cameroon (more than 6000), and Tanzania (more than 4300). Roan Antelopes have been reintroduced successfully in areas where they once occurred.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990DFFB7064FF99BF879FB3E.taxon	materials_examined	Cashan Range, Magaliesburg, near Pretoria, South Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990DFFB7064FF99BF879FB3E.taxon	discussion	The subspecies are fairly well marked, differing in size, the color of the female (the adult male is always black), the form of the white face stripes, and the size of the horns. The mtDNA haplotypes are somewhat mixed, as one expects in the case of subspecies, but there are haplotypes typical of each of them. There is also a “ ghost ” of what may have been another subspecies in western Tanzania, from Wembere south to Rungwe. It is now largely introgressed by Roosevelt's Sable Antelope (H. roosevelt), so that externally it resembles this species, but the DNA in some individuals is most typical of the Southern Sable Antelope subspecies variani. Four subspecies are recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990DFFB7064FF99BF879FB3E.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. H. n. nigerHarris, 1838 — SoftheZambeziRiver. H. n. anselliGroves, 1983 — LuangwaValleyinEZambia, throughMalawiandNMozambiquetotheTendagururegion, SETanzania. H. n. kirkiiGray, 1872 — NoftheZambeziRiver, inKatanga (DRCongo) andZambiaWoftheMuchingaEscarpment. H. n. variani Thomas, 1916 — C Angola.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990DFFB7064FF99BF879FB3E.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 185 - 194 cm, tail 44 - 53 cm, shoulder height 135 - 140 cm, ear 25 - 28 cm, hindfoot 51 - 54 cm; weight 180 - 230 kg (males) and 160 - 180 kg (females). The Southern Sable Antelope is smaller and more sexually dimorphic (particularly in horn size) than the Roan Antelope (H. equinus). Horns are much shorter, and much less curved, in females, but very long and strongly curved backward in males; they are more slender and more compressed than those of the Roan Antelope. Females and young are black to deep rich chestnut, the color varying geographically; males become black at about three years of age, the backs of the ears remaining reddish-brown. The underparts and hind edge of the buttocks are strikingly and sharply white, as are the lower jaw and the end of the muzzle. There is a white stripe near the base of the horn that typically goes down the face to meet the white of the muzzle, leaving a black stripe between it and the white of the lowerjaw. With age, the lower part of this white stripe tends to darken, and in adults of the subspecies variani (known as the “ Giant Sable ”), only the upper part of the stripe, the patch down to the medial side of the eye, generally remains. There is a high mane, often not as dark as the body color, down the neck. Newborns are pale yellowish-brown, with only very faint markings, and closely resemble Roan Antelope neonates. The diploid chromosome number is 60; all chromosomes are acrocentric or subtelocentric. The subspecies tend to differ strongly, although (as one expects of subspecies) there are individuals that cannot be positively assigned to a subspecies. In the subspecies niger, sometimes called the “ Black-black Sable, ” females and young males are extremely dark red-brown, nearly but not quite black, almost like the adult males. In the subspecies kirkii, females are usually rich chocolate-brown, although some darker females occur, particularly in the western part of the distribution where it grades into niger; it averages larger in body size than niger, but the horns are smaller. The subspecies anselli is the smallest, with a relatively narrow skull; the color of the female resembles that of kirkii, and in both sexes the white face stripes flanking the muzzle are broader, on average, than in the other subspecies. The subspecies variani is on average larger and longer-horned than other subspecies (although its measurements overlap with nigerand kirkii), and the female is usually more chestnut-colored than in other subspecies. This subspecies is particularly distinguished by the white face stripe being restricted to a white oblong in front of the median side of the eye, or only vaguely continued along the snout. These differing patterns of white face stripes essentially represent different stages of heterochrony (thatis, adults retaining juvenile features, or developing into “ superadults ”). In sable antelopes in general, with age, the anterior half of the white stripes on the face becomes narrower and more invaded by the general dark color of the nose and cheeks. The smallest subspecies, anselli, which on average has the widest stripes, is the most paedomorphic (retaining the most juvenile characteristics as an adult), and the largest subspecies, variani, with the stripes normally restricted to the region medial to the eye, is hypermorphic (all adults resemble the aged adults of the other subspecies). Dental formula is 1 0 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32. Full dental eruption is complete at 44 months.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990DFFB7064FF99BF879FB3E.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Southern Sable Antelopes are restricted to the Miombo woodland zone, which is relatively open, with a grassy understory. They tend to range out into the grasslands in the dry season, returning to the woodlands at or before the beginning of the rains. In Pilanesberg National Park, South Africa, they choose north-facing slopes during the wet season and move down to the valleys during the dry season. In general, they avoid the more open habitats, the pediments, and secondary grasslands. They are very water-dependent. Mortality in the wild can be caused by poor nutrition, especially after drought or competition with cattle; tick and louse infestation; parasites, especially babesiosis (caused by the protozoan Babesia); predation by Lions (Panthera leo), Leopards (P. pardus), and hyenas; and (among young males) fighting with territorial males.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990DFFB7064FF99BF879FB3E.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Southern Sable Antelopes eat grass, with some forbs and a little browse. It has been noticed that they especially frequent areas around termite mounds and drainage lines, where the forage is lusher than elsewhere. Stable isotope analysis of dental enamel has more or less corroborated the field observations that the diet is in fact 100 % grass. They visit salt licks for their mineral content, and have even been known to chew bones. In Pilanesberg, their diet consisted mainly of seven grass species, of which only four were eaten throughout much of the year: Chrysopogon serrulatus, Panicum maximum, Themeda triandra, and Heteropogon contortus, these contributing about 90 % of the diet. The last three species were recorded as also being favored in Zimbabwe and elsewhere in South Africa. The grass that they eat is at heights of 50 - 300 mm, with a high leaf-to-stem ratio. Chrysopogon is little used by zebra and hartebeest, their main presumed competitors, during the dry period, providing niche separation from these species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990DFFB7064FF99BF879FB3E.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Southern Sables are not strictly seasonal breeders, but they have distinct birth peaks, typically January to March. Both sexes reach sexual maturity before they are physically mature; males reach physical maturity at 7 - 8 years of age and females at 5 - 6 years, but sexual maturity occurs at about two years in females and 18 months in males. At about two years of age, young males leave their natal herd to join bachelor groups of 2 - 12 individuals. In Zimbabwe, females’ horns appear to reach their full adult length, about 67 - 69 cm, at about eight years, and males at about the same time, at the larger size of about 94 - 97 cm. A breeding bull displays to the herd of cows with a lateral display with tail raised, head erect, but chin pulled in. Young bulls in the herd display submissive postures to him, with head down and tail held tightly in. Gestation is eight months (240 - 280 days). Calves remain in hiding for about three weeks after birth, and the female may stay with them for long periods, the calves hidden in tall grasses and the mothers feeding in nearby thickets. Females remain in the herds, but young males are increasingly harassed by breeding bulls until they leave the herd at about two years of age. Males live in small bachelor herds before attempting to become territorial, which they do at about 5 - 6 years of age.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990DFFB7064FF99BF879FB3E.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Southern Sable Antelopes are most active in early morning and late afternoon, and lie and chew their cud, or graze fitfully, during the heat of the day. They move to water sources regularly. At night, the herd moves together for a short distance, then lies down, chews their cud, and grazes at intervals until dawn, moving farther while grazing at night than by day.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990DFFB7064FF99BF879FB3E.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Home ranges of Southern Sable Antelopes have been measured at 12 - 25 km? in Matobo National Park, Zimbabwe, in Pilanesberg, and in the Luando Reserve in Angola, but as much as 320 km ® in eastern Zambia, and even occasionally in Kruger National Park. Southern Sable Antelopeslive in herds of 15 - 25, gathering into larger groups in areas of good grazing in the dry season, and dividing into small groups in the rainy season. Neighboring herds are antagonistic. Within the herds, there is a stable hierarchy, usually based on age, although the dominant female loses rank when in poor health, or if she breaks a horn. The dominant female or females lead the herd during progressions, for example to feeding areas and water points. Within its home range, a herd remains in one small area, sometimes for a week or more, then shifts to another area. In Pilanesberg, there is also a noticeable seasonal shift, moving down into the valleys in the dry season where the water table is higher, so the grasses are greener. There are three classes of territorial bulls: central bulls, with highest status and having continuous contact with the breeding herd; peripheral bulls, with lower status and occasionally making contact with the breeding herd; and outside bulls, with the lowest status and having virtually no contact with the breeding herd. Territories are 25 - 40 ha. A territorial male patrols regular pathways, sniffing the dung and urine of other Southern Sable Antelopes as he goes, defecating every couple of hundred meters, and pawing the ground with his tail raised. He often beats the vegetation with his horns, twisting and breaking branches. When resting, he moves into dense cover. He may follow a herd, and ifit enters his territory, he tries to block any movement out of it. He may enter the territory of another bull when a herd is there, and even defeat the territory owner. A bull Southern Sable has a sparring invitation; the challenger approaches with his head at shoulder level and presses or rubs his forehead and horns against the other bull's neck, shoulder, or rump.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990DFFB7064FF99BF879FB3E.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I (Giant Sable, subspecies variant). Classified as Least Concern as a species on The IUCN Red List, but the Giant Sable is classified separately as Critically Endangered. Small populations of the Giant Sable survived the civil war in Angola, but in one region, only adult females survived. They bred with a male Roan Antelope, and several hybrid calves were born, which were removed. There are nearly 2000 Southern Sable Antelopes in Kruger National Park, about 1500 elsewhere in South Africa, 22,000 in Zimbabwe, 3000 in Botswana, and 300 in Namibia. In all these countries, the status is considered reasonably satisfactory. Numbers of Southern Sable Antelopes in Mozambique are unknown, although they are said to be decreasing. The status in Zambian national parksis satisfactory, and there are about 2000 Southern Sable Antelopes in Malawi.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990CFFB706D3FA85F59FF44E.taxon	materials_examined	Shimba Hills, Kenya.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990CFFB706D3FA85F59FF44E.taxon	discussion	Formerly included as a subspecies of H. niger. In western Tanzania, there are small populations that appear to have replaced populations of the Southern Sable Antelope (H. niger), because many individuals have the mtDNA typical of H. niger varian: instead of the very distinctive mtDNA of the eastern populations of H. roosevelti. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990CFFB706D3FA85F59FF44E.taxon	distribution	Distribution. SE Kenya (Shimba Hills) and E Tanzania (Sadani, Songea & Selous Game Reserve); in 1994 one was photographed N of Voi in Tsavo East National Park, Kenya.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990CFFB706D3FA85F59FF44E.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 175 - 182 cm, tail 52 - 53 cm, shoulder height c. 128 cm, ear 23 - 24 cm, hindfoot 51 - 53 cm; weight 165 - 180 kg (based on two males). This species is noticeably smaller than the Southern Sable Antelope, with much shorter horns, and the distance across the horn basesis less. Females are almost invariably a relatively pale golden-red color, dramatically contrasting with the nearly black color of the male, although an occasional very dark female has been recorded. As noted above, the West Tanzanian Roosevelt's Sable Antelope, although externally typical of this species, may have resulted from an ancient mixture between H. roosevelt: and a now-vanished population related to H. niger variani. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990CFFB706D3FA85F59FF44E.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. In Kenya, Roosevelt's Sable Antelope prefers more open grasslands, a habitat preference apparently unlike that of the Southern Sable Antelope.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990CFFB706D3FA85F59FF44E.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Stable isotope analysis of enamel indicates that the diet of this species consists of 100 % grass.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990CFFB706D3FA85F59FF44E.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Unlike the Southern Sable Antelope, there appear to be no breeding peaks. A female has a postpartum estrus and may breed every ten months or so. Newborn calves appearto join the herd quickly rather than hiding.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990CFFB706D3FA85F59FF44E.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990CFFB706D3FA85F59FF44E.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Home ranges of the herds are 10 - 25 km?, overlapping by as much as 20 %. A herd’s home range will include territories of 2 - 5 males. The males’ territories are 4 - 9 km?. The social organization is much like that of the Southern Sable Antelope. The oldest, most dominant female, in one field study, remained at a distance of about 20 m from other members of the herd and was much more vigilant. At times, two females may dispute dominance, and a herd may divide into two smaller herds, each with its own home range.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990CFFB706D3FA85F59FF44E.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. The IUCN Red List does not classify Roosevelt's Sable Antelope separately from the Southern Sable Antelope. However, it is quite scarce with only 100 - 200 individuals remaining in its northernmost outpost in Kenya.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990CFFB806DEF366F8CCF803.taxon	materials_examined	Senegambia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990CFFB806DEF366F8CCF803.taxon	discussion	The question of whether there could be differences between the eastern and western Saharan populations of this species has been raised several times, but there appears to be nothing to substantiate it. This species is considered monotypic here.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990CFFB806DEF366F8CCF803.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Only confirmed existing population in Termit and Tin Toumma regions of EC Niger; however, there is a recent confirmed sighting from C Mauritania and sporadic records from E Air Mountains in Niger, the Equey region in W Chad, S Algeria, Libya, and the Mali / Mauritania border.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990CFFB806DEF366F8CCF803.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 120 - 130 cm, tail 25 - 35 cm, shoulder height 105 - 115 cm (males) and 95 - 110 cm (females), ear 17 - 20 cm, hindfoot 44 - 45 cm; weight 100 — 125 kg (males) and 60 - 90 kg (females). The Addax is a rather heavily built antelope; its barrel shape reduces the surface-to-volume ratio, advantageous for thermoregulation. The muzzle is hairy except for a thin strip between and above nostrils. The terminal tail tuft is small. Hooves are wide, low, rounded anteriorly and posteriorly; lateral hooves are well developed. Foot glands present in all four feet; inguinal glands absent and, unlike the oryx, preorbital glands are absent, but the area is covered by a large tuft of hair. Both sexes have horns, but those of the male are longer (males, 70 - 85 cm, max. 109 - 2 cm; females, 55 - 80 cm). Horns are spirally twisted, with 2 - 5 - 3 loose turns in males and 1 - 5 - 2 in females, diverging from base; the tips generally point outward. Horns are ringed strongly at the base, but the rings become reduced along the length. Color pale gray-brown on nose, neck, and body, whitish on legs and haunches as well as on underparts; the tone becomes paler with age. The pelage of the Addaxis grayer in the winter, paler in the summer. The forehead is dark, sometimes blackish-brown; a white H-shaped band occurs across the nose, its lower edges extending almost to the Jaw line and its upper edges extending back above the eyes. There is a scruffy short mane around the neck. The diploid chromosome number is 58. Molars are hypsodont, and the dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990CFFB806DEF366F8CCF803.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Deserts and semi-desert country, even going into sand dunes, to which it is well adapted, with its wide, spreading hooves.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990CFFB806DEF366F8CCF803.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Desert grasses, shrubs, and trees; capable of going for long periods without water. It has been found that dietary fluids are retained in the stomach for an average of 20 hours, and non-fluid particles for an average of 42 hours, longer than most other ruminants — an evident adaptation to the slow-fermenting grasses ofits diet and the need to conserve water. Addaxes do not require standing water, but they will drink if it is available.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990CFFB806DEF366F8CCF803.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Addax courtship includes ritualized foreleg kicking called “ laufschlag, ” as with its close relatives. The bull rests his chin on the female’s croup as a prelude to mounting. The female responds by circling, her head low, like the Roan Antelope (Hippotragus equinus), the Southern Sable Antelope (H. niger), and oryx species. While mating, the male rears upright, firmly grasping the female's loins. Estrus lasts 24 - 48 hours, gestation is 257 - 270 days, and postpartum estrus occurs within 2 - 3 days. Females give birth to a single offspring, weighing about 5 kg, at any time during the year, with modest peaks in winter and spring. Females alternately stand and lie down during parturition. Neonates are hiders, rejoining the herd, but forming a créche with other calves, after about two weeks. The calves stand to suckle at first, and then, after about 15 weeks, kneel; they are weaned at 23 - 29 weeks. Maximum longevity was about 28 years for a captive female, but survival of both sexes is no doubtfar less in the wild.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990CFFB806DEF366F8CCF803.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Addaxes are active in the morning and evening, lying in the shade of vegetation during the heat of the day. Because of their build, they move heavily and are not fast runners. Addaxes once moved north and south across the Sahara according to season. In cold or windy weather, they dig depressions in the sand in which theylie for protection. Oryxes and Addaxes amble, nodding their heads when walking fast. An addax walks with one foot behind the other, leaving a single line of tracks. It has a flat, ratherstiff-legged gallop.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990CFFB806DEF366F8CCF803.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Apparently, the Addax is not territorial but lives in harems of a single male and several females and young. Group sizes are typically 5 - 20 individuals. Groups undertake long-distance movements in search of food under the leadership of a dominant female. Movements have been described as nomadic, but rainfall can trigger directed movements. Females in these herds are ranked, with well-marked dominance and subordination rituals. The extreme defecation crouch of the male Addax (and other oryx species) is a striking visual and olfactory act that advertises rank. Surplus males apparently tend to associate with groups of Dama Gazelles (Nanger dama).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713990CFFB806DEF366F8CCF803.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Formerly found across the Sahara as far S as 15 ° N and E across the Nile and into the Middle East. The Addax is almost extinct in the wild, with a maximum of only about 500 individuals over its former vast distributional range. Because the Addax is slow-moving and relatively docile around humans, overexploitation has been the primary cause of population declines, along with loss of prime habitat from extended droughts and encroaching human settlements and associated livestock. The Addax breeds well in captivity and has been introduced into some ranches in Texas and New Mexico, USA, where it can be hunted. There are about 1700 Addaxes in captivity. Reintroductions in Morocco and Tunisia (Jebil National Park) are contemplated, and there are herds in fenced enclosures also in Morocco (Souss-Massa National Park) and Tunisia (Bou-Hedma National Park).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBA034CFE1DFB1FF598.taxon	materials_examined	Red Sea coast west of Massawa, Eritrea.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBA034CFE1DFB1FF598.taxon	discussion	There is some indication that the oryxes of the Awash Valley are somewhat different from those of the more desert areas. Usually, all East African oryxes have been placed in one species (and frequently even grouped as the same species as the Gemsbok, O. gazella, of south-western Africa), but actually there are consistent differences between populations, and they form three distinct species. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBA034CFE1DFB1FF598.taxon	distribution	Distribution. N & C Somalia and the Ogaden region of Ethiopia, N to Berbera, W to Eritrea, and S into the Awash Valley.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBA034CFE1DFB1FF598.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. There are no specific measurements available for this species, but it is said to be “ about 4 feet ” (1 - 2 m) in shoulder height. As in all oryxes, the skin on the shoulders is extremely thick. The color is ocher-gray with a pinkish wash, and this color is bordered below by a black flank band that forms a boundary with the white belly. The face is colored like the body, with black bands through the eyes (usually as far as the corner of the mouth) and down the middle of the face; these facial bands generally join up with each other and with a similar band under the upper throat. There are no ear tufts. The flank band is 23 - 58 mm wide; there is a dorsalstripe measuring 24 - 71 mm in width, and this may extend up the neck, or for three-quarters of the length of the neck, or just to the withers. The horns are 74 - 90 cm long, 11 - 4 cm thick at the base, and the tips are about 18 - 8 cm apart; they have about 15 - 25 rings. The face of the form ofthis species found in the Awash Valley tends to be deeper ocher in color, and the legs tend to be paler. Horns are very long compared with the skull length. There is no information on the DNA ofthis species. Dental formula is 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBA034CFE1DFB1FF598.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Mainly desert country; in northern Somalia, on stony flats, on flat-topped desert hills, and in desert bush; in the Awash Valley, its habitat is open plains, shortgrass savanna, and thornscrub.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBA034CFE1DFB1FF598.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, butit may be assumed that its diet consists mostly of dry-desert vegetation and is independent of standing water.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBA034CFE1DFB1FF598.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Male Beisa Oryxes, like Addaxes (Addax nasomaculatus), rest the chin on the female’s croup as a prelude to mounting, and the female responds in head-low posture with circling (characteristic of the tribe Hippotragini). In mating, the male rears upright, firmly grasping the female’s loins.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBA034CFE1DFB1FF598.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Beisa Oryxes amble, nodding their heads when walking fast, and have a flowing trot. They no doubt rest like other oryxes in the heat of the day, either standing or lying, usually under shade.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBA034CFE1DFB1FF598.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, except that it is seen in small herds, up to 30 or more in the western part of northern Somalia and usually 7 - 12 on the stony hills near the Somali coast; occasional solitary individuals are seen.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBA034CFE1DFB1FF598.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Beisa Oryx is reported to be common in the Awash National Park, but declining elsewhere, with threats from excessive hunting and overgrazing. Population declines likely approached 25 % over the past three generations, reaching the threshold for classification as Vulnerable in the near future.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBA034EF5E0F9ADFAFE.taxon	materials_examined	Orte Balinga, Modjo, southern Ennia-Gallaland, near the Webi, Ethiopia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBA034EF5E0F9ADFAFE.taxon	discussion	The Galla Oryx was formerly considered a subspecies of O. beisa. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBA034EF5E0F9ADFAFE.taxon	distribution	Distribution. N Kenya (approximately N of the Tana River and in the Lake Turkana district) and NE Uganda (Karamoja region); its range presumably extends an unknown distance into Somalia and SE Ethiopia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBA034EF5E0F9ADFAFE.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 169 cm, tail 46 cm; hindfoot 51 cm; weight 181 kg (one male). The color is paler, purer gray than in the typical Beisa Oryx (O. beisa), and this color extends below the black flank band, which is therefore not a boundary between the body color and the white underside. The face is paler than the neck, sometimes even whitish. The facial and gorge bands are separated, but sometimes the two nasal bands are joined, and the nose streak is diffuse. The legs are white, with only a trace of stripes. The flank band width measures 20 - 44 mm, so narrower on average than in the Beisa Oryx, and the dorsal stripe is also fairly narrow, measuring 30 - 43 mm, and is generally very vaguely expressed and occasionally absent. The horns are slightly shorter than in the Beisa Oryx, 65 - 86 cm long, but the same shape and thickness, 9.5 - 12 cm at the base, and the tips are some 7.5 - 24 cm apart. The diploid chromosome numberis 58; chromosomes are different from those of the Gemsbok (O. gazella), and resemble those of the Fringe-eared Oryx (O. callotis). The mtDNA (control region and cytochrome b) sequences are strongly distinct from those of Fringe-eared Oryx. Dental formula is 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M' 3 / 3 (2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBA034EF5E0F9ADFAFE.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Dry flat country, both grasslands and thorn scrub.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBA034EF5E0F9ADFAFE.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Mainly a grazer, but occasional browsing. They are independent of surface water, although they drink when it is available.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBA034EF5E0F9ADFAFE.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Apparently year-round, but concentrated in the wet season. Gestation is 265 - 300 days, and calves are hiders.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBA034EF5E0F9ADFAFE.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. They seem to wander from place to place seasonally in large aggregations, moving to higher ground in the rains and back to lower ground in the dry season. The locomotory patterns are like those of the Beisa Oryx. They rest in the heat of the day, either standing or lying, usually under shade. The tail is constantly switching, whether the oryx is resting or feeding.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBA034EF5E0F9ADFAFE.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Both small groups and herds of up to 50. Males have been reported to be solitary or in small groups.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBA034EF5E0F9ADFAFE.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List (under O. beisa). The Galla Oryx is reported to be numerous in the Samburu region and elsewhere in northern Kenya.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBB0644FA4AF6ACFE2C.taxon	materials_examined	Neighborhood of Mount Kilimanjaro.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBB0644FA4AF6ACFE2C.taxon	discussion	The Fringe-eared Oryx was formerly considered a subspecies of O. beisa. Although the two have indistinguishable karyotypes (2 n = 58), mitochondrial cytochrome b and control region DNA sequences show that O. callotis is significantly divergent from the Beisa Oryx (O. beisa) and the Galla Oryx (O. gallarum). Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBB0644FA4AF6ACFE2C.taxon	distribution	Distribution. SE Kenya and NE Tanzania. The Fringe-eared Oryx is geographically separated from the Galla Oryx by the Tana River and Aberdare Mts in S Kenya. Its range began to spread into the Serengeti in the 1970 s.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBB0644FA4AF6ACFE2C.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 153 - 170 cm, tail 45 - 50 cm, shoulder height 110 - 125 cm; weight 167 - 209 kg (males) and 116 - 188 kg (females). These measurements are general for the north-eastern African oryx group and should be considered provisional until further information is available for individual species. The Fringe-eared Oryx is darker, duller, and browner than the Galla Oryx. The Fringed-eared Oryx is large and easily distinguished from other oryxes by its sharply pointed ears with black tufts of hair 5.1 - 7. 6 cm long. The face is deep ocher, except for the white muzzle stripes; there is usually no connection between the nasal band, which extends through the eyes down to the throat, and the median face band. The Fringe-eared Oryx is very compact and muscular, with long, slender legs, a short, stiff, chestnut-colored mane, and a flowing tail. The body is fawn-colored with distinctive black markings. It has a horizontal black band across the flank region, 3.4 - 4 cm wide, and black tufts of hair above the hooves resembling false hooves. The dorsal stripe is much reduced, only 2.5 - 3 cm wide, and is usually confined to the rump; if it extends farther forward, it is very faint. Sexes are not strongly dimorphic, but the horns of males and females do differ. Generally, both sexes have long horns that are slightly curved backward. Horns of females are 76 - 81 cm long and straighter and thinner than those of males, for better defense against predators. Horns of males are shorter but thicker at the base (12 - 14 cm), permitting twice as much force in intrasexual combat. The tips of the horns are 24 - 40 cm apart, which is wider than other north-eastern African oryxes. The skull is comparatively broad. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBB0644FA4AF6ACFE2C.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Fringe-eared Oryxes thrive in semi-arid grasslands and brushlands and avoid tall grass; habitats are less arid than those used by other oryxes. They occur in areas of Digitaria macroblephara — Panicum coloratum grassland, Acacia tortilis — Commiphora schimperiwoodland, A. stuhlmannii brushland, and Pennisetum mezianum — A. stuhlmanii bushy grassland.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBB0644FA4AF6ACFE2C.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Herbivorous, eating mostly grasses, like other oryx species. Stable isotope analysis indicates that the diet of this speciesis as high as 88 % grass; only in the dry season do they eat slightly more browse. The short face and dental morphology (wide incisor row and high-crowned molars) of the Fringe-eared Oryx are adapted for picking nutrient-rich parts of coarse grasses. The diet of the Fringe-eared Oryx often contains the grasses Bothriochloa, Brachiaria, Chloris roxburghiana, Cymbopogon pospischilu, and Enneapogon cenchroides. In addition to grasses, it eats Commelina and Indigofera schimperi in the wet season and Pyrenacantha in the dry season. Oryx species are adapted to arid environments and can go long periods without drinking water because of their selective feeding and ability to use metabolic water. Leaves of the shrub Diasperma contain only 1 % water during the daytime but 40 % water at night, when the Fringe-eared Oryx predominately feeds on them. It also selects succulent species and digs as deep as 20 cm for roots, bulbs, and tubers to maximize water intake. The Fringe-eared Oryx will drink regularly if wateris available. In a controlled study with water provided every other day on the Galana Ranch, Kenya, Fringe-eared Oryxes drank an average of 34 ml of water per kg of body weight per day in the wet season and 56 ml / kg / day in the dry season. Nevertheless, they can go up to a month without water if succulent grasses are available. They require only 15 - 20 % of the daily water that domestic cattle need and have lower water turnover rates than camels and elands. Fringe-eared Oryxes are adapted to high ambient temperatures, and can pant and use evaporative cooling to minimize heat gain, but this can result in water loss. To minimize the need for water, they can allow their body temperature to rise from a normal 35 - 7 ° C to 45 ° C. Other water-saving adaptations include concentrating the urine, absorbing all moisture from the feces, and seeking shade during the hottest periods of the day.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBB0644FA4AF6ACFE2C.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Breeding and births occur throughout the year, but young are often more abundant early in the dry season (June-August). Individuals are sexually mature by 18 - 24 months. The majority of males in a mixed herd have small scrotums, and males with fully developed scrotums are more likely to breed. Sexually receptive females can be found year-round, but territorial males cannot control all receptive females, leaving breeding opportunities for non-territorial males. Courtship begins with the female’s ears back and head low; the male circles and sniffs her anogenital region, testing her urine for indication of estrus. If the female is receptive, the male lifts his forelegs and mounts her with his back legs bent, and his tail held out. The male may nudge the female gently with his muzzle and occasionally rests his chin on her rump. The mating pair may copulate multiple times. Gestation is 8 - 5 - 9 months. Females leave their herd to give birth. They hide their neonates for 2 - 3 weeks and rejoin their herd after 3 — 4 weeks, perhaps longer. Calves may form creches, with or without adult females. Calves are born with small horns covered with hair. Females may breed again within a few weeks of giving birth and under good conditions produce an offspring every 10 - 5 - 11 months. In captivity, oryxes have survived over 23 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBB0644FA4AF6ACFE2C.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. The Fringe-eared Oryx alternates feeding and resting / ruminating throughout the day and night. A herd typically grazes from a half hour after daybreak until 10: 00 h, rests / ruminates from 10: 00 h until 14: 00 - 15: 00 h, and then grazes again until sunset, after which it turns to night resting places to bed down at about 20: 00 h. Individuals intermittently rest and graze throughout the night. Activity patterns over a 48 hour period vary depending on season: 4 - 6 hours walking, 15 - 6 hours feeding, 6 - 1 hours standing, and 21 - 6 hours lying during the dry season and 3 - 3 hours walking, 10 - 4 hours feeding, 12 - 5 hours standing, and 21 - 7 hours lying during the wet season. To keep body temperatures from rising, individuals usually seek shade for an average of 1 - 7 hours from 11: 00 h to 15: 00 h. Amount of time spent in the shade tends to be higher when forage biomass is high.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBB0644FA4AF6ACFE2C.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Fringe-eared Oryx is nomadic, apparently more than the Gemsbok (O. gazella). Their movements are driven by rainfall and availability of green vegetation. One herd travelled 17 km in the same direction in a single day, and a bull walked 4 km in an hour. Home ranges of Fringe-eared Oryxes are typically less than 400 km? The highest reported density is 1 - 4 ind / km * in Galana Ranch in south-eastern Kenya, where optimum rainfall (400 - 800 mm / year) results in productive grasslands and some woodland savannas. In the late 1970 s, there were 6000 - 8000 Fringe-eared Oryxes on Galana Ranch. Typically, these oryxes occur in herds of 30 - 40 individuals, of which 70 - 90 % are females. In the wet season, when forage is abundant, groups can be as large as several hundred individuals. Some males form territories of 5 - 8 km? Bachelor herds are seldom seen, but 11 - 28 % of males may be solitary. Within the mixed herd, there is a linear hierarchy of males based on aggressive interactions. Females rarely have altercations, and outsider females can usuallyjoin a new group, but incoming males have horn-to-horn fights with the dominant male or other males in the herd. Fights among males are of low to medium intensity. The males clash their horns frontally, parallel, or at an acute angle, but do not attempt to gore each other. Fighting techniques include simple head butting, horn pressing, clash fighting, push fighting, and forehead pressing, with fencing and whirling the most common fighting tactics. If a powerful thrust is used, an attacker can displace his opponent 10 - 30 m. The dominant male sometimes defecates during a dispute, and both challengers may take breaks to graze during the fight, but this only happens if the subordinate male initiates feeding. Movements of herds appear coordinated; if one herd member changes activity, nearby members follow, and soon the whole herd has changed activity. There can be a “ pulling ” effect; if an individualstarts “ marching, ” others follow in single file. While marching, the herd is usually led by a female, but not always the same individual, and the dominant male brings up the rear. Males can also control the herd’s movements.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139901FFBB0644FA4AF6ACFE2C.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as O. beisa callotis). There were an estimated 17,000 Fringe-eared Oryxes in 2008; 60 % were in protected areas, and fewer than 10,000 were mature individuals. A 10 % population decline is projected to occur over the next three generations (21 - 24 years). Eventually all Fringe-eared Oryxes may be confined to parts of south-eastern Kenya that are protected from settlement and poaching. In Tanzania, they may eventually be confined to Tarangire National Park and Mkomazi Game Reserve.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139900FFBC06C6FE76FDD7FD11.taxon	materials_examined	“ India. ” Restricted by Thomas in 1911 to South Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139900FFBC06C6FE76FDD7FD11.taxon	discussion	Gemsboks from Angola, Namibia, and the Kalahari are in general very much alike, but there is some evidence that those from the Nata River, north-eastern Botswana, are unexpectedly small, with small teeth and less spreading horns, which may represent undescribed subspecies. This species is considered monotypic here.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139900FFBC06C6FE76FDD7FD11.taxon	distribution	Distribution. The arid zone in Namibia, most of Botswana and the Northern Cape of South Africa, extending marginally into Zimbabwe, the Western Cape, the Eastern Cape, the North West, and the Free State of South Africa; formerly also SW Angola but now possibly extinct.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139900FFBC06C6FE76FDD7FD11.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 180 - 195 cm (both sexes), tail 48 - 52. 5 cm, shoulder height 120 - 125 cm (males) and 112 (females), ear 19 - 23 cm, hindfoot 51 - 52 cm; weight 200 - 240 kg (males) and 190 - 210 kg (females). Skull is larger than in the northeastern African species, and as in the Fringe-eared Oryx (O. callotis), the horns are thick and tend to diverge more than in other oryxes. The general color is pale fawngray; there is a short dark mane down the neck. The flank band separating the colored flanks from the white underside is very wide, 119 - 229 mm; anteriorly, it merges with the dark color of the upper segment of the forelegs, and posteriorly with that on the upper segment of the hindlegs. The dorsal stripe is also very wide (90 - 116 mm) and well marked; in juveniles, it is much narrower. It runs all along the back, broadening out over the croup, and then narrowing again toward the tail base. The lower segments of the limbs are white, with dark brown bands above the front hooves. The face is white, with a blackish patch between the horns. The black continues forward as a thin line, then broadens out to a triangular blackish patch over the muzzle; from the sides of the horns, a wide blackish band extends forward through the eyes to the lower jaw, joining up with the lateral angles of the muzzle patch. The black under the lower jaw continues down the throat, with an elongated dark tuft marking a small dewlap. Newborns are fawn-colored, and attain the adult color by 4 - 6 months of age. The horns are extremely long, 70 - 150 cm, ringed for about one-third of the length; the thickness of the base is about the same as in the Fringe-eared Oryx, 12 - 14. 5 cm, and they diverge even more widely, the tips being about 30 - 50 cm apart; they have the same number of rings as in the East African species, about 15 - 25. Diploid chromosome number is 56, differing from the Beisa Oryx (O. beisa) and the Fringe-eared Oryx in having a centric fusion between chromosomes 2 and 17. DNA sequences from the control region indicate that the Gemsbok is probably a sister species to all other oryxes. Dental formula is 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139900FFBC06C6FE76FDD7FD11.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Open arid country, including dune country, open grassland, and bush savanna, and they penetrate savanna woodland to travel between more open areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139900FFBC06C6FE76FDD7FD11.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Gemsboks eat mainly grass, preferably when green. Grasses make up about 90 % of the diet (according to stable isotope analysis, the figure is about 81 %), but they also eat dry grass and some browse, and dig up to 1 m deep for roots, bulbs, tubers, wild melons, and cucumbers. They also dig waterholes in dry riverbeds.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139900FFBC06C6FE76FDD7FD11.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There appears to be no restricted breeding season, although there may be calving peaks. Only dominant males herd females and mate with them. During courtship, the male and female circle each other close together, the female with her head low and ears back; she squats and urinates, he tests the urine, begins close following, performs the ritualized foreleg kicking called “ laufschlag, ” rests his chin on her rump, and nudges with his muzzle. Unlike related species of Hippotragus and the Addax (Addax nasomaculatus), but like other oryxes, Gemsboks perform laufschlag with the foreleg straight. Gestation is 8 - 5 months, with a postpartum estrus. Females become sexually mature at about two years. The newborn young spontaneously hides itself in a curled up position and joins the herd after 3 — 4 weeks, at which time the horns have begun to sprout. In the herd, suckling appears to be synchronized among all the females after the adults have rested and ruminated. Weaning occurs at about five months.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139900FFBC06C6FE76FDD7FD11.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Like all oryxes, Gemsboks amble and nod their heads up and down when walking fast, and move at speed with a flowing trot.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139900FFBC06C6FE76FDD7FD11.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Like other oryxes, the Gemsbok lives in mixed herds with some solitary males. In Central Kalahari Game Reserve, Botswana, the home range of females is 6 - 21 - 7 km? (average 12 - 7 km? ®), which are apparently territorial, 10 - 16 km? * in Namaqualand (Northern Cape), territories are 4 - 2 - 9 - 8 km? but an old male ranged over 66 - 88 km ®, returning repeatedly to the same places, as females do, and often remaining within less than 1 km? ® for 3 - 10 weeks. Mean distance travelled in 24 hours is only 2: 6 km (females) and 1 - 6 km (males). When competing for access to the waterholes that they have dug in dry riverbeds, males take precedence over females. Territorial males may be spaced at 0 - 5 - 1 km intervals; these males may dominate, even fight and defeat, the males in mixed herds, and then mate with their females. Territorial males may also accompany the herds, at least until they enter another male’s territory.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139900FFBC06C6FE76FDD7FD11.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Despite being widely hunted for the trophy value of their horns, they survive in good numbers over most of their current range. Population estimates available give a total population of 326,000, but actual numbers could be even higher. Overall population trend is increasing in private farms and protected areas. Free-ranging introduced populations exist in New Mexico, USA.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139907FFBC0377FD5AF8A7F534.taxon	materials_examined	Sudan, Northern Kordofan Prov.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139907FFBC0377FD5AF8A7F534.taxon	discussion	This species is monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139907FFBC0377FD5AF8A7F534.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Extinct in the wild. The Scimitar-horned Oryx originally occurred on the southern and northern edges of the Sahara Desert.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139907FFBC0377FD5AF8A7F534.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 159 - 175 cm, tail 37 - 44 cm, shoulder height 102 - 125 cm (males), ear 17 - 19. 5 cm, hindfoot 47 - 48 cm; weight 180 - 200 kg (males). Male Scimitar-horned Oryxes are generally larger than females. Both sexes have a mostly white face and head with an oxidized-red color on the bridge of the nose and over the eyes. The body is white, with the same reddish color on the neck and chest. Both sexes have long, slender (10 - 10. 8 cm thick at the base) horns, the longest of the oryxes (82 - 150 cm), that arch over the neck and shoulders and point to the hindquarters. Rings are present from the base through the lower one-third of the horn (about 35 - 40), more than on other oryx species. Being long and hollow, the horns can break easily. Preorbital glands are rudimentary, unlike other oryxes. The tail is white, like the rest of the body, and ends in a dark tuft of hair. Young Scimitar-horned Oryxes are mostly brown, with some white on the abdomen and black on their tails. Individuals greater than three months old can be identified by unique horn shapes and breaks, face markings, scars, and seasonal wear patches on shoulder pelage. Their coat changes to the adult coloration at about one year of age. Diploid chromosome number is 56 - 58; they are polymorphic for a centric fusion between chromosomes 2 and 15. The skull of the Scimitar-horned Oryx is comparable in size to that of most north-eastern African oryx species, but it has rather small teeth. Dental formula is 1 0 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139907FFBC0377FD5AF8A7F534.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Scimitar-horned Oryxes are aridland specialists. They formerly lived in the northern and southern sub-Saharan Desert, but did not inhabit the Sahara proper as does the Addax (Addax nasomaculatus). Limited rain falls for a short time during summer (150 - 500 mm / year in north and 250 - 500 mm / year in southern Sahel), and the oryx’s former range experiences long droughts; the most recent drought started in the 1960 s and lasted through the early 1990 s. Most of the former range has three seasons: a cold-dry season, a hot-dry season, and a rainy season. The rainy season in the northern parts of the former range begins in September, but it starts in June in the southern areas. Acacia raddiana, A. laeta and Commiphora africana are dominant plants, but sparsely distributed, on the northern edge of the Sahara, and Grewia bicolor, Adansonia digitata, Combretum micranthum, and C. glutinosum dominate in the south. These trees and shrubs were probably important to the Scimitar-horned Oryx for shade. In the wet season, herbaceous plants and annual grasses become plentiful — and were sought out as nutritious forage. Water is rare in the former range of the Scimitarhorned Oryx; mesic areas exist, but are usually ephemeral. The southward spread of the Sahara Desert no doubt contributed to the demise of the Scimitar-horned Oryx.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139907FFBC0377FD5AF8A7F534.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Herbivorous. The Scimitar-horned Oryx is predominantly a grazer, but can be a facultative browser, depending on forage availability. When rainfall is sufficient, annual grasses and forbs are preferred. Favored plants at this time include Cenchrus biflorus, Panicum laetum, and Dactyloctenium aegyptium. In the wet season, Scimitar-horned Oryxes also eat Indigofera and Cordia sinensis. Precipitation occurs in different parts of their range throughout the year, and the oryxes seek foliage that grows with the rains. When the rains stop, its favored foods are usually still available until the hot-dry season. After the hot-dry season begins in March, these plants are less common, and the animals start to rely on perennial grasses and browse. Early in the hot-dry season, Scimitar-horned Oryxes will eat pods from Acacia raddiana. As the hot-dry season wears on, they will also eat Panicum turgidum and Aristida. They browse on Leptadenia, Cassia italica, and Cornulaca monacantha. When water is plentiful, they will drink long enough to impede their normal movement, but Scimitar-horned Oryxes can persist for months without drinking water, by eating plants with high moisture content, such as Citrullus colocynthis, a wild melon. The Scimitar-horned Oryx also obtains water by eating Boerhavia repens and Indigofera viscosa, ground-hugging plants covered in fine hairs that accumulate condensed moisture. Scimitar-horned Oryxes seek salt, and they will scrape away the upper layers of soil and consume salty layers below.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139907FFBC0377FD5AF8A7F534.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Rut occurs during the cold season. Males test urine of females to detect estrus. Males fight by butting their heads; injuries may occur, but they are usually not fatal. In one case, a male Scimitar-horned Oryx shared an enclosure with Addaxes as part of a reintroduction effort. The male oryx courted an estrous female Addax and killed a male Addax that attempted to get near them. Gestation is 8 - 8 - 5 months. A pregnant female separates herself from the herd for up to a week. When she gives birth, a male may stand by and breed with her shortly after parturition. One offspring is usually born, but twins are possible (7 % of captive births have been twins). Most births occur in a two-month window during the rainy season, thus assuring good forage for the lactating females. Neonates have horn stumps of 2 - 5 cm. They are able to walk a few hours after birth and run by five days of age, giving them the chance to escape from most predators. Young hide in sparse vegetation for two weeks postpartum and are able to run as fast as adults at about 20 days of age. Young are weaned at 2 - 10 months. Maternal attention is minimal. The young normally join a creche of similar-age individuals at about two weeks of age, presumably under minimal supervision. Females reach maturity at 11 - 30 months; males are sexually mature at 10 - 30 months. Scimitar-horned Oryxes in captivity can live up to 30 years of age; longevity in the wild is unknown but no doubt considerably less. One study of captive-born oryxes calculated a sex ratio of 1 male: 0 - 84 female.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139907FFBC0377FD5AF8A7F534.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Scimitar-horned Oryxes spend most of their time in search of food, primarily at night and in the early morning, when it is coolest. During the hottest part of the day, they seek shade to rest and ruminate. If shade is not available, they dig up a place next to vegetation to lie in. Long-distance movements mainly occur at night. Scimitar-horned Oryxes amble, nodding their heads when walking fast; they have a flowing trot.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139907FFBC0377FD5AF8A7F534.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Scimitar-horned Oryxes once followed the rains in search of food, perhaps sensing changes in humidity; such movements may have been hundreds of kilometers. While on the move, they would go out of their way to avoid contact with humans. No data exist on their movement, activities, or ecology in the northern parts of their former range because they were extirpated before the start of the 20 " century. In Chad, there were at least two populationsas late as the 1960 s. The population that lived in the southern part of the country moved north during the hot season to meet the rain. The second population was located close to the northern range of the southern population, and it appeared to make long seasonal east-west movements. When sedentary, Scimitar-horned Oryxes formed herds of 10 - 30 animals. Larger herds of up to 100 individuals were not uncommon. During migration, groups of 1000 or more would aggregate. A dominant female appeared to lead the herd, but it may actually have been directed from the rear by the dominant male. Dominance followed a hereditary lineage. Based on a captive study, a four-year-old male normally was dominant. Older males were often forced out of the herd; bachelor herds formed occasionally, but they were not common.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139907FFBC0377FD5AF8A7F534.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Extinct in the Wild on The IUCN Red List. The Scimitar-horned Oryx once ranged widely throughout the Sahara Desert, including extensive seasonal movements, except perhaps in the deep interior, and numbered about one million individuals. The southern part of the range ran through Mauritania (18 ° N- 16 ° N), Mali (18 ° N- 15 ° N), N Burkina Faso, Niger (17 ° N- 15 ° N), Chad (17 ° N- 14 ° N) and Sudan (18 ° N- 15 ° N). The species also was found in Senegal and Morocco, near the Atlantic coast, and across Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt. The main causes of extinction were human population growth, motorized access to the desert, and overexploitation. As human settlement increased, livestock took over fragile grasslands and other areas; desertification compounded these pressures. The last known wild individuals occurred in Chad and Niger in the mid- 1980 s. Because captive groups were established in zoos and in private collections throughout the world beginning in the 1960 s, reintroduction is now possible. In the United Arab Emirates, more than 4000 occur in a private collection, and as many as 2000 occur on private ranches in Texas, USA. The Scimitar-horned Oryx has been returned to its native range, but only to six fenced locations of variable size: three in Tunisia (Bou-Hedma, Sidi Toui, and Oued Dekouk National Parks), with about 170 oryxes, one in Morocco (Souss-Massa National Park) with 240 animals, and two in Senegal (Ferlo and Guembuel reserves), with 30 animals. These groups receive different amounts of human attention. The eventual goal is reestablishment of free-ranging Scimitar-horned Oryxes in the wild.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139907FFBD064FF57EF85BF6F8.taxon	materials_examined	Arabia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139907FFBD064FF57EF85BF6F8.taxon	discussion	Although oryxes from northern and southern Arabia have been described as different subspecies, no morphologic or genetic differences have been detected, and they are remarkably uniform in coloration. This species is considered monotypic here.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139907FFBD064FF57EF85BF6F8.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Extinct in the wild by 1972, free-ranging Arabian Oryxes have been reestablished in Israel, WC Oman, and SW Saudi Arabia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139907FFBD064FF57EF85BF6F8.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 153 - 235 cm, tail 45 - 60 cm, shoulder height 81 - 102 cm; weight 65 - 75 kg (males) and 54 - 70 kg (females). The Arabian Oryx is mostly whitish, but adults vary from cream to gray to brown, with brown and black markings. The bushytail is dark on the end. The lower limbs of adults are chocolate-brown to black, with white patches just above the hooves. Dark markings also occur on the face; a dark line runs down the jaw, connecting to small, triangular patches below the ears, which are connected to a bar through the eyes; a dark upwardly pointing triangle occurs on the nose below the eyes; and a black patch occurs on the forehead between the horns. Young oryxes only have tail and knee markings and are generally various shades of brown. The neck has a sparse mane. Both sexes have long slender horns of 60 - 150 cm that are less thick at the base (8 - 9 cm) than on other oryxes. Horns point upward and slightly back, away from the eyes, and are very straight. Female horns are slightly thinner and longer than male horns. The number of horn rings on the Arabian Oryx is 27 - 34, intermediate between the Scimitar-horned Oryx (O. dammah) and the other oryx species. The skull and teeth of the Arabian Oryx are much smaller than other oryx species. Diploid chromosome number is 57 - 58; they are polymorphic for a very rare centric fusion between chromosomes 18 and 19. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32. Tooth eruption patterns permit aging of Arabian Oryxes in nine age classes up to 3 - 5 years, when all permanent teeth are present.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139907FFBD064FF57EF85BF6F8.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Arabian Oryx can inhabit several desert habitat types, such as stony plains, wadis, and sand dunes. Before extinction in the wild, they were generally found in arid plains and deserts but also in thicker brush and on rockyhillsides. They are able to exist in areas with low humidity, low rainfall, high, sandy winds, and high ambient temperatures over 45 ° C in summer, and can withstand droughts of 4 - 6 months. They also can inhabit flat limestone areas in Jiddat al Harasis that have shallow alkaline soils and rocky ridges and harsh diurnal temperature changes throughout the year. Vegetation consists of scattered grasses, shrubs, and small trees and shrubs such as Acacia. Rainfall is unpredictable and sporadic, averaging less than 50 mm / year.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139907FFBD064FF57EF85BF6F8.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Herbivorous, mixed feeder but primarily a grazer. The Arabian Oryx can survive on poor-quality forage and eats various grasses, herbs, roots, and tubers. The main diet includes ephemerals, forbs, coarse grasses such as Stipagrostis, and dwarf shrubs such as Zygophyllum. They will drink water from ephemeral streams and waterholes, but such sources are rare and dispersed. When standing water is not available, Arabian Oryxes can go for indefinite periods without it, obtaining all they need from their food (e. g. succulent bulbs and melons). They can maintain an adequate water balance at 31 ° C if their diet contains at least 35 % water. The Arabian Oryx also obtains moisture from condensation on rock surfaces and vegetation after thick fogs. It has a very low mass-specific water-influx rate compared to other bovids.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139907FFBD064FF57EF85BF6F8.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Female Arabian Oryxes are polyestrous, and males follow them throughout the year, courting and attempting to breed. There is no set reproductive season, and a female can produce a calf once a year during any month. Captive females initially give birth at 2 - 5 - 3 - 5 years of age to a single offspring. Gestation is about 240 days. Young are weaned by 4 - 5 months. A postpartum female is consorted by an adult dominant male during the calf’s hiding phase, which occurs in its first month. Neonates spend most of the hiding period lying motionless, with short periods of activity. When the calf rises to approach its mother, the male often positions itself a few meters behind it, growling and directing it straight to its mother. The attending male is usually the dominant herd male even if the calf was fathered by another male. Captive Arabian Oryxes have lived over 20 years; little is known about longevity in the wild.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139907FFBD064FF57EF85BF6F8.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Activities of the Arabian Oryx are concentrated in the morning and evening. During the heat of the day, groups seek shade to minimize heat gain and to rest / ruminate in. To provide more protection from the heat, they dig depressions in the ground, bedding in the cooler sand beneath. Shrubs and trees provide protection from high winds. Time spent in the shade depends on the ambient temperature; on very hot days, Arabian Oryxes spend seven hours or more in the shade, within 1 - 2 m of one another. To compensate for this inactivity, they forage longer at night. During colder seasons, the Arabian Oryx will bask in the sun, feed throughout the day, and become inactive at night to prevent heat loss.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139907FFBD064FF57EF85BF6F8.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Arabian Oryx is gregarious; typical group size is ten individuals, but herds as large as 100 individuals have been noted. Groups usually contain one adult dominant male, several adult females, and their young; group size varies with weather and forage conditions. Before their extinction in the wild, total annual home ranges were probably several thousand square kilometers. During a reintroduction effort in the United Arab Emirates in 2007, radio-collared Arabian Oryxes initially wandered over a large area (some individuals more than 1000 km?), and then settled into a pattern of occupying smaller seasonal ranges, about 5 km? during the hottest months of the year and about 100 km ” during milder months. Their movements are highly dependent on rainfall, which they can sense from considerable distances. Because desert rainfall patterns are unpredictable, herds travel in no set pattern. After grazing in one area, the Arabian Oryx typically does not return to the same area for several months. As the size of a population increases, large groups may break up into several smaller groups. These groups develop their own home ranges, which often overlap. Independent movements occur within herds and vary depending on age and gender. Subordinate adult males often leave the herd, looking for new territories in which to establish their own herds. When calves are young, they follow their mothers closely while grazing. With maturity, mother — calf relationships become looser. While the herd grazes, females without young calves lead the way; females with young calves trail behind, followed by the dominant male, and lastly subordinate males. Average distance between individuals is 5 - 10 m when feeding in a concentrated food patch, but a group will spread out over larger areas when food resources are widely scattered. A herd travels close together and in single file when making long-distance movements; the dominant male brings up the rear. Herd cohesion is maintained by visual contact during the day and soft mooing at night.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139907FFBD064FF57EF85BF6F8.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, but may meet the criteria to be down-listed to Vulnerable in 2011. Formerly present throughout the Arabian Peninsula, extending north to Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Iraq, Syria, and Sinai and including the Dahana, the Rub’ al-Khali, and Great Nafud deserts. The Arabian Oryx existed in the wild until 1972, when poaching and overhunting led to the loss of the last wild individuals at Jiddat al Harasis, Oman. Because of concern about the imminent extinction of the Arabian Oryx, captive breeding programs were started in several Arabian countries as early as the 1950 s. In 1962, wild Arabian Oryxes were brought to the Phoenix Zoo in Arizona, USA, to serve as the foundation for subsequent international breeding and reintroduction efforts. Offspring from this pair, and from a separate breeding group with new founders at the Los Angeles Z 00, were sent to other breeding programs around the world, including the Middle East. Captive-bred Arabian Oryxes were sent to Oman for the first reintroduction effort in 1982. Subsequently, Arabian Oryxes have also been repatriated in two reserves in Saudi Arabia and three locations in Israel. A reintroduction effort started in 2007 in the United Arab Emirates. Future reintroductions are planned for Jordan and possibly Yemen. There are 6000 - 7000 Arabian Oryxes in captivity throughout the world, most of them on the Arabian Peninsula and some in large enclosures, receiving various amounts of supplemental food and care, in Syria, Bahrain, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates. Only about 250 mature individuals exist among the reintroduced free-ranging populations.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA0037EF4A9FA00F50C.taxon	materials_examined	Jur River; type locality fixed by Schwarz in 1920.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA0037EF4A9FA00F50C.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered a subspecies of A. buselaphus, which is now extinct. In the late 20 " century, it was customary for all or most hartebeest to be included as subspecies of A. buselaphus. There seems no particular reason for them to have been placed in a single species, and the more we learn about them the more distinct they are found to be. A phylogeny of hartebeest based on the control region of mtDNA found that this species belongs in an East African group with the Kongoni (A. cokii), Swayne’s Hartebeest (A. swaynei), and the Tora Hartebeest (A. tora), and that three individuals of the Kongoni were actually nested within the Lelwel Hartebeest. The authors of the study favored an East African origin for the genus and proposed that the modern eastern species derived from a refugium within the range of present-day Lelwel Hartebeest. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA0037EF4A9FA00F50C.taxon	distribution	Distribution. From Lake Chad to E Sudan and possibly just into Ethiopia, SE to the borders of the East African Rift Valley, S to the Uasin Gishu Plateau in Kenya and to Ankole in Uganda.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA0037EF4A9FA00F50C.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 182 - 200 cm, tail 46 - 57 cm, shoulder height 108 - 150 cm, ear 18 - 20 cm (males), hindfoot 54 - 60 cm; weight 175 - 218 kg (males) and 150 - 185 kg (females). The horns form a narrow upright V when seen from in front. Greatest skull length is 45 - 5 - 56 - 2 cm in males; horn span is 52 - 76 % of basal length in males; and least frontal width is 68 - 86 % of biorbital width. This species can be regarded as belonging to the “ heavily armed ” group. The male has relatively longer pedicles than in any other species, and a heavy skull relative to its length; the frontal sinuses in males are very large, and penetrate the horns to some degree. This species is equal to the Red Hartebeest (A. caama) in the degree of sexual dimorphism in horn circumference, more dimorphic in horn length, and slightly more so in skull weight. The pelage color is more reddish than neighboring species, with the dark markings on the face, in the mid-dorsal region, and on the front of the forelegs poorly expressed; the rump is noticeably pale to whitish. The preorbital secretion is colorless.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA0037EF4A9FA00F50C.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Combretum and Acacia savannas interspersed among Isoberlinia woodlands.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA0037EF4A9FA00F50C.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Diet consists only of grass, the abundance of which is relatively seasonal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA0037EF4A9FA00F50C.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The duration of the mating season is very short, somewhat over a month, so that competition between males is unusually intense. This, it has been suggested, is why this speciesis so “ heavily armed ” and so strongly sexually dimorphic. Like all hartebeest, they fight by dropping to their front knees and pushing with their foreheads and horn pedicles, their horns interlocking to some extent, and the long pedicles in this species give extensive leverage. The thick horns, with just a narrow V between them, and the large frontal sinuses, are well designed to absorb the heavy pressuresset up by this method of fighting. A female indicates mating readiness by stretching her rump, with hindlegs flexed, emphasising the pale tone of the rump (this is similar to the appeasement behavior used by calves); mating then proceedsin the usual fashion. Females produce their first young at about two years; males are sexually mature by one year.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA0037EF4A9FA00F50C.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. The main feeding peaks for Lelwel Hartebeest are late in the day. Members of a herd rest intermittently; when an animal sleeps, it does so for only a few minutes at a time, curled up or resting its chin on the ground. Territorial males, much more active and alert than herds, spend long periods standing conspicuously on termite mounds.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA0037EF4A9FA00F50C.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. In Uganda, Lelwel Hartebeest are normally found in large groups in wide grassy valleys. They move to higher ground and split up into small herds consisting of females and young in the later part of the rainy season, from late April to June, and at this time the males set up territories and compete strenuously for the female herds. Each herd tends to remain within one territory, restricting its movements to some 2 - 3 km, and so functions essentially as a particular male’s harem.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA0037EF4A9FA00F50C.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List (as A. buselaphus lelwel). In the 1980 s, there were thought to be more than 285,000, so that until recently this species was assessed as Lowerrisk / Conservation dependent, but the situation has deteriorated, and in 2008, it was thought that only 70,000 remained. On this basis it was reassessed as Endangered. As with other hartebeest species, habitat loss, overhunting, and competition with livestock are thought to be the important causes of population decline.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA00374FE6DFCCCF55E.taxon	materials_examined	Gambia; type locality fixed by Schwarz in 1920.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA00374FE6DFCCCF55E.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered a subspecies of A. buselaphus, which is now extinct. A phylogeny of hartebeest based on the control region of mtDNA found a clean division between this species and all the others; it belongs in a clade with the East African species, separate from the two southern African species. In the late 20 " century, it was customary for all or most hartebeest to be included as subspecies of A. buselaphus. There seems no particular reason for them to have been placed in a single species, and the more we learn about them the more distinct they are found to be. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA00374FE6DFCCCF55E.taxon	distribution	Distribution. From Senegal in the W to the sources of the LLogone River in the Central African Republic; somewhat to the S of the W end of the distribution of the Lelwel Hartebeest (A. lelwel).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA00374FE6DFCCCF55E.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 200 - 250 cm, tail 50 - 57 cm, shoulder height up to 143 cm (males); weight 145 kg (one individual). The largest species of hartebeest. Horns are robust, strongly twisted, U-shaped from the front like the Bubal Hartebeest (A. buselaphus), but with the tips turned sharply backward. Hartebeest species broadly speaking divide into a “ heavily armed ” and a “ lightly armed ” group. This species belongs to the heavily armed group, whereas the Bubal Hartebeest belonged to the lightly armed group. Greatest skull length is 47 - 528 cm in males; horn span is 64 - 83 % of basal length in males; and least frontal width is 76 - 87 % of biorbital width. In robusticity, as measured by skull weight, this species is comparatively less sexually dimorphic than most other hartebeest, and it also has a low degree of sexual dimorphism in pedicle height. The pelage color is uniform tan brown, with no dark markings except on the lower forelegs and a black tail tuft. Some individuals have a thin white band between the eyes.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA00374FE6DFCCCF55E.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. In Pendjari National Park, Benin, a typical environment for this species, the habitat is savanna bushland with open woodland, predominantly Acacia, Combretum, and Terminalia, interspersed. Dominant medium to long grasses are Andropogon, Hyperrhenia, and Panicum.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA00374FE6DFCCCF55E.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. In a study in Burkina Faso, it was found that during the rainy season more than 95 % of the diet consisted of grass, predominantly Andropogon and Hyparrhenia, whereas in the dry season this proportion dropped to about 80 %. The proportion of grass in the diets of other antelopes, such as the Roan Antelope (Hippotragus equinus), dropped well below this. It is plausible that the great facial elongation of A. gives it an advantage over sympatric bovids at this time of dietary stress.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA00374FE6DFCCCF55E.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The breeding season is relatively extended (more than three months), more than in any other species except for the Kongoni (A. cokii), and this has been linked to its relatively low degree of sexual dimorphism in skull weight and pedicle height; fighting need not be as intense as in a species with a short breeding season.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA00374FE6DFCCCF55E.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. This species, like other hartebeest, is diurnal. It runs at great speed, up to 80 km / h.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA00374FE6DFCCCF55E.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Males are territorial, the territories averaging 31 ha.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA00374FE6DFCCCF55E.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List (as A. buselaphus). There are thought to be about 36,000 animals remaining, with more than 95 % living in and around protected areas. Hunting levels are high, and many populations have undergone declines. Habitat fragmentation and competition with livestock further complicate the conservation of the Western Hartebeest.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA10676F557FD64F95F.taxon	materials_examined	Dembelas, Bogos, Eritrea.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA10676F557FD64F95F.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered a subspecies of A. buselaphus, which is now extinct. In the late 20 " century, it was customary for all or most hartebeest to be included as subspecies of A. buselaphus. There seems no particular reason for them to have been placed in a single species, and the more we learn about them the more distinct they are found to be. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA10676F557FD64F95F.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Savannas of Eritrea and NW Ethiopia; probably extinct in Sudan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA10676F557FD64F95F.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 200 cm, tail 50 cm, shoulder height 130 cm; weight 160 kg. In males, horn circumference is low relative to skull length. Measurements for males: greatest skull length 48 - 48 - 7 cm, horn span 122 - 128 % of basal length, and least frontal width 65 - 67 % of biorbital width. The horns turn slightly up, then point outward and upward, and finally upward again, forming a shape between a U and a V when seen from the front. The skull is more lightly built than in any other hartebeest, and it is the least sexually dimorphic in this character, in pedicle height, and (second only to the Kongoni, A. cok) in horn circumference. It belongs to the “ lightly armed ” East African group of hartebeest species. The color is pale tawny, the rump patch dirty white; the tail tuft and front of forelegs black.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA10676F557FD64F95F.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. There is no specific information available for this species, but in general it occurs in tropical and subtropical dry savannas and grasslands.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA10676F557FD64F95F.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but hartebeest feed on grasses. Their narrow heads are well suited to selecting tender grass leaves from among the poorer quality stems and stalks.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA10676F557FD64F95F.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but its “ lightly armed ” status and relative lack of sexual dimorphism suggest less intense seasonality in breeding, and hence less intermale fighting, than in some other hartebeest.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA10676F557FD64F95F.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but most hartebeest are diurnal, alternating foraging and resting periods.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA10676F557FD64F95F.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, but other hartebeest are gregarious animals often seen feeding in herds of around 20. When there is an abundance of fresh grass, many more may gather.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991BFFA10676F557FD64F95F.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List (as A. buselaphus tora). The range of this species was more or less along the Sudan — Ethiopian border from Lake Turkana north to western Eritrea. Recent surveys in Ethiopia have failed to find it; whether it still occurs in Eritrea is unknown. The region from the east side of Lake Turkana north to the Dinder River (Ethiopia — Sudan border) was thought to be a hybrid zone between the Lelwel Hartebeest (A. lelwel) and the Tora Hartbeest. The total population numbers less than 250 mature individuals, is still declining, and no subpopulation contains 50 or more mature individuals, according to the latest assessment. As with other hartebeest species, habitat loss, overhunting, and competition with livestock are thought to be the important causes of population decline.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991AFFA103DCF8A5F8DDFB63.taxon	materials_examined	Haud, 100 miles from Berbera, Somalia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991AFFA103DCF8A5F8DDFB63.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered a subspecies of A. buselaphus, which is now extinct. In the late 20 " century, it was customary for all or most hartebeest to be included as subspecies of A. buselaphus. There seems no particular reason for them to have been placed in a single species, and the more we learn about them the more distinct they are found to be. A recent study found that the surviving populations of this species still retain significant amounts of genetic diversity (mtDNA and microsatellites), and that two of the now-isolated surviving populations have diverged considerably. A phylogeny of hartebeest based on the control region of mtDNA found that two haplotypes of this species were nested within the Kongoni (A. cokii), whereas five others formed a separate subclade. This species is considered monotypic here.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991AFFA103DCF8A5F8DDFB63.taxon	distribution	Distribution. C Ethiopia (W side of the Rift Valley).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991AFFA103DCF8A5F8DDFB63.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Few measurements available. Head — body 250 cm (adult male), tail 50 cm, shoulder height 124 cm. As in the Kongoni, the horns seen from in front are between a V and a U shape, and horn circumference in males is low relative to skull length. Horn length is also relatively low; pedicle length is low in females (as low as in Lichtenstein’s Hartebeest, A. lichtensteinii), but not especially so compared to males of other species. Greatest skull length is 40 - 9 — - 47 - 2 cm in males; horn span is 114 - 148 % of basal length in males; and least frontal width is 64 - 69 % of biorbital width. The skull in the female is lightly built compared to most other hartebeest, so sexual dimorphism in skull weight is greater than in any other hartebeest. This is one of the “ lightly armed ” species. It is much deeper in color than other East African species, chocolate brown with striking black markings on the mid-face and legs. The preorbital secretion is colorless.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991AFFA103DCF8A5F8DDFB63.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Senkele Plains are montane savanna at elevations of 2000 m or more. Preferred habitat of Swayne’s Hartebeest here is fallow land that had been cultivated for about two years, where they find short grasses, especially Eleusine multiflora, Cynodon dactylon, Chloris pycnothrix, Harpachne schimperi, and Rhynchelytrum repens. Although this type of land covers only 10 % ofthe area inhabited by hartebeest, it accounted for 80 % of their land usage. This preference for short-grass plains differs strongly from other hartebeest, such as the Kongoni.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991AFFA103DCF8A5F8DDFB63.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. On the Senkele Plains this species feeds on the short, lush grass of the fallow land.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991AFFA103DCF8A5F8DDFB63.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Calving lasts from mid-December until mid-February; this implies a relatively short breeding season, though longer than in the Lelwel Hartebeest (A. lelwel), and probably correlated with the fact that it is “ lightly armed ” but strongly sexually dimorphic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991AFFA103DCF8A5F8DDFB63.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There are two activity peaks: 06: 00 - 10: 00 h and 16: 00 - 18: 00 h. From 14: 00 h to 15: 00 h, about 40 % of the animals are in the shade — another idiosyncratic characteristic ofthis species, and probably related to their need for water conservation. More than half their diurnal activity is spent in feeding.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991AFFA103DCF8A5F8DDFB63.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. In November, they combine into large groups of about 180 individuals; by mid-December, the beginning ofthe calving season, these groups split into small herds of fewer than ten individuals, and there are a few small all-male groups.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991AFFA103DCF8A5F8DDFB63.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List (as A. buselaphus swayner). This species formerly existed from northern Somalia through the Ethiopian Rift Valley at least as far south as Lake Zway. The region north of Lake Stephanie, Ethiopia, is probably a hybrid zone between the Lelwel Hartebeest and Swayne’s Hartebeest. The total population is estimated at only 600 individuals, the majority of which are confined to the Senkele Wildlife Sanctuary and Mazie National Park in Ethiopia, with no subpopulation numbering more than 250 mature individuals. As with other hartebeest species, habitat loss, overhunting, and competition with livestock are thought to be the important causes of population decline.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991AFFA206D2FAA9FF0AF5EE.taxon	materials_examined	Mlali Plains, east of Mpapwa, Tanzania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991AFFA206D2FAA9FF0AF5EE.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered a subspecies of A. buselaphus, which is now extinct. In the late 20 ™ century, it was customary for all or most hartebeest to be included as subspecies of A. buselaphus. There seems no particular reason for them to have been placed in a single species, and the more we learn about them the more distinct they are found to be. A phylogeny of hartebeest based on the control region of mtDNA found some intermixing between the four species of the East African group (A. lelwel, A. cokii, A. swaynei, and A. tora): two haplotypes of Swayne’s Hartebeest (A. swaynei) were nested within the Kongoni, and three of A. cokii (out of quite a large number) nested within the Lelwel Hartebeest (A. lelwel). A hybrid swarm at one time lived (and may, in small pockets, still live) in the Rift Valley in Kenya between A. cokii and A. lelwel, in absolute skull length, as well as in relative horn span, they overlap with each of the two parent species, and are more variable than either. The hybrids are predominantly of A. lelwel type to the north, from Lake Baringo to Mount Kenya, whereas to the south, from Lake Victoria to the southern Rift Valley in Tanzania, they tend to be more like A. cokii. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991AFFA206D2FAA9FF0AF5EE.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S Kenya and N Tanzania; the distribution extends approximately from Lake Nakuru and S of Mt Kenya, through the S part of Tsavo East National Park, to about the N edge of the Brachystegia zone in N Tanzania, more or less along a line between the coast opposite Zanzibar and the S end of Lake Victoria. There is some evidence that pockets ofthis species occur farther S in suitable areas in the Brachystegia zone that are otherwise the habitat of Lichtenstein’s Hartebeest (A. lichtensteinii).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991AFFA206D2FAA9FF0AF5EE.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 177 - 200 cm, shoulder height 117 - 120 cm (males) and 112 cm (females); weight 129 - 171 kg (males), 116 - 148 kg (females). A small species, greatest skull length 41.9 - 46 cm in males; horn span 97 - 128 % of basal length in males; and least frontal width 57 - 72 % of biorbital width. The horns, seen from in front, are more widespread than in the Tora Hartebeest (A. tora) and Swayne’s Hartebeest, so that their shape resembles a curly bracket on its side. They are relatively short and are more slender than in other hartebeest species except for the Tora Hartebeest and Swayne’s Hartebeest. In this feature, and in skull weight, the Kongoni is less sexually dimorphic than any other species; and in pedicle height it and the Tora Hartebeest are less sexually dimorphic than the other species. The frontal sinuses are also relatively small, without much sexual dimorphism, and penetrate the horns to some degree (though not as much as in the Red Hartebeest, A. caama, or the Lelwel Hartebeest). Like other East African species, the Kongoni can be regarded as belonging to the “ lightly armed ” group. Its color is pale tawny, with the rump patch only slightly paler; only the tail tuft is black. The preorbital secretion is black and sticky, quite different from the secretion of the Lelwel Hartebeest and Swayne’s Hartebeest.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991AFFA206D2FAA9FF0AF5EE.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Kongoni live on Themeda triandra grasslands with scrub Acacia such as whistling thorn; this habitat is characterized by warm days (maximum 24 - 9 ° C) and cooler nights (minimum 13 - 7 ° C), and two annual rainy seasons.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991AFFA206D2FAA9FF0AF5EE.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Kongoni is a selective grazer, especially on Themeda triandra, Digitaria macroblephara, and Pennisetum mezianum, which together make up 57 % of the dietin the dry season and 70 - 2 % in the wet season. Most of the rest is made up of other leafy perennial grasses. Browse makes up only 3 - 4 % ofthe diet in the dry season and as little as 1 - 2 % in the wet season. Feeding trials show that Kongoniare very selective, taking in 16 % less (dry weight) than sympatric wildebeest or topi, but their smaller appetite is compensated by a greater efficiency of digestion of fiber than other ruminants. On the Athi-Kapiti Plains, where they share the habitat with wildebeest, and cattle are also grazed, the diet overlaps a good deal with both other species — by some 80 % with the diet of wildebeest and only slightly less with the diet ofcattle. There is more information about the Kongoni than about most other hartebeest species, and it is often notclear to what degree what is known about this species might also be characteristic of the others. For example, the Kongoni is known to have a lower metabolic rate and water consumption than sympatric (East African) wildebeest or topi, but whether this is true of all hartebeest is unclear.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991AFFA206D2FAA9FF0AF5EE.taxon	breeding	Breeding. A territorial male greets a female with a head-up display and stands blocking her with his ears lowered, then turns slowly to sniff her vulva. Receptive females stand with hindlegsslightly spread, the tail to one side. Gestation is eight months; the female is continually breeding, and frequently has two calves of different ages accompanying her. This extended breeding season is believed to be correlated with the generally low degree of sexual dimorphism in this species, in contrast to some other species, such as the Lelwel Hartebeest. Females move apart from the herd, often along with their previous offspring, to give birth. Calves do not try to stand until nine minutes after birth, and do not stand firmly until 30 minutes, but shortly after that they walk and run. The hiding phase lasts for two weeks. Male calves may accompany their mothers for up to 2.5 years, then they join bachelor herds; they are mature at 3 — 4 years. This is unlike other Alcelaphini. Although the age of maturity is the same, the young of other species leave their mothers at 1 - 5 years of age.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991AFFA206D2FAA9FF0AF5EE.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Kongoni tend to migrate between short-grass, well-drained pastures in the rains and long grasses in the dry season. Large congregations may form at these times. Up to 100 males may remain near waterholes in the dry season, breaking up into small groups to graze. Habitable areas are partitioned into a mosaic of permanent or semi-permanent territories, among which move herds of 6 - 15 females and young.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991AFFA206D2FAA9FF0AF5EE.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The female — young herds, which have well-marked hierarchies within them, have home ranges of 3 - 7 - 5 - 5 km? which will include 20 - 30 males’ territories. In areas of low population density a herd may stay a long time on a singleterritory, becoming in effect the harem of the territory-holding male. A young male makes an “ appeasement ceremony ” with a head-in posture, to an adult male, and is thereby allowed to live on the territory within the female herd. Bachelor herds, usually small in size but sometimes including up to 35 individuals, consist of males 1 - 4 years old; after about three or four years of age, they attempt to gain territories. Bachelor herds have a home range of 6 - 7 - 10 - 3 km? In Nairobi National Park, 33 % of adult males hold territories, but one-half of them hold them for less than three months. Territorial boundaries seem fixed, regardless of which male is in occupancy; in Nairobi National Park, they average 31 ha. Within the territory, the center of activity (constituting 10 - 20 % ofthe total area) is more vigorously defended than the rest, and when the male is in this area he will challenge any other male who approaches within a couple of hundred meters. Neighboring males regularly meet at their mutual territorial boundaries and interact with various behaviors, including neck-sliding (standing facing each other, each sliding his head up and down on the other’s neck, transmitting preorbital secretions), sparring, repeated defecation, pawing, and parallel grazing 5 - 10 m apart. These displays generally last over ten minutes. If a male leaveshisterritory and returns to find another bull has takenit, there may be a serious fight, often lasting more than an hour, the winner chasing the loser a long way. Prime males hold the prime territories. Peripheral territories are partly in scrub grassland, are larger than prime territories, and are less severely congested; indeed they often remain unoccupied.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991AFFA206D2FAA9FF0AF5EE.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as A. buselaphus cokii). They remain in good numbers (estimate of 42,000), with nearly threequarters of them in protected areas. Kongoni and Lewlel Hartebeest are, or were, sympatric in much of the Kenya Rift Valley and mixed, perhaps hybrid, populations occur there, although most of these populations are probably now extinct.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139919FFA2034CF53BF8F6F407.taxon	materials_examined	Tette, Mozambique.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139919FFA2034CF53BF8F6F407.taxon	discussion	In the late 20 " century, it was customary for all or most hartebeest to be included as subspecies of A. buselaphus, but A. lichtensteinu was usually (not always) left as a distinct species — sometimes it was even placed in a distinct genus, Sigmoceros. A phylogeny of hartebeest based on the control region of mtDNA found that the Red Hartebeest (A. caama) and A. lichtensteinii together form a clade thatis the sister group to all other hartebeest. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139919FFA2034CF53BF8F6F407.taxon	distribution	Distribution. W & S Tanzania, Burundi, SE DR Congo (E Katanga), E Angola, Zambia, N Mozambique, E Zimbabwe, and as far S as NE South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139919FFA2034CF53BF8F6F407.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 160 - 203 cm, tail 40 - 51 cm, shoulder height 122 - 136 cm (males) and 119 - 130 cm (females), ear 19 - 23 cm, hindfoot 54 - 57 cm (males) and 51 - 55 cm (females); weight 157 - 204 kg (males) and 160 - 181 kg (females). As in other hartebeest, the back slopes from shoulder to rump. The horns rise from a low, bony pedicle that is much less developed than in any other species; the horns are a crumpled S shape, the tips pointing outward; only the base of the horns has ridges. In males, the horn circumference relative to skull length is much greater than in any other species, and in horn circumference, horn length, size of the frontal sinuses, and pedicle height, it is the most sexually dimorphic ofall species of hartebeest. The frontal sinuses are more complex in the male than in other hartebeest, as far as is known. This species, like the Western Hartebeest (A.), the Lelwel Hartebeest (A. lelwel), and the Red Hartebeest, can be regarded as part of the “ heavily armed ” group; because the members of the group are not otherwise closely related, this heavy armament may be the primitive condition for hartebeest. Greatest skull length is 45.8 - 50. 2 cm in males; horn span is 67 - 88 % of basal length in males; and least frontal width is 79 - 86 % of biorbital width (in both sexes). The pelage coloris yellow-tawny, more rufous on the upper part of the body. The rump and base of the tail are contrastingly white, and the upper hindlegs are white. The chin, front of the shanks, and tail tuft are black; some individuals have a dark patch on the forehead and on top of the muzzle. The preorbital secretion is black and sticky, like that of the Kongoni (A. cokii); because of the shoulder-wiping ritual, the shoulders are typically streaked with black.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139919FFA2034CF53BF8F6F407.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Miombo woodlands, within which its distribution is closely associated with floodplain grasslands. In a study in Gorongosa, Mozambique, Lichtenstein’s Hartebeest were in the Miombo during the dry season, and moved onto the Rift Valley floor during the wet season.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139919FFA2034CF53BF8F6F407.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. They are almost exclusively grazers, with a small amount of browsing from low shrubs, especially Combretum. They benefit from the new grass that springs up in burnt areas, as well as from the minerals of the ash. The diet seems to expand into a wider range during the dry season.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139919FFA2034CF53BF8F6F407.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Breeding is seasonal; in Zimbabwe, the breeding season is from November to January. Fighting is frequent during the rut, and at this time a territorial male becomes very aggressive and will expel young males from the herd. Estrus lasts a single day; a male mounts four times in four minutes. Young male calves sometimes try to interfere with mating. The territorial male approaches the females with nose forward, tail stiffly horizontal. Estrous females stand with legs apart, their hindquarters toward the male; the male rubs his preorbital glands on the female’s hindquarters. The shortness of the breeding season has been linked to the extreme development of the horn circumference and the reduced height of the pedicle. Fighting tends to be less in species with short breeding seasons. Gestation is 240 days; females have theirfirst calves at about two years. The calves are not hidden, but tend to lie in groups of 1 - 3 on open ground while the mothers are grazing or drinking.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139919FFA2034CF53BF8F6F407.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Lichtenstein’s Hartebeest feed in the early morning, moving into shade about 09: 00 h, and feed again after 17: 00 h. A territorial male marks histerritory by horning the ground, dropping to his knees and turning his head from side to side, digging up the soil with his horns, then rubbing his preorbital glands on the ground and on his flanks.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139919FFA2034CF53BF8F6F407.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. As in many hartebeest, there seems to be a permanent association between a territorial male and a harem of females, rather than female herds occupying separate home ranges. During a disturbance, the herdsflee first, and the male flees last, often stopping to look back. In Mozambique, the herds consisted of 6 - 12 individuals, although aggregations of as many as 72 were recorded during October. In other places (Zambia, Zimbabwe) mean herd sizes of 3 - 5 were found. In the female herds there is thought to be a dominance ranking according to age. Territories of males in Kafue National Park, Zambia, average 290 ha (160 - 520 ha). The territorial bull maintains a distance between himself and the females and young, frequently climbing a termite mound as a static display. The territory is marked with churned up soil (by the male’s horns), with preorbital secretion, and by dung piles. Bachelor herds, which are unstable, have shifting home ranges in peripheral regions.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139919FFA2034CF53BF8F6F407.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as A. buselaphus lichtensteinii). Lichtenstein’s Hartebeestis still common in Tanzania, with about 20,000 in the Selous Game Reserve and neighboring areas; Kafue National Park and Luangwa Valley, in Zambia, still have large numbers. It has survived in Mozambique and Malawi, but in reduced numbers. A small number have been reintroduced to Kruger National Park, South Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139919FFA30644F44DFAB6F5F0.taxon	materials_examined	Agter Bruintjes-Hoogte (Somerset-East, Eastern Cape).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139919FFA30644F44DFAB6F5F0.taxon	discussion	This species is monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139919FFA30644F44DFAB6F5F0.taxon	distribution	Distribution. N & E Namibia, Botswana, extreme NW Zimbabwe, and N South Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139919FFA30644F44DFAB6F5F0.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Total length 207 - 220 cm, tail 40 - 50 cm, shoulder height 120 - 133 cm, ear 17 - 20 cm, hindfoot 53 - 57 cm; weight 131 - 165 kg (males) and 105 - 136 kg (females). Thereis little difference in linear dimensions between the sexes, but males are very much heavier. The Red Hartebeestis smaller than Lichtenstein’s Hartebeest (A. lichtensteinii), but the sexual difference in weight is greater. Diploid chromosomes number 40. This species has by far the longest horns relative to skull length, and a very heavy skull relative to its length, even heavier than in the Lelwel Hartebeest (A. lelwel); it is also one of the most sexually dimorphic species in horn circumference, pedicle height, and skull weight. The horns rise straight up from their very long pedicles, and curve forward and then back almost at right angles. The space between them is less even than in the Lelwel Hartebeest; they are strongly ridged for most of their length. Limited data indicate that the frontal sinuses in the male may penetrate as much as 5 % of the horn, more than in other hartebeest. Greatest skull length is 46: 4 - 50. 5 cm in males, horn span is 87 % of basal length, and least frontal width is 75 - 79 % of biorbital width. Preorbital secretion is black and sticky; because of shoulder-wiping, the shoulders are typically streaked with black. The body color is reddish-brown to yellow-tawny, with a tendency for the dorsal region to be somewhat darker, forming a poorly marked “ saddle ” that is better expressed in the male than in the female. The rump is pale yellow or off-white, looking white at a distance. A dark patch extends from the front of the shoulders to the knees or even the hooves; there is also a dark patch on the front of hindlegs as far as the hocks and sometimes to the hooves. The forehead and top of the muzzle are black, separated by a broad band of reddish-brown between and in front of the eyes, and there is a black patch behind the horn pedicles, extending around to the sides of the face behind the eyes. The underparts are slightly paler than the upperparts.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139919FFA30644F44DFAB6F5F0.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Grassland, especially on floodplains, and in semi-desert with scattered low bushes. The range tends to be limited by more closed woodland and by the lack of surface water.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139919FFA30644F44DFAB6F5F0.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. They are selective grazers but turn to browse toward the end of the dry season; overall, browse has been found to make up 40 - 44 % of the diet. In the Kalahari, they eat melons and dig up roots and tubers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139919FFA30644F44DFAB6F5F0.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Breeding is seasonal, and estrus apparently lasts just one day. The rut is March-April in South Africa’s North West Province, but earlier in the Free State. The male checks reproductive readiness of his females by vulval sniffing; courtship is performed by advancing with outstretched head, ears lowered, then nudging the female with his snout. Gestation is eight months. The female has her first calf at about three; she gives birth in a vegetative area, and keeps the calf hidden, visiting it to suckle and lick up its urine and feces. The calves begin to eat grass by two weeks, although they suckle for up to eight months. As they grow, they tend to form groups within the herd.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139919FFA30644F44DFAB6F5F0.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. They are most active in early morning and late afternoon, but may graze throughout the day when the weather is cool. When running, a herd tends to swerve to left and right alternately, probably confusing predators in this way.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139919FFA30644F44DFAB6F5F0.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Red Hartebeest were formerly reported moving in herds of thousands, and they still aggregate into herds of a few hundred at suitable feeding grounds, though most of the herds number about 20. Territorial males herd females into loose harem groups, and when the territorial male is temporarily absent, a female may lead the harem. There are bachelor herds in peripheral areas, although in some regions, such as the dry country of Botswana, males may be solitary.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139919FFA30644F44DFAB6F5F0.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as A. buselaphus caama). Formerly from Cape Town north to the Limpopo River and the Zimbabwe border, and north-west through Botswana to northern Namibia and southern Angola; the range is much more restricted today. The Red Hartebeest is protected in Etosha National Park and on farmland in Namibia, in the dry country of southern Botswana, and in the Northern Cape, South Africa. They have been reintroduced over much of their former range in South Africa (but not the far south) and Swaziland.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139918FFA306D2FE24F99DF5EF.taxon	materials_examined	North side of Tana River, Kenya.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139918FFA306D2FE24F99DF5EF.taxon	discussion	Although “ Hirola ” is the spelling of the common name most often used today, Sclater in 1889 originally spelled it “ Herola ” after the Oromo name. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139918FFA306D2FE24F99DF5EF.taxon	distribution	Distribution. E Kenya (between the Tana andJuba rivers, on the N bank of the Tana River it extended as far N as Garissa), and in W Somalia N to the Lag Der region inland from Afmadu.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139918FFA306D2FE24F99DF5EF.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 164 - 200 cm, tail 36 - 45 cm, shoulder height 95 - 125 cm, ear 19 cm; weight 73 - 118 kg. Smaller and lighter than a hartebeest, with a more horizontal back. Horn length 45 - 61 cm (males) and 35 - 50 cm (females). The horns are not raised on a pedicle; they are slender and lyrate with long upright tips. The pelage is tawny, often with rufous tones, tending to darken with age, especially in males; the forehead, withers, dorsum, and lower segments of the limbs are darker. The underparts are whitish-tawny, the inside of the ears and most of the long tail are white, and the terminal tuft of the tail is mixed white and black. There are two partial narrow white eye rings, connected by an inverted white chevron across the face.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139918FFA306D2FE24F99DF5EF.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The natural habitat is semi-arid (average annual rainfall 300 mm), with scattered shrubby grasslands and wooded grassland with Commiphora — Acacia and Dobera — Salvadora communities. In Tsavo East National Park, Herola have been introduced to fairly open short-grass habitat, similar to that which they formerly inhabited north of the Tana River.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139918FFA306D2FE24F99DF5EF.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The diet is predominantly green grasses; 24 species have been recorded in Tsavo, 21 of which are grasses; three are forbs that are eaten only in the rainy season. The main grasses eaten are Panicum infestum, Digitaria rivae, Latipes senegalensis, and Cenchrus ciliaris. All except L. senegalensis are sought after and selected well above their occurrence in the general area. These grasses tend to grow especially around anthills. The grass height averages about 17 cm. The Herola crop their preferred species 5 - 9 cm from the ground and crop other, less-preferred species as much as 16 cm from the ground. The grasses selected have a high leaf-to-stem ratio, and of the less-green species only the leaves are eaten.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139918FFA306D2FE24F99DF5EF.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is little specific information available for this species, except that in Tsavo, where it has been introduced, recruitment has been low.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139918FFA306D2FE24F99DF5EF.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is little specific information available for this species, except for the tendency of non-herd individuals to associate with other species, especially Grant's Gazelles (Nanger granti).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139918FFA306D2FE24F99DF5EF.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. In Tsavo East, no territorial behavior has been reported. The social structure appears to be of one male with 2 - 6 adult females and their young; some females and solitary males, including subadult males, typically associate with Grant's Gazelles or zebras, and some adult males form temporary bachelor groups of two or three individuals.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139918FFA306D2FE24F99DF5EF.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. By 1996, the range of the Herola in Kenya had shrunk to about 42 % ofits former extent. The population in Somalia is probably extirpated, and that in Kenya had declined to about 1500 by 2002. Twenty were introduced into Tsavo East National Park in 1963, and the number had increased to 76 in 1999. The low rate of population growth may be because of low genetic variability and / or predation. Thirty more animals were translocated in 1996. In 1994, it was classified as Endangered, but in 1996 it was reassessed as Critically Endangered.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991DFFA60641FF7DF6C1F359.taxon	materials_examined	(Orange) Free State.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991DFFA60641FF7DF6C1F359.taxon	discussion	This species is similar in many respects to the Bontebok (D. pygargus), and during the second half of the 20 " century they were usually classified as two subspecies of the same species. Although they are clearly sister species, they are strongly, and consistently, different. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991DFFA60641FF7DF6C1F359.taxon	distribution	Distribution. South Africa (Eastern Cape N of the Karroo, E into KwaZulu-Natal and N to the Free State and the Botswana border). Today, Blesboks occur sporadically through this range, mainly on private land, and have been introduced into Zimbabwe, Namibia, and eastern Botswana.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991DFFA60641FF7DF6C1F359.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 140 - 160 cm, tail 30 - 45 cm, weight 70 kg (males) and 60 kg (females). The Blesbok’s general color is reddish-brown, without the purple gloss of the Bontebok. The face blaze is white, but is usually divided by a brown band between the eyes; the buttock patch is not white, merely paler than the body color; and the white (or pale color) at the base of the tail does not extend onto the back of the rump. There is no pale “ saddle ”; the white on the underparts is less extensive than in the Bontebok; and the lower segments of the limbs are dark brown. The horns are usually straw-colored on the upper surface of the rings. Skull length is 30.4 - 32. 8 cm; horn length is 33.5 - 38. 4 cm (both sexes); and horn span is 29 - 268 mm (both sexes). Diploid chromosome number is 38; there is a fusion between chromosomes 18 and 24, and one of the chromosome chains has only twelve members instead of 13, which differentiates the karyotype from that of the Western Tsessebe (D. lunatus) and the Serengeti Topi (D. jimela).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991DFFA60641FF7DF6C1F359.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Apparently the grasslands of the Highveld wherever surface water was available. Blesboks were generally associated with the sweetveld, especially in areas with medium length high-quality grasses such as Themeda triandra. During the dry season, they would travel into the sourveld, with its tall grasses, and their fat reserves would decrease until the following rainy season.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991DFFA60641FF7DF6C1F359.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Blesboks feed almost entirely on grass, especially favoring burnt areas with their rapidly sprouting new grass. The very large rumen retains low-digestible grass for a long period.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991DFFA60641FF7DF6C1F359.taxon	breeding	Breeding. When males are attempting to herd females, there is a great deal of displaying after a territorial male has chased off an invader. Fights between males can be very serious and result in death. During courtship and herding, the male exhibits the low-stretch display; at the period of highest intensity, his tail is curled over his back. He frequently sniffs a female’s vulva, which she facilitates by raising her tail and waving it rapidly. If she is not receptive, she turns and they circle each other. Gestation is eight months; the calving season lasts one or two months. Calves are followers, not hiders, even though they are less precocious at birth than wildebeest, whose calves are hiders. Females give birth within the herd, and the young associate with their mothers right away. They are weaned at about four months. A female becomes sexually mature at 2 - 5 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991DFFA60641FF7DF6C1F359.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Active in early morning and late evening, and they can remain active and feeding in the middle of the day. When moving to feeding areas or watering points, they go in single file, forming paths. Like Bonteboks, they often stand with their heads toward the sun, their faces close to the ground; it is not known whether they are awake or asleep in this posture.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991DFFA60641FF7DF6C1F359.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Like Bonteboks, there are territorial males, female herds, and bachelor groups. Territories are clustered more tightly than those of Bonteboks, in one population averaging only 2 - 3 ha in size. Territorial behavior may be year-round or seasonal, butterritories are poorly or notat all defended between the end of one rut and the beginning of the next. Territories are marked with displays, including leaping high in the air, preorbital glandular marking, pawing the ground (thereby depositing foot gland secretions), and dung piles. An apparently unique behavior in this species consists of transferring the preorbital secretion copiously to the base of the horns; the Blesbok wipes its horns across grass stems which it had previously marked. Not only males, but females and even calves do this. The female herds are not associated with specific territorial males, but during the rut they are herded into territories and not allowed to leave if the male can prevent it. After the end of the rut, during the cold dry season, the herds aggregate into larger groups of up to 650. These large aggregations occupy defined home ranges, within which each herd has its own home range.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991DFFA60641FF7DF6C1F359.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as D. pygargus phillipsr). In historic times there has always been a 300 km gap between the ranges of this species and the Bontebok. The Blesbok was exterminated from much ofits range in the 19 " century, and the population was reduced to about 2000, but they have recovered rapidly under protection and have been widely introduced outside their former range. Actual estimated population is greater than 200,000 individuals (numbers stable or increasing), of which the main part occurs on private farms.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991DFFA60348FE22FCC8F356.taxon	materials_examined	Cape of Good Hope. Restricted by Bigalke in 1948 to Swart River, near Caledon.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991DFFA60348FE22FCC8F356.taxon	discussion	The name Antilope dorcas Pallas, 1766, became widely used for this species in the latter half of the 20 " century, but it is preoccupied as a junior secondary homonym. Formerly included the Blesbok (D. phillipst) as a subspecies. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991DFFA60348FE22FCC8F356.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S South Africa (coastal plains in the Western Cape province).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991DFFA60348FE22FCC8F356.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Few measurements available. Shoulder height 90 cm; weight 68 — 86 kg (males) and 56 kg (females). The color is rich dark brown, with a purple gloss on the sides of the head, flanks, and upper part of the limbs. The face is white from the forehead down to the snout, the white area slightly constricted between the eyes; the rump is white, the white extending around the base of the tail to the legs and onto the underside; the hocks and the legs below knees are white. The horns are initially upright, then curve backward and outward, and then curve slightly forward toward the tips; they are black on the upper surface of the rings. Skull length is 29.3 - 33. 5 cm; horn length is 32 - 35. 6 cm (males) and 29.1 - 33. 1 cm (females); and horn span is 22: 2 - 24. 6 cm (males) and 19.7 - 22. 7 cm (females). There islittle sexual dimorphism beyond the longer and more robust horns of the males. The preorbital secretion is yellowish-black. Hoof glands are found on the forefeet only.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991DFFA60348FE22FCC8F356.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The species has always been confined to the coastal plains up to elevations of 200 m in the exceptionally diverse vegetation type known as Fynbos, where there is plentiful short grass, some cover, and proximity to streams.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991DFFA60348FE22FCC8F356.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Almost exclusively grass, especially short grass; Bonteboks especially favor burnt areas where new grass is sprouting.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991DFFA60348FE22FCC8F356.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Breeding is seasonal; rut is fromJanuary to the middle of March. During rut, males spend an average of 35 minutes / day interacting with their neighbors, compared to only 20 minutes / day at other times of year. A male may challenge a territory holder; the pair stand head-to-tail, each sniffing the other’s rump, with much head-shaking and tail-swishing. Commonly they also perform a head-dipping display, defecate in the crouching posture, horn the ground, and rub their faces in the grass, smearing the grass with their preorbital glands. Courtship includes a low-stretch display, made when courting or when herding, either walking or running; the tail may be curled over the back during periods of high intensity. Gestation is about 240 days.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991DFFA60348FE22FCC8F356.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Territorial males spend 55 % of daylight hours grazing (less during rut, more during winter), 23 % ruminating, 10 % resting, and 13 % in other activities — mostly related to territory maintenance or sex. Females spend 65 % grazing, 21 % ruminating, 9 - 5 % resting, and only 5 % in other activities. Bonteboks are most active in early morning and late afternoon, and rest in the shade during the heat of the day or stand in groups facing the sun with their heads held low.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991DFFA60348FE22FCC8F356.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The social groupings of the Bontebok consist ofterritorial males, female — young herds, and bachelor groups. The territories are 10 - 40 ha and are held year-round; the average tenure is 22 months, but some males apparently may hold the same territory for their entire adult lives. The males mark their territories with dung heaps, averaging 4 - 3 heaps / ha; they defecate when crouching, after first kneeling and ground-horning. A few territories remain vacant, their holders having vacated them voluntarily. Males attempt to become territorial at about five years of age. The female — young herds, consisting on average of eight individuals, have a hierarchy that is maintained by threat or sparring; the herd also sometimes drives off males with what is described as a “ bucking bounce, ” kicking out at them with the hindlegs. The herds occupy home ranges that encompass 2 - 3 male territories, though sometimes a herd remains for as much as a year in a single male’s territory, acting in effect as the harem of the particular territorial male. Bachelor groups, which may also include a few females, are very loose in structure; males join them at about one year of age, sometimes after a period of being solitary.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991DFFA60348FE22FCC8F356.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List (as D. pygargus pygargus). Even when it wasfirst described by Europeans, this species was known only from the coastal district of the Western Cape, between the Bot River and the Heidelberg — Riversdale area and some way inland. The Bontebok was exterminated from most of its range by early Dutch settlers, but preserved on the farm of the van der Byl family, near Bredasdorp, from 1837 onward, and nearby farmers followed suit. The first official move toward its preservation was not until 1931, when Bontebok National Park was established south of Bredasdorp, but the land was not suitable. The Bontebok were moved to near Swellendam in 1961, and since then the numbers have grown to well over 2000 and populations have been reintroduced widely, including to the Cape Point Reserve south of Cape Town.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA703C6FE85FC72F35F.taxon	materials_examined	Matlhawaréng River, 27 ° 06 ’ S, 23 ° 04 ’ E, at junction with Kuruman, Northern Cape.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA703C6FE85FC72F35F.taxon	discussion	F. P. D. Cotterill, in his paper describing the Bangweulu Tsessebe (D. superstes), found that the Zimbabwe and Okavango populations of D. lunatus were somewhat different, though not consistently, and it may be that they should be distinguished as two different subspecies. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA703C6FE85FC72F35F.taxon	distribution	Distribution. E Angola, W Zambia, Zimbabwe, N Botswana, N Namibia (Caprivi Strip), and NE South Africa (Kruger National Park and a few other localities).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA703C6FE85FC72F35F.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Total length 207 - 229 cm (males) and 190 - 226 cm (females), tail c. 45 cm, shoulder height 116 - 134 cm (males) and 108 - 132 cm (females), ear 18 - 21 cm (both sexes), hindfoot 51 - 57 cm (males) and 48 - 56 cm (females); weight 136 — 158 kg. The horns are long and lyrate, with narrow pedicles; they curve evenly outward, then inward and slightly forward, and form a semi-lunate profile. They are ringed for almost their entire length, and are thicker at the base in males, although there is very little other difference. Horn length is 25.6 - 39. 1 cm, tip-to-tip distance is 18 - 4 — 41 - 5 cm, span of horns is 26 - 45 cm, greatest skull length is 36.5 - 42. 9 cm, and maxillary tooth row is 80 - 7 - 102 - 7 mm. In all cases, females average very slightly less than males. The overall color is medium or pale brown or tan, with a purplish sheen and a dark brown tone along the midline of the face; there is a dark, medium-gray patch from the lower part of the shoulders to the upper segments of the forelimbs, and on the thighs and upper segments of the hindlimbs. The tail is yellowish-white at the base, with a long blackish tuft; the ear backs, rump, inside of hindlegs, inside of upper segments of forelimbs, and abdomen are yellowish-white. Diploid chromosome number is 36 with the X chromosome submetacentric. An apparent hybrid between this species and the Red Hartebeest (Alcelaphus caama) was shot in 1890 in the Tati Valley, in far north-eastern Botswana (near present-day Francistown, on the Zimbabwean border).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA703C6FE85FC72F35F.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Edaphic grasslands, especially on woodland edges and where there is surface water; during the dry season, Western Tsessebe tend to live on floodplains, but during the rainy season they move into open woodland.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA703C6FE85FC72F35F.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Exclusively eat grass, especially up to 60 cm tall, but in the Mababe Depression, Botswana, they even eat three-meter-tall wild sorghum. They are selective of plant parts, favoring growing leaves. Stable isotope analysis of dental enamel confirms that the diet ofthis species consists entirely of grass.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA703C6FE85FC72F35F.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Seasonal breeders; rutis from January to March in South Africa’s Limpopo Province, December —] January in Kruger National Park, and March-April in northern Botswana. More than 90 % of adult females give birth each year; the young run with their mothers from birth, and lie in slight depressions in the ground in groups of two to five while the mothers are feeding. One of the mothers usually stays close to them. Males become sexually mature at 40 - 42 months of age; females give birth for the first time at about 36 months.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA703C6FE85FC72F35F.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Western Tsessebe are very fast, and can keep up a heavy gallop for a considerable distance; they do not jump, but crawl under obstacles. Territorial males block movements of others by standing broadside, often with cavorting and emphatic nodding.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA703C6FE85FC72F35F.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The groupings of Western Tsessebe consist of territorial males, female — young herds, and bachelor groups. In north-east ern Botswana, the herds average 3 - 6 individuals, and the bachelor groups average eight; they may aggregate into larger groups on preferred feeding grounds. In the Mababe Depression, Botswana, an aggregation of 194 tsessebe was recorded. Male territories average 2 — 4 km ” in the Kruger National Park; the territories are patrolled regularly and marked with dung piles and foot and preorbital gland secretions. Territorial males kneel down to rub their preorbital glands along the ground or on termite mounds. Females also mark with their preorbital glands, and both sexes horn the soil. Territorial males perform “ static-optical displays, ” by standing on mounds, making themselves conspicuous for the benefit of other males and female herds and scanning for potential predators. They challenge trespassers by tossing their heads or bucking. Competing males wheel around each other, sometimes dropping to their knees and clashing horns or interlocking horns and pushing. Each female herd is permanently associated with a territorial male (in effect they are his harem), who herds them with his head raised, nose pointed forward, ears pinned back and pointing downward, goose-stepping. Young males are evicted from the territories as the rut approaches, and theyjoin bachelor groups.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA703C6FE85FC72F35F.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as D. lunatus lunatus). Western Tsessebe still occur in good numbers in the northern parts of their range and in Kruger National Park, but elsewhere in South Africa, Mozambique, and Swaziland, they became extinct by the early 20 " century. They have now been widely reintroduced over much of their former range.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA703C0F2A4F8FDF90E.taxon	materials_examined	Muku Muku Flats, 12 ° 21 ' S, 30 ° E. Southwest Bangweulu Flats.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA703C0F2A4F8FDF90E.taxon	discussion	This species is monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA703C0F2A4F8FDF90E.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Bangweulu district, NE Zambia and the bordering region of Katanga in SE DR Congo. The range is bounded to the N by the Chambeshi and Luapula rivers, and to the S by the Muchinga Escarpment.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA703C0F2A4F8FDF90E.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. There are no specific measurements available. Larger than its sister species, the Western Tsessebe (D. lunatus), and the horns are thicker and wider spread, with a broader pedicle. The horns grow symmetrically outward, with the tips curving inward, to form a sphere. The horns are slightly sexually dimorphic; horn length is 35.1 - 40 cm (males) and 30.4 - 39. 5 cm (females). Tip-to-tip distance is 22 - 23. 4 cm (males) and 20 - 33. 5 cm (females); horn span is 37.8 - 44. 6 cm (males) and 34.2 - 43 cm (females). Greatest skull length is 39 - 43. 5 cm in both sexes, and maxillary tooth row is 83: 9 - 105 - 3 mm (both sexes). The pelage color is chocolate brown, darker than the Western Tsessebe; the face blaze is black, the shoulder and haunch patches mostly dark blackish-gray. The ears are particularly dark.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA703C0F2A4F8FDF90E.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Like other large species of Damaliscus, the Bangweulu Tsessebe lives in edaphic grasslands.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA703C0F2A4F8FDF90E.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but presumably it is overwhelmingly a grass-feeder like other tsessebe.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA703C0F2A4F8FDF90E.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but it is mostlikely a seasonal breeder.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA703C0F2A4F8FDF90E.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There islittle specific information available for this species, but it is diurnal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA703C0F2A4F8FDF90E.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available forthis species, but it is most likely similar to Western Tsessebe in all of these aspects.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA703C0F2A4F8FDF90E.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as D. lunatus superstes). The Bangweulu Tsessebe appears to have become extinct in Katanga, and the range in Zambia has shrunk, but there are still good populations on the southern half of the Bangweulu Flats.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA806DDF955FD06FDC4.taxon	materials_examined	Bornu, northern Nigeria.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA806DDF955FD06FDC4.taxon	discussion	During the second half of the 20 " century, itwas customary to include this species and all those that follow as subspecies of D. lunatus, despite the conspicuous differences between the tsessebe and the East African species. Differences between members of the East African group are also consistent, although less conspicuous than between them and the tsessebe. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA806DDF955FD06FDC4.taxon	distribution	Distribution. From Burkina Faso and Ghana to E Chad and N Central African Republic; there also may be populations in W Sudan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA806DDF955FD06FDC4.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Few measurements available. Shoulder height 127 - 132 cm; weight 122 - 136 kg. The Korrigum is bright orange-bay. The legs from the knees and hocks to the hooves are cinnamon; the body is dark ashy-brown, which fades on the shoulders and haunches, taking the form of narrow reddish-gray patches suffused with an ashy sheen. There is a blackish-gray mid-facial blaze. The horns are very long and robust, with tips somewhat converging; the skull is relatively broad. Females have thinner horns than males, but are otherwise quite similar. Determining the sex in this and all the following species from only skulls depends strongly on contrasting the diameter of the horn bases with their span and the face length. With age, the horns in males wear down markedly, the tips becoming short and blunt.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA806DDF955FD06FDC4.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Like other large species of Damaliscus, the Korrigum lives in edaphic grassland habitats, usually below elevations of 1500 m. It inhabits medium grassland, up to kneehigh, usually preferring habitats with neighboring woodland where it can find shade during hot weather.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA806DDF955FD06FDC4.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Korrigum are almost entirely grass-eaters.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA806DDF955FD06FDC4.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Breeding is seasonal; calving occurs at the end of the dry season.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA806DDF955FD06FDC4.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but like most grazers it can be active both day and night. It tends to be more active during daylight hours when it is easier to spot predators.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA806DDF955FD06FDC4.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Korrigum migrate according to season between arid and savanna zones. During rut, males are territorial; females live in separate herds. Where territories are large, a herd tends to remain in a single area within a male’s territory, and is, in effect, the harem ofthe territory-holding male.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713991CFFA806DDF955FD06FDC4.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as D. lunatus korrigum). The range, which at one time extended from southern Mauritania and Senegal east to the Nile, contracted strongly during the 20 " century, and it is now limited to just a few areas in West Africa. Korrigum are most numerous in three areas. About 800 live in an area covering south-eastern Burkina Faso, northern Benin, and southwestern Niger known as the W-Arly-Pendjari complex after the three Protected Areas in these countries. The second area is a region from northern Cameroon, especially Waza National Park, where about 800 Korrigum live, and the Protected Areas complex south of Garoua, extending into Nigeria to the west and Chad to the east, with about 250. The largest group, about 3200 Korrigum, are in a large area crossing the Chad / Central African Republic border. There also may be populations in western Sudan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA8064DF999F8AEF35E.taxon	materials_examined	Upper Ruaha River, Tanzania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA8064DF999F8AEF35E.taxon	discussion	Formerly in the synonymy of D. jimela. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA8064DF999F8AEF35E.taxon	distribution	Distribution. SE Tanzania (Upper Ruaha / Lake Rukwa ecosystem). It is not known if there are any populations between this area and the Serengeti ecosystem where the Serengeti Topi (D. jimela) occurs.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA8064DF999F8AEF35E.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 195 - 223 cm (males) and 185 - 204 cm (females); tail c. 45 cm; weight 136 - 168 kg (males) and 120 - 139 kg (females). Size and color are as in the Uganda Topi (D. ugandae), but noticeably paler, bright reddish-bay in the posterior dorsal region. Skull characters of the Ruaha Topi are, in some respects, intermediate between the Serengeti Topi and the Uganda Topi, butit has very long, broad nasals.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA8064DF999F8AEF35E.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Like other large species of Damaliscus, the Ruaha Topi lives in edaphic grasslands. In the Rukwa Valley, it inhabits valley grasslands, extending into parklands and occasionally open woods, in periodically flooded country. Every 30 years or so, the lake dries up completely, extending the amount of open grassland.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA8064DF999F8AEF35E.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Grazes on floodplain grasses, following the flooding of Lake Rukwa. Favored grasses include Cynodon, Chloris, and Brachiaria, whose growth is stimulated by the trampling of rank herbage.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA8064DF999F8AEF35E.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Seasonal. Around Lake Rukwa, the number of Ruaha Topi on the lek fluctuates greatly according to the water level of the lake, down to 500 in a time of high water in 1950, but up to 6000 in 1961 during a relatively dry period. Calving occurs at the end of the dry season.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA8064DF999F8AEF35E.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Ruaha Topi move back and forth according to the fluctuations of Lake Rukwa. When the lake levelis high, the population is concentrated on two small areas of high ground; when the water level is so high that most of the traditional grazing areas are inundated, there is high mortality.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA8064DF999F8AEF35E.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The groups of Ruaha Topi spread out when the lake levels are low, feeding on new growth, and are concentrated on areas of high ground when the lake floods.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA8064DF999F8AEF35E.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (under D. korrigumjimela). Part of the habitat in the Lake Rukwa region is protected by the Katavi-Rukwa National Park and Rukwa Game Reserve. In 2004, there were on the order of 13,000 individuals in these regions. The numbers may have declined slightly over the previous six years, but poaching was not significant (unlike other large mammals in the ecosystem), and any decline may simply have been a result of predation.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA80374FD0CFD61F875.taxon	materials_examined	Sobat Valley, Sudan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA80374FD0CFD61F875.taxon	discussion	Formerly in the synonymy of D. korrigum. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA80374FD0CFD61F875.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Sudan, E of the Nile, extending into W Ethiopia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA80374FD0CFD61F875.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Few measurements available. Shoulder height 127 cm; weight 122 kg. Color reddish-bay suffused with a reddish-purple bloom. Legs bright cinnamon. Shoulder and haunch patches are ash-gray, with reddish tinge. Facial blaze is blackish-gray, with reddish tinge. In skull and horn characters, the Tiang is slightly more extreme than the Korrigum (D. korrigum), with somewhat more sexual dimorphism. The sexual size difference in the horns is greater in the Tiang than in other taxa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA80374FD0CFD61F875.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Like other large species of Damaliscus, the Tiang lives in edaphic grasslands.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA80374FD0CFD61F875.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. A grazer; in the Dinder National Park, Sudan, 98 % of the dry season diet is grass, only 2 % being forbs, with no shrub component. The favored grass species are Echinochloa, which are also favored by the sympatric Lake Chad Buffalo (Syncerus brachyceros), Defassa Waterbuck (Kobus defassa), and reedbucks (Redunca sp.), although there is much less overlap with the Roan Antelope (Hippotragus equinus) or the Sudan Oribi (OQurebia montana).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA80374FD0CFD61F875.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Seasonal; calving occurs at the end of the dry season, about the end of March. Gestation is about seven months.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA80374FD0CFD61F875.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA80374FD0CFD61F875.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Tiang migrate between arid and savanna zones. Annual migrations were recorded in March-April from Mongalla north toward the Sobat River.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA80374FD0CFD61F875.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as D. lunatus tiang). In 2007, as many as 160,000 Tiang were reported in southern Sudan, east of the White Nile, centered on Boma National Park.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA80375F7BFF70AFA4F.taxon	materials_examined	Southwestern Ankole, Uganda.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA80375F7BFF70AFA4F.taxon	discussion	Formerly in the synonymy of D. jimela. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA80375F7BFF70AFA4F.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Ankole region of SW Uganda, extending to Rutshuru Plains in DR Congo and to the Akagera National Park, Rwanda.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA80375F7BFF70AFA4F.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Few measurements available. Total length 240 - 268 cm (males) and 230 - 249 cm (females); weight 136 - 168 kg (males) and 120 - 139 kg (females). Relatively smaller than the Korrigum (D. korrigum) and the Tiang (D. tiang) and, like them, comparatively broad-skulled and with relatively long spreading horns, but the horns are considerably less robust. Sexual dimorphism is relatively great, second only to the now extinct Uasin Gishu (D. seloust). The pelage color of the Uganda Topi is much darker than in Korrigum and Tiang, maroon suffused with an ashy sheen. The legs are deeper cinnamon below the knees and hocks; their upper halves are blue-black. The shoulder and haunch patches are larger and are steel-gray. The facial blaze is blue-black. There is a big difference in horn length between the northern and southern species in the East African species group. The more southerly species from East Africa are well distinguished from one another and from the northern species. The Uganda Topi is wider across the zygomatic arches, and has longer, more spreading horns than the Serengeti Topi (D. jimela).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA80375F7BFF70AFA4F.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Like other large species of Damaliscus, this species lives in edaphic grasslands, but this and the extinct Uasin Gishu Topi are the only topi to live in rolling uplands.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA80375F7BFF70AFA4F.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Uganda Topi eats almost entirely grass, avoiding very short grass, and eating very few forbs.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA80375F7BFF70AFA4F.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There are apparently two calving peaks in the year, unlike other species of the genus, but mating takes place sporadically throughout the year as female groups happen to move through high-density territory areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA80375F7BFF70AFA4F.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Females move across the landscape in high concentrations, whereas males are clustered into territorial grounds known as leks.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA80375F7BFF70AFA4F.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Ishasha population of Uganda Topi, in the Queen Elizabeth National Park, lives at high density (up to 47 ind / km?), and moves across the plains in concentrations of up to 2000 individuals, the males establishing territories whenever they settle down for a few hours or days. Territorial males are as close as 50 m apart. In Akagera National Park, the territorial grounds (leks) are not so haphazard, but are seasonal, in large open plains; 100 males can be spaced from as much as 250 m apart on the periphery to 25 m apart near the center. Some individual males reclaim the same territory each year for two to three years in a row. Central territories get so overused that their occupants have to leave them to graze, which they do very hurriedly before returning. Females and young live in herds of 200 - 300, even up to 1000, moving around the lek accompanied by hundreds of bachelor males; most females enter the lek individually or in small groups when in estrus, and they compete with each other fiercely for the attention of the highest quality males. Late in the rains, after the breeding season, all members of the local population migrate together to a dry season range. In Akagera National Park, Rwanda, during the 1970 s, males in the south defended large resource-based territories, whereas those in the north defended tiny resource-poor mating territories on leks. By the late 1980 s the pattern in the north had changed, and had also become that of resource-defense territories. The males that had earlier held territories in the lek were heavier than the resource-defenders (average weight 159 - 3 kg vs. 145 - 5 kg), presumably related to the decreased intensity of competition that they were now experiencing.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA80375F7BFF70AFA4F.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under D. korrigumjimela). In the late 1970 s there were nearly 5000 Uganda Topi in Queen Elizabeth National Park, and although subsequently depleted by poaching, the population has recovered. The population in Akagera National Park, Rwanda, has also recovered from poaching during the civil war in the 1990 s. The status in the DR Congo is unknown.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA9064DF2A5F635FB37.taxon	materials_examined	Unyamwesi, south-east of Lake Victoria, Tanzania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA9064DF2A5F635FB37.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered a subspecies of D. korrigum. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA9064DF2A5F635FB37.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Restricted to the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem in S Kenya and N Tanzania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA9064DF2A5F635FB37.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Few measurements available. Shoulder height 104 - 126 cm (males) and 105 - 118 cm (females); weight 111 - 147 kg (males) and 90 - 130 kg (females). Slightly smaller than the Uganda Topi (D. ugandae) and the Ruaha Topi (D. eurus). The color is not unlike the Coastal Topi (D. topi), but the purplish shoulder patches are larger, and both shoulder and haunch patches are more clearly set off from the body color. The horns are shorter and less robust than in other species, with not very divergenttips; the skull is relatively narrow. The preorbital glands are naked and prominent in both sexes, and their secretion is colorless. The Serengeti Topi is clearly distinct from its northern relatives, the Korrigum (D. korrigum) and the Tiang (D. tiang); it has shorter, less robust horns, with much less divergent tips, and the skull is smaller, with a shorter palate, and is slightly narrower across the zygomatic arches. Compared to the other inland East African species, the extinct Uasin Gishu Topi (D. seloust), the Uganda Topi, and the Ruaha Topi, the skull is somewhat smaller and is noticeably narrower, but with broad nasal bones, and the horns are very much shorter, more slender, and less divergent.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA9064DF2A5F635FB37.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Lives in edaphic grasslands, from wide treeless plains to lightly wooded bush and tree savanna, preferring habitat with medium-length grasses, up to knee height. The Serengeti Topi are abundant where green pastures persist through the dry season, especially around lakes and on floodplains. They frequent areas with termite mounds, which are used by males, females, and young to survey the area.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA9064DF2A5F635FB37.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Food is almost entirely green grass; the topi’s long narrow snout and mobile lips enable it to select green blades and avoid mature leaves and stems. They do not graze in very short grass areas and very mature pastures. Food intake is relatively high, and they seem slightly less efficient and less selective than hartebeest. Stable isotope analysis of dental enamel confirms a 100 % grass diet.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA9064DF2A5F635FB37.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The breeding system in this species is one of leks. The Serengeti Topi has not only “ classical leks ” but also “ exploded leks, ” in which the degree of aggregation is less spectacular than in the classical case. A territory within the lek will be owned by a male for a year or more, and females move through it in a herd. Larger males tend to be the owners of the territories toward the center of the lek, and estrous females have a marked preference for mating with central males; in the central areas of the lek, females compete fiercely with each other for matings, and dominant females attempt to drive off subordinate ones and interfere with their matings. Like most topi, the male displays to the female with a rocking, high-stepping canter, with his ears pointing downward; this high stepping seems to emphasise the contrast between the purpletoned upper legs and shoulders and the pale lower legs. The gait slows as he approaches the female, with his tail raised; he lifts each foreleg exaggeratedly at the carpus with each stride. There is no urine-testing as such, but the male sniffs the female’s rear end and bleats, and the female rapidly wags her tail and runs a short distance. The male follows her in low-stretch posture, bleating all the while; when she stops, he stops, and he lifts his head up, walks forward and mounts. Breeding is seasonal; calving occurs at the end of the dry season. Calves remain hidden, at least at night. Calves become independent by a year of age, and sometimes as soon as eight months. The males then join a bachelor herd, which may also contain year-old females. Females usually reach adult size in their second year, then start to breed. Males do not reach their adult weight until the third year, and do not become territorial until at least four years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA9064DF2A5F635FB37.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Serengeti Topi feed in the morning until 08: 00 - 09: 00 h, and in the afternoon from about 16: 00 h until dusk. In the dry season, they drink sporadically during the day. Females usually travel along the margins of the males’ territories, even though predators may lurk in these areas. In resting, they may lie on the ground with the muzzle supporting the head, or, especially in male groups, stand in parallel rows, nodding to one another. Preorbital-gland marking, and, especially, ground-horning and mud-packing, occur in both sexes; a grass stem is inserted into the preorbital gland and jiggled to cover it with secretion, then the stem is wiped on the forehead and horns, transferring the secretion to them. In mud-packing, mud and soil are rubbed on the horns and then smeared on the back and chest. The horns become heavily caked with mud after rain. Males, especially, are alertfor trespassers (detected by surveying from their termite mounds), and warn others with snorts, and they threaten and even chase jackals and hyenas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA9064DF2A5F635FB37.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. In patches of grasslands in woodland habitat, the Serengeti Topilives in sedentary-dispersed mode. The males’ territory size is 0 - 5 — 4 km? and may or may not have common borders; females may stay within a male’s territory for as long as three years, so the territorial male in essence has a harem. The females try to prevent outsiders from entering the territory and becoming part of the harem, although a few outside females may sometimes succeed in joining it. Harem males are vigilant on behalf of females and young, and may threaten predators that come too close. When the dominant bull is absent from the territory, the dominant female may make a high-stepping display to try to intimidate potential invaders. Termite mounds are used by territorial males to advertise and by females and young for surveillance.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139913FFA9064DF2A5F635FB37.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as D. lunatus jimela). There are some 55,000 in the Serengeti National Park and 33,000 in its Kenya extension, the Masai Mara National Reserve.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139912FFA906D0FB7DF8E2F596.taxon	materials_examined	Near Malindi, Kenya.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139912FFA906D0FB7DF8E2F596.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered a subspecies of D. korrigum. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139912FFA906D0FB7DF8E2F596.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Coastal East Africa, from the Shebelle River in Juba region of Somalia S at least to Malindi, Kenya. The range is isolated from that of other taxa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139912FFA906D0FB7DF8E2F596.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 200 cm, tail 43 cm, ear 19 - 5 cm, hindfoot 51 cm; weight 110 - 130 kg. Color is darker and richer than in other species, heavily suffused with a mauve bloom, and becoming paler on the belly. The facial blaze is blackish-gray, with a reddish tinge, and sprinkled with white hairs. Although it is much smaller than the other species, the horns are longer than in other East African topi; they are slender and bend backward very slightly. The horns of males and females hardly differ, but the tips are closer together in females. However, in size, the sexual dimorphism is greater than in the other East African Damaliscus species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139912FFA906D0FB7DF8E2F596.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Coastal Topilives in floodplain grasslands of Kenya and Somalia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139912FFA906D0FB7DF8E2F596.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but all topi are grazers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139912FFA906D0FB7DF8E2F596.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Apparently breeding is year-round, not seasonal as in most species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139912FFA906D0FB7DF8E2F596.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Appear to emerge from cover at dawn to graze, retire to light woodland in the middle of the day, and reemerge toward dusk.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139912FFA906D0FB7DF8E2F596.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, but itis probably like other topi. Males tend to be solitary and female groups cross their territories.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139912FFA906D0FB7DF8E2F596.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red Last (as D. lunatus topr). In the 1990 s there were estimated to be 83,000 on the Kenya coast, and smaller populations probably remain in southern Somalia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139917FFAC0377FE20F7CFFE7C.taxon	materials_examined	Cape of Good Hope. Restricted by P. Grubb in 1999 to Agterbruintjieshoogte, Somerset East district.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139917FFAC0377FE20F7CFFE7C.taxon	discussion	This species is monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139917FFAC0377FE20F7CFFE7C.taxon	distribution	Distribution. South Africa, Lesotho, and Swaziland.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139917FFAC0377FE20F7CFFE7C.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 170 - 220 cm, tail 80 - 100 cm, shoulder height 111 - 121 cm (males) and 106 - 116 cm (females); weight 126 - 161 kg (males) and 110 - 130 kg (females). The horn bases are expanded, flattened, and angled forward; the horns turn outward and then forward. The pelage is dark brown to black in winter, somewhat paler in summer; the tail is white. The mane, which stands erect, is long and bushy; its hairs are pale at base and black toward the tips. The beard is long and dark, and there is a mane from brisket nearly to belly. Old males become almost black. Juveniles have shaggy, fawn-colored coats; the horns rise straight up, and start to curve at nine months. The back slopes from the shoulders to the hindquarters. The midface, from the level of the eyes forward, has a brush of long hair that divides into two at nostril level. Diploid chromosome number is 58; the X-chromosome is large and acrocentric and the Y-chromosome is small and acrocentric. On the basis of mtDNA, a divergence date between the Black Wildebeest and the Blue Wildebeest (C. taurinus) of somewhat over one million years ago has been calculated, assuming a divergence rate of 2 % per million years. Wildebeest are quite different in appearance and posture from other genera of the tribe; the head is large and held low, and the nose is convex, with a brush of short, stiff hair, and huge valvular nostrils. The horns are thickened and expanded at the base, and oriented either sideways or forward, curved downward and then up, not upright like other genera.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139917FFAC0377FE20F7CFFE7C.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Black Wildebeest is at home in temperate grasslands.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139917FFAC0377FE20F7CFFE7C.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Mostly a grazer, but does a lot of browsing during the cold months; one three-month study found 63 % grass and 37 % karroid shrubs in its diet. It has recently been claimed that the yearlong diet is as much as 90 % grass, especially Sporobolus species, Themeda triandra, and Cynodon dactylon. Stable isotope analysis of dental enamel corroborates this and indicates a diet consisting of 94 % grass.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139917FFAC0377FE20F7CFFE7C.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The onset of breeding seems to be influenced by shortening daylength; it mainly occurs in March-April, but continues until July. A cow solicits a bull with tailswishing across his face; the tail is held up during mating. Gestation is 8 - 5 months. Calving occurs in November — January. The female remains with the herd for calving; just before the birth, she starts to become restless, repeatedly lying down and getting up. Calves can stand after nine minutes, and mothers and their young calves form a kind of creche. Calves start to graze at one month, but are not fully weaned until 6 - 9 months; they stay with their mothers until the next calf is born, or until a bull drives them away. Males mature in three years, and first try to become territorial at four. Most females conceive first at 16 months.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139917FFAC0377FE20F7CFFE7C.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. In summer, the Black Wildebeestis active in early morning and late afternoon, and even before dawn and after sunset. In winter, it may be active for most of the day. When disturbed, members of the herd start bucking, head-tossing, and snorting, then gallop off, and suddenly whirl around, seemingly to investigate the cause of the disturbance.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139917FFAC0377FE20F7CFFE7C.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Female herds average 11 - 32 in most populations, and are larger in high-density populations. The herds have a hierarchy, which is maintained by head-nodding and head-shaking. Home ranges average 100 ha in the well-provided Willem Pretorius Game Reserve, but are larger where the range is poorer. Male territories are large, the males being spaced apart by 180 m up to 1 km, but are clustered across the landscape. Mostterritories are occupied year-round. The territorial call is a kind of hiccup, the male jerking his head up with each hic. The territorial males challenge each other with tail-swishing and head-shaking, and chase females and young while performing the nodding display, a movement that probably indicates intent to stab. Bachelor herds, whose members are unaggressive toward each other, sometimes join the female herds when there is less territoriality among solitary males. Territories are marked with feces (defecation is preceded by pawing, urinating, preorbital gland and hoof-gland marking, by vocalising (“ ge-nu ”) and by a conspicuous stance (static-optical marking). Territorial males canter stiff-legged and gallop with their heads moving up and down, tails lashing, sometimes kicking out with their hindlegs. Males in general threaten other males by kneeling, horning the ground, and sometimes rolling, along with vocalizations and marking. Female herds wander over the territories; during the rut, the territorial males herd them tightly, and the bachelor males try to harass them.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139917FFAC0377FE20F7CFFE7C.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Formerly found throughout the Highveld, moving on to the Karroo during the rains, as far north as North West Province and south-east to KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The species was widely shot out during the 19 " century, and its numbers reduced to about 600 or less; it became protected on two farms in the Free State, South Africa, and recovered well. By 1996, the number had increased to over 10,600. Currently the population is scattered on numerous small private farms.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139917FFAD064FFDC9FEF8FAB3.taxon	materials_examined	Restricted by Roberts in 1951 to Makuba Range, Henningvlei Nature Reserve, between Kuruman and Molopo rivers, Northern Cape, South Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139917FFAD064FFDC9FEF8FAB3.taxon	discussion	Johnston’s Wildebeest (C. johnstoni), the Eastern White-bearded Wildebeest (C. albojubatus), and the Serengeti Whitebearded Wildebeest (C. mearnsi) have usually been considered to be subspecies of C. taurinus, but they are consistently different in external appearance, in measurements, and in mtDNA. This species is considered monotypic here.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139917FFAD064FFDC9FEF8FAB3.taxon	distribution	Distribution. SW Zambia, SW Angola, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, S Mozambique, N & E South Africa, and Swaziland. The Blue Wildebeest did not generally extend south of the Orange River, although a stray was recorded in the Britstown district in 1843.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139917FFAD064FFDC9FEF8FAB3.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Few measurements available. Shoulder height 141 - 156 cm (males) and 129 - 144 cm (females), ear 19 - 225 cm (males) and 17.4 - 21 cm (females); weight 232 - 295 kg (males) and 164 - 216 kg (females). The back slopes from shoulderto hindquarters, even more so than in the Black Wildebeest (C. gnou). The head is elongated and very broad at the nostrils. The chin has a black beard, which becomes short under the jaw, and continues down the throat as a fringe of long black hair. The mane along the midline of the upperside of the neck is black and is erect. The body color is dark blue-gray with a tinge of brown and a silvery sheen. The lower segments of the limbs are tan-colored. On the neck and shoulders, extending to about the middle of the body, there is a series of short black stripes, which gave the species the other common name “ Brindled Gnu. ” The tail has a long, almost horse-like tuft. In adult males, the face is black from crown to nostrils, often with a reddish tinge on the forehead; the sides of the face are a paler gray than body and are also often slightly reddish-tinged. Females and juveniles are more brownish in color and more reddish on the forehead, and this color may extend to between the eyes. Infants are fawn-colored, with a dark face and a dark dorsal stripe. The horns arise from swollen bosses and go out and somewhat down, then rise up. The tips curve inward and often slightly backward; in females, they are slenderer than in males. The downward curve of the horns in the male is quite variable, but can be considerable, so thatif the cranium is balanced on a flat surface, it may partly rest on the horns. Horn buds appear at three months, initially pointing straight up. They begin to curve outward at eight months. The horn bosses do not develop until about two years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139917FFAD064FFDC9FEF8FAB3.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Associated particularly with savanna woodland areas, especially Acacia savanna, with plenty of shade and water. Blue Wildebeest tend to move toward short-grass areas on riverbanks in the dry season.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139917FFAD064FFDC9FEF8FAB3.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Blue Wildebeest need to drink every day. They are grazers, preferring short, green grasses less than 100 - 150 mm high, which are especially found growing on burnt areas or after rain. In northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, 90 % of the diet is grass. In the wet season, Blue Wildebeest eat Panicum spp. and Digitaria argyrograpta in the valleys and Themeda triandra on the hill slopes; they switch in the dry season to couch grass (Cynodon dactylon).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139917FFAD064FFDC9FEF8FAB3.taxon	breeding	Breeding. In Kruger National Park, South Africa, rut is between April and early June; in KwaZulu-Natal, it is bimodal, peaking in April and with a lesser peak in August. Estrous females move between territories and mate several times with different territorial males. Gestation is 250 days; a female separates herself from the herd, but the calves are extremely precocial — they stand within five minutes, and can keep up with the herd. They are very playful. They start to eat grass within 14 days, but continue to suckle for about eight months. Young males join bachelor herds at about two years. Females produce theirfirst calf at just over two years of age.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139917FFAD064FFDC9FEF8FAB3.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Over 50 % of the total time is spent resting, either lying down or standing, and 33 % grazing. On moonlit nights they feed as during the day, but rest more and move around less. Shortly after dawn, they move to their day pastures, and during the heat of the day, they move to and from water. They feed more when the weatheris cool, but some continue feeding even in very hot temperatures. Bulls move more, and graze less, than females and young. In mixed herds, they graze less and move more than in all-male herds. They frequently roll in mud to keep cool.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139917FFAD064FFDC9FEF8FAB3.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Groupings consist of territorial males, female herds, and bachelor groups. Males’ territories are up to 30 m in diameter. In many places territories are held year-round, even though in the migratory populations the female herds may have gone elsewhere. Blue Wildebeest may migrate in many areas, such as Kruger National Park, but really spectacular mass migrations occur in Botswana, to and from the Makgadikgadi Pan. These are not regular annual migrations, but are undertaken when habitat quality decreases. Adult males are permanently territorial in Kruger National Park, but in dry areas such as Kgalagadi they join bachelor herds during the dry season. During rut, there are constant interactions between bachelor herds and territorial males. Territorial males mark the territory by kneeling and rubbing their preorbital glands on the ground or on bushes or tree trunks, and the bulls fight by dropping onto their knees and clashing their heads together, in much the same fashion as hartebeest and topi. The shock is taken on the horn bosses rather than on the forehead and horn bases. Threats are made by holding the head horizontally and advancing with a sort of a rocking-horse canter. The territorial male herds females with a lowered head, swishing his tail and circling around them; he may even display by rising on his hindlegs for some moments. The sizes of the herds average 34 in Etosha National Park, Namibia, but less, 13 - 15, in other places where they have been studied, including Pilanesberg Game Reserve, KwaZulu-Natal, and Kruger National Park; they occupy home ranges up to about 2 - 5 km? *. The preorbital glands are active in females as well as in males, and the tar-like smell of the secretion is noticable around large herds.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139917FFAD064FFDC9FEF8FAB3.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are some 4000 - 5000 in Etosha National Park, perhaps 14,000 in Gorongosa National Park, Mozambique, somewhat over 3000 in Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Game Reserve, South Africa, and large numbers elsewhere. The most recent estimate for the whole population size is about 130,000. In the Kalahari, large numbers die during droughts, and their range is now constrained by border fences and veterinary fences.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAD03C2F3BDF880F870.taxon	materials_examined	Athi Plains, Kenya.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAD03C2F3BDF880F870.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered a subspecies of C. taurinus. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAD03C2F3BDF880F870.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S Kenya (Athi-Kapiti Plains), S into Tanzania and W to the N shores of Lake Tanganyika.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAD03C2F3BDF880F870.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 195 cm, tail 60 cm, ear 22 cm, hindfoot 56 cm; weight 275 kg. The horns are not strongly downcurved, and when a skull is placed on a flat surface, the minimum distance to the downward curve of the horns is 6 cm. The general body color is pale grayish, frequently darker on the foreparts; the “ brindled ” striping is subdued. The beard and throat fringe are creamy white with black hairs intermixed, although very occasionally individuals with all-black fringes are seen. The mane does not stand erect, as in the southern African wildebeest species, but hangs limp.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAD03C2F3BDF880F870.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. In Amboseli National Park, the Eastern White-bearded Wildebeest lives in alkaline, seasonally flooded grasslands with swamps and wooded bushland. Farther north, the population that moves between the Nairobi National Park and the Athi-Kapiti Plains lives on more productive grasslands.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAD03C2F3BDF880F870.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. This speciesis a grazer; in Amboseli National Park it concentrates on Cynodon dactylon, which it uses with great efficiency. On the less arid Athi-Kapiti Plains, however, 63 % (in the wet season) and 57 % (in the dry season) of the diet is made up in approximately equal proportions of Themeda triandra, Digitaria macroblephara, and Pennisetum mezianum, its diet overlapping by 80 % or more with the diets of sympatric Kongoni (Alcelaphus cokii) and with cattle. In the dry season Cynodon composes 6 - 12 % of the diet, considerably more than cattle and usually more than A. cok.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAD03C2F3BDF880F870.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably like that of the Serengeti White-bearded Wildebeest (C. mearnsi).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAD03C2F3BDF880F870.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There are three main migrations: from Nairobi National Park in the dry season to the Athi-Kapiti Plains in the wet season; from Amboseli National Park in the dry season south across the Tanzanian border to the Rift Valley between Lakes Netron and Magadi in the wet season; and from Tarangire and Lake Manyara in the dry season eastwards to the Simanjiro Plains in the wet season.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAD03C2F3BDF880F870.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The area available to the Eastern White-bearded Wildebeest in the Amboseli Basin is reduced at the peak of the dry season, and at that time wildebeest are somewhat restricted by domestic cattle, with which they compete, so they are concentrated on grasslands dominated by Cynodon and in swamp vegetation. By the end of the dry season, over half the males and over 80 % of the females are judged to be in poor condition.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAD03C2F3BDF880F870.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under C. taurinus). In Tanzania, there are certainly some 24,000 in Tarangire National Park, as well as some hundreds in the Lake Manyara region, and the migratory Amboseli population of about 8000 moves back and forth across the border with Kenya. Within Kenya, a population of up to 20,000 migrates between Nairobi National Park and the Athi-Kapiti Plains.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAD03C6FAFAFBB3F473.taxon	materials_examined	Mlanje Plain, southern end of Lake Chilwa, Malawi.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAD03C6FAFAFBB3F473.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered a subspecies of C. taurinus. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAD03C6FAFAFBB3F473.taxon	distribution	Distribution. SE Tanzania, N Mozambique, and Zambia (E of the Muchinga Escarpment); formerly Malawi.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAD03C6FAFAFBB3F473.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Few measurements available. Shoulder height 138 cm; weight 274 kg. The mane stands up as it does in the Blue Wildebeest (C. taurinus), and like the latterit has a very wide horn span in the male, but otherwise is rather different in appearance. The horns do not curve so far downward, and the skull never rests on the horns when placed on a flat surface. The horn span in the female is much shorter than in the Blue Wildebeest. The pelage is pale gray, with a brownish tinge, the legs are pale, and the tail is short. The type specimen had a white band across the face in front of the eyes, but this turns out to be not a very consistent character of the species. In fact, it is rare in surviving populations. Johnston's Wildebeest has characteristically long nasal bones.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAD03C6FAFAFBB3F473.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Savanna, interspersed with Miombo woodland.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAD03C6FAFAFBB3F473.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but it is certainly predominantly a grazer.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAD03C6FAFAFBB3F473.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The rut is in March-April, and at this time the number of territorial males increases greatly. Young males are expelled from the breeding herds in August-September, two months before calving begins.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAD03C6FAFAFBB3F473.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely to be similar to that of the Blue Wildebeest. Most wildebeest feed off and on throughout the day and night, depending on the season and availability of forage.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAD03C6FAFAFBB3F473.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. In the eastern Selous Game Reserve, group size fluctuates markedly according to season. It averages about nine individuals at the height of the dry season in October-November, rises rapidly to 20 at the peak of the rains in February, and diminishes gradually toward autumn.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAD03C6FAFAFBB3F473.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under C. taurinus). Johnston’s Wildebeest is extinct in Malawi and endangered in Mozambique, butit still occurs in good numbers elsewhere. There are said to be 5000 - 6000 in the Luangwa Valley, at the foot of the Muchinga Escarpment, Zambia, and in south-eastern Tanzania: 12,500 in Mikumi National Park and 65 - 70,000 in the eastern part of the Selous Game Reserve.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAE06DFF7BBF8EAFAB7.taxon	materials_examined	Loita Plains, southwestern Kenya.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAE06DFF7BBF8EAFAB7.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered a subspecies of C. taurinus. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAE06DFF7BBF8EAFAB7.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Restricted to the Serengeti — Mara ecosystem in S Kenya and N Tanzania, within which the bulk of the population migrates N and S seasonally.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAE06DFF7BBF8EAFAB7.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Few measurements available. Shoulder height 100 - 123 cm (males) and 117 cm (females); weight 171 - 242 kg (males) and 141 - 186 kg (females). This is a small and dark species, with darker legs that contrast less with the general body color. Individuals tend to be blackish on the chest and flanks. It has a noticeably longer tail than other species of “ Brindled Gnus ” (the C. taurinus group). As in the Eastern White-bearded Wildebeest (C. albojubatus), the mane hangs limp. The horns do not have such a wide spread, and the tips do not turn inward as much as in the other species in this group, but they have a more pronounced basal boss. When a skull is placed on a flat surface, the minimum distance of the downward curve of the horns above the surface is 6 cm. The vocalizations, particularly of the territorial males, are different from those of other species of wildebeest, being described as “ throatier, more sustained ” with “ a less metallic timbre ” by R. D. Estes, who said that the call “ when voiced by thousands of bulls (especially during rut) resounds like a chorus of immense frogs. ”	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAE06DFF7BBF8EAFAB7.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Populations of the Serengeti White-bearded Wildebeest inhabit short-grass plains, never too far from water, and migrate when growth stops in the dry season.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAE06DFF7BBF8EAFAB7.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. They are completely grazers, although less selective of leaf than sympatric hartebeest. Stable isotope analysis indicates that this species subsists 100 % on grass, whereas the figure for the Blue Wildebeest (C. taurinus) is about 90 %. A large fraction of the diet is Themeda triandra.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAE06DFF7BBF8EAFAB7.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Rutting occurs at the end of the rains, when all males and females are in good condition. Conception rate is more than 95 %. The rut occurs during migration, and males fight, each trying to collect females into his tiny territory. There is no ritualization of behavior — they simply run at any invaders and ram them, occasionally even breaking a horn while doing so. They may also fight when the populations are sedentary, when the pastures are regrowing after rain. A male will approach a herd with a rocking canter and try to round it up. If a female is in estrus, he makes a lowstretch display and urinates. A cow in estrus holds her tail to one side, and may solicit copulation by rubbing her head on the male’s body and sniffing his penis; the male may rise to his hindlegs to try to mate if a female does not stand still. Curiously, while a male in the vicinity of estrous females is indulging in all this frenzied activity and calling, nearby males simply rest or graze. These behaviors occur at any time, but calling, herding, and fighting increase toward the time of the rut, and males may even begin frothing at the mouth. Even bachelor males call continuously, like the territorial males, as the migrating females pass. The birth period lasts only three weeks, starting up to about a month before the period of the most reliable rains. Gestation is 8 - 8 - 5 months. Immediately after giving birth, the mother turns and starts to lick the calf. Calves stand within six minutes and suckle immediately. Mothers with new calves come together in nursery herds, thus offering protection, but a female rejects all calves but her own, which she recognises by scent. The newborn has a tan-colored coat, which is replaced after two months. Sexual maturity can occur at about 16 months if the calf is very well nourished, but usually occurs a year after this. Males more than about a year old live in bachelor herds, having been driven out of their natal herds by territorial males. Males become territorial at 4 - 5 years of age.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAE06DFF7BBF8EAFAB7.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Territorial bulls are active and vocal. Every day, they interact aggressively with their neighbors, the rituals including tail-swishing, head-shaking, pawing the ground, horning the ground, urinating and urine-testing, and displacement grazing, during which two males move counterparallel to each other. There may also be bluff attacks, with two males dropping to their knees and briefly clashing horns with each other. Territorial males are extraordinarily noisy, calling all the time.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAE06DFF7BBF8EAFAB7.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. When the populations are sedentary, they live in small herds averaging eight females and calves, with home ranges of a few hectares, overlapping with 4 - 5 males’ territories. Herd composition is stable unless their home ranges are too close together. Within a herd, the females have a dominance hierarchy; the dominant female will rub her face on a subordinate’s rump or shoulder, and sometimes chase her, or even jab her with a horn. No appeasement behavior seems to be displayed by either male or female; a subordinate merely moves away. The males’ territories average about 1 ha, and are maintained even outside the three-week rut; only one-third to one-half of the adult males hold territories. When the dry season begins, the usable pastures are reduced to small pockets, and the herds joined together into a huge aggregation. This is when they begin their long-distance movements, seeking new grazing. They head north toward the Mara River, or toward distant thunderstorms that will stimulate new pasture growth. Not all individuals migrate; a few remain on the same pastures year-round. Males join the migrations, but continue to maintain their interindividual spacing, and they interact very little. Each time the migrating herd stops moving, the males set up tiny territories averaging only 0 - 3 ha.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139916FFAE06DFF7BBF8EAFAB7.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under C. taurinus). The number of Serengeti White-bearded Wildebeest on the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem has increased enormously over time, from about 100,000 in the 1950 s to an estimated 500,000 in 1970 and 1 - 3 million in 1977; since then, the population has stabilized at 1 - 1 - 5 million, fluctuating across good and bad years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992BFF910374FE73FD6BF969.taxon	materials_examined	Tingri Maidan, Tibet.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992BFF910374FE73FD6BF969.taxon	discussion	Molecular and morphological studies align the Chiru most closely with Caprinae, but in the past, it has been classified alone in a tribe Pantholopini or with saigas (Saiga spp.) in a tribe Saigini because of unique behavioral and morphological characteristics. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992BFF910374FE73FD6BF969.taxon	distribution	Distribution. The Chiru is endemic to the Tibetan Plateau in the Chinese provinces of Xinjiang, Qinghai, and Xizang; it also occurs in very small numbers in the Ladakh district of NW India, mainly during summer.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992BFF910374FE73FD6BF969.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 100 - 140 cm, tail 13 - 14 cm, shoulder height 79 - 94 cm; weight 24 - 42 kg. Sexes of the Chiru are distinguished by the larger mass of males and male-only, slender, long, lyre-shaped black horns with circular rings toward their base; the tips are rapier-like. The horns are remarkably uniform in length, usually measuring 54 - 60 cm; horns longer than 70 cm are extreme. The circumference at the base of the horn averages 12 cm. The greatest variation is in the tip-to-tip span, which ranges from 19 cm to 46 cm. Horns have no age rings, and there is no evidence that they continue to grow after males reach adulthood at about four years of age. In profile, the upright and often symmetrical horns on adult male Chirus led to early descriptions like “ Unicorn of the ancient Persians. ” The Chiru is somewhat chunky with slender legs. It lacks preorbital glands and pedal glands, but does have large inguinal glands, developed to fist size in males. The pelage is dense and woolly, and the undercoatis very fine. Color is pale fawn with pink to red to brown hints dorsally, fading to a whitish belly. As rut approaches, males older than 3 - 5 years attain a striking whitish nuptial pelage that contrasts with an almost black face. The muzzle of the Chiru is conspicuously swollen by walnut-sized lateral nasal chambers, more so in males. The coloration of muzzle swelling in males varies from grayish-brown in Xizang and Qinghai, to white in Xinjiang, providing a sharp contrast to the black face. Legs are grayish, and males have black stripes running down the front of all four legs that are particularly obvious during rut. Neither sex has a distinct rump patch. The ears are short, somewhat pointed, and white on the back. The tail is short and not tufted, and colored like the rump and back. Dental formula is 0 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 2 / 2, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 28, reduced because of the absence of an upper and lower premolar. The missing pair of premolars in the Chiru is similar to that in saigas, which lack the anterior lower premolars; loss of such dentition is probably related to diet. Canines are incisoriform, and the upper molars have pronounced external folds; the lobes are concave between and almost without medial ribs. The deciduous teeth are replaced first, with permanent incisors and third molars beginning to appear at about twelve months of age, and full permanent dentition at 28 - 30 months. After 2 - 5 years, the age of a Chiru can be determined only by general wear in the center of molar cusps, which begins on the first molar and progresses to the third molar as an individual ages. Aging by counts of cementum annuli has not been satisfactory.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992BFF910374FE73FD6BF969.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Chirus inhabit alpine and desert steppe with flat to rolling terrain in about 800,000 km? of the Tibetan Plateau at elevations of 3250 - 5500 m. Such habitats are typified by sparse vegetative cover (c. 10 - 15 %) and low primary productivity (80 - 160 kg / ha dry matter). Chirus occur infrequently in mountainous terrain.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992BFF910374FE73FD6BF969.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Chiru is a mixed feeder, seasonally eating grasses, sedges, forbs, and select parts of dwarf woody plants, although dietary diversity is constrained substantially by limited forage availability and diversity on the Tibetan Plateau and by local variation. Overall, grasses and sedges represent 33 - 66 % of the diet, being most abundant in winter diets when Chirus dig through snow to obtain forage. Seasonally, the grass Stipa is important in winter, the sedge Kobresia is eaten most often in alpine meadows and steppe habitats in summer, and the dwarf shrub Ceratoides compacta is eaten most often in desert steppe and less so in alpine steppe. In Chang Tang National Nature Reserve, Xizang, annual percent use of various plants is graminoids: Stipa, 3 - 7 - 47 - 3 %; Kobresia, 1 - 1 - 33 - 1 %; Carex mooreroftiz, 0 - 5 — - 22 - 8 %; herbaceous plants: Potentilla bifurca, 0 - 3 - 31 - 1 %, Leontopodium, 0 - 2 — 11 - 9 %; and dwarf shrubs: Ceratoides compacta, 0 - 2 — 63 - 5 %, Ajaniafruticulosa, 212 %. Summerdiets of spatially segregated male and female Chirus in Yeniugou, Qinghai, are somewhat different. There, males select Kobresia and forbs, and females select forbs, notably Potentilla, and avoid grasses and sedges. On calving grounds in desert steppe in the western Kunlun Mountains of Xinjiang, ruminal contents of adult females had 57 % C. compacta and 43 % grasses and sedges.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992BFF910374FE73FD6BF969.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The breeding season of the Chiru occurs in November-December, and a single young is born in late June — early July after a gestation of about 6 - 6 - 5 months. Age at sexual maturity is not clearly understood but, as in other ungulates of comparable size, it probably occurs at 1 - 5 - 2 - 5 years of age. Male hierarchy is not based on age, because males attain maximum size and horn length at about four years of age. Mature males are not territorial, but they form harems of up to about twelve females. Observations of the number of females per harem in Chang Tang National Nature Reserve are 1 - 4 females in 70 % of them, 5 — 8 females in 25 %, and more than nine females in 5 %. Male Chirus tend to space themselves individually throughout rutting areas and avoid serious horn-to-horn combat with various displays and interactions: head-up (28 % of 54 interactions), neck-low (28 %), exaggerated head-down (18 %), and chases (22 %). Only 4 % of male-male interactions during rut are sparring. Most aggressive interactions involve a male trotting or lunging with head down and horns aimed at a rival; such behavior often terminates the interaction, but as rut intensifies, chases of up to 1 km are not uncommon. Vocalizations of rutting males may involve the enlarged nasal sinuses that serve as resonators, and include growls, croaks, and rather deep-toned roars. Courtship and mating are abrupt and brief, with only cursory displays and contacts. Early in rut, a male spends considerable time chasing females to maintain his harem; the females act disinterested. As rut progresses, females tolerate closer proximity of males and may circle back toward them when chased. When a female is receptive, the male approaches her with his head up in a distinctive walking gait, with forelegs stiff and raised high. While in close proximity to females, males do not display many of the courting behaviors common among ungulates; front-leg kicks that skim a female’s thigh are common, but the crouching, low-stretch behavior upon approach and vulva sniffing, nuzzling, and licking have not been observed. Occasionally, males display a lip curl after inspecting an area where a female has urinated or defecated. A male copulates by rearing upright, balancing on his hindlegs, with minimal contact with his mate. Neonates are precocial; they can arise and nurse 12 - 15 minutes postpartum and follow their mother one hour postpartum. Mean body mass and mean shoulder heights of young Chirus are: four-month-olds, 15 - 5 kg and 63 - 4 cm; 16 month-old females, 20 - 9 kg and 67 cm; and 16 month-old males, 25 - 5 kg and 76 - 8 cm. Ratios of young Chirus to adult females suggest that typically up to twothirds of individuals die before two years of age. Years of near-complete reproductive failure occur from extreme weather before, during, and after parturition.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992BFF910374FE73FD6BF969.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is little information available on specific daily activity patterns of Chirus, but they do forage while migrating. Oestrid flies directly affect their activities and behavior in summer. One fly species burrows under the skin and consumes flesh on the rump and lower back before emerging, and the other species infects the nasal sinuses and the throat. Harassment by these flies causes Chirus to stand in groups of 50 or more in knee-deep water or on mudflats, ice patches, or high ridges, and perhaps explains why they dig their characteristic summer bowl-shaped hollows in sand and silt for near total concealment, a behavior also thought to involve predator avoidance.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992BFF910374FE73FD6BF969.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Chirus are either migratory or sedentary (perhaps facultative), and both types generally display sexual segregation outside the breeding period, from January through October. Deep snows can cause Chirus to modify traditional migratory movements in search of forage and as a means of avoidance; they are not suited for efficient travel through snow. Oddly, migratory individuals of both sexes often leave winter ranges just when forage quality is beginning to increase in spring and move north into areas where vegetationis still dormant and apparently of lower quality. Satellite imagery between 2000 and 2004 in Xinjiang showed that primary production was more than twice as high on the winter range of the Chiru as it was on calving grounds when the females arrived to give birth. Such northward migration to calve seems ill timed relative to phenology, weather, stage of pregnancy, insect harassment, and ease of movement. It may be that Chirusstill follow migratory patterns that were established when glacial and vegetative conditions were different. Females also may be moving to calving grounds with low numbers of predators and other sympatric ungulates. Migratory females move greater distances than males, particularly in late spring — early summer when they can travel 300 - 400 km north to traditional calving grounds. Movement patterns of male Chirus are more diverse and leisurely, seemingly taking advantage of favorable forage availability, particularly in spring. Some males move to higher elevations in spring, apparently following new growth of vegetation. Some males move little between winter, summer, and rutting areas; others move short distances between winter and summer ranges; and still others move northward after winter and disperse widely, returning to rut in autumn. The Chiru is gregarious, and group sizes vary considerably depending on sex, time of year, migratory patterns, weather, and insect harassment; probably the only longlasting association is between a female and her young-of-the-year into its second year. No individuals have been maintained long enough in captivity to document longevity; as with other ungulates of comparable size, maximum life span in the wild is likely about ten years. Monthly adult sex ratios suggest differential mortality of males, not uncommon to ungulates. Winter sex ratios of migratory Chirus in Chang Tang Nature Reserve, where females and males occupy the same area, are 35 - 75 males: 100 females.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992BFF910374FE73FD6BF969.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. From a high of perhaps a million or more, the extant population of Chirus was estimated at only 65,000 - 72,500 in the mid- 1990 s and currently may be about 100,000, but no adequate range-wide census has been conducted. Some populations seem to have increased recently, but others have been extirpated. Many changes have occurred on the Tibetan Plateau in the past 30 - 50 years that have negatively affected the Chiru and other Tibetan mammals, including an expanding road network, increases in domestic livestock and resulting fencing and grassland degradation, often in the most productive habitats, changing land-use patterns by once exclusively nomadic pastoralists, and large-scale poaching. Notably, illegal trade in Chiru hides is an ongoing threat because of the black market for its wool, which is finer than cashmere and used to make expensive “ shahtoosh ” shawls and scarves (US $ 1000 - 5000 each). It takes 3 — 4 hides to make a single shawl, and the wool cannot be sheared or combed because the fibers are very short and attached to the base of guard hairs. According to the Chinese government, about 20,000 Chirus were poached annually in the late 1990 s, primarily to make shahtoosh shawls and scarves. Black-market bartering, with profit margins approaching 600 %, often results in movement of bones and other parts of endangered Tigers (Panthera tigris) to Asian markets in exchange for Chiru hides that move illegally into Nepal and India. Legal inroads have been made in thwarting traditional black market routes and worldwide demand for shahtoosh garments (Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network 1999), but continued vigilance and education are needed. To address the conservation of Tibetan ecosystems, the Chinese government has established an admirable network of reserves. The 300,000 km? * Chang Tang National Nature Reserve in north-central Tibetan Plateau is roughly the size of New Mexico (USA) or Germany, making it the second largest reserve in the world. Important contiguous reserves to the north in Xinjiang include West Kunlun Reserve (30,000 km?), Mid-Kunlun Reserve (32,000 km? *), and Arjin Shan Reserve (45,000 km? *). Kekexili Reserve (45,000 km?) and Sanjiangyuan Reserve (150,000 km?) occur east of Chang Tang in Qinghai, but Chirus only occur in the western part of Sanjiangyuan. This impressive network of reserves is important to the Chiru because migratory populations move north and south between Xizang and Xinjiang and west and east between Xizang and Qinghai. The network currently encompasses about 75 % of the known migratory routes of Chirus. Extant populations of Chirus, wild Yak (Bos mutus), and others are still threatened by human activities, including illegal harvest and competition with domestic livestock, and difficulties with enforcement of protective laws because of limited personnel and the expansive and very remote nature of the Tibetan Plateau.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992AFF9103D9F877F77BF203.taxon	materials_examined	America (probably near Mt. Adams, Washington).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992AFF9103D9F877F77BF203.taxon	discussion	Phylogenetic relationships of Oreamnos to other genera in the tribe Caprini are unclear. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992AFF9103D9F877F77BF203.taxon	distribution	Distribution. W Canada (Yukon, Northwest Territories, British Columbia & Alberta), W USA (SE Alaska, Washington, W Montana & Idaho); its native occurrence in Oregon has not been definitely established. Introduced into several other US states: Alaska (Kodiak, Chichagof, Baranof Is), Washington (Olympic Peninsula), Oregon, C & S Montana, Wyoming, South Dakota (Black Hills), Colorado, Utah, and Nevada.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992AFF9103D9F877F77BF203.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 155 - 180 cm (males) and 140 - 170 cm (females), tail 10 - 20 cm, shoulder height 90 - 110 cm; weight 95 - 115 kg (males) and 60 - 75 kg (females). Horn length 21 - 30 cm (males), horn basal girth 11 - 16 cm (males). Female horn lengths can equal those of males, but male horns have greater basal girth. Majority of horn growth is completed by the age of three. Males and females have a shaggy, uniformly white, long winter pelage and a prominent mid-dorsal mane. Adult males and females have beards. Males are 40 - 60 % larger than females. Nonetheless, differentiating males from females in the wild is difficult. Females attain peak mass at age six, but males continue to gain mass with age. Maximum longevity in the wild is 15 years for males and 18 years for females, but few goats survive more than twelve years. Diploid chromosome numberis 42.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992AFF9103D9F877F77BF203.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Usually occur in rugged, precipitous terrain under extreme climate conditions from near sea level in coastal areas to above 2700 m. Habitats consist of a mosaic of forage-rich alpine meadows, timbered areas, high-mountain ridges, scree, and barren cliffs that provide escape terrain, especially for females with young. During winter, they use areas within 300 - 500 m of escape terrain. Nursery groups in summer use habitats from the tree line to higher vegetation, and in winter are found near the tree line and slightly below it on snow-free south and west-facing slopes. Male groups and solitary males can remain in forested areas near the tree line throughout the year. Some populations do not make altitudinal movements. Specific habitat use varies regionally. In the Cascade Range, Washington, Rocky Mountain Goats occur principally at 600 - 2400 m. In the Caw Ridge area of western Alberta, Canada, they occur at 1700 - 2180 m in rolling hills with limited rocky, precipitous terrain. Following the rut, females use more rugged, steeper terrain than males and stay closer to escape terrain. Rocky Mountain Goats can move across inhospitable habitat to an unoccupied area of suitable habitat by temporarily using small, isolated patches of landscape. Predation is probably the most significant mortality factor. Major predators include Pumas (Puma concolor), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Brown Bears (Ursus arctos), and occasionally Coyotes (C. latrans), Black Bears (U. americanus), Wolverines (Gulo gulo), and golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992AFF9103D9F877F77BF203.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Mainly graminivorous. Based on food habits throughout their range, summer diet consists of 52 % grasses, 30 % forbs, and 16 % browse. Winter diet is 60 % grasses, 8 % forbs, and 32 % browse. However, diets vary regionally. In Colorado, captive mountain goats ate 88 % forbs in summer and 59 % in winter, and 11 % grasses in summer and 27 % in winter. Mosses and lichens comprised 60 % of the diet in winter in South Dakota. Bunchgrasses comprised 90 % of the diet in Colorado; in another area, annual diet was 60 - 68 % grasses, 25 - 29 % forbs, and 7 % browse. In general, grasses or forbs dominate diets in spring and summer and browse, including conifers, dominates in winter.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992AFF9103D9F877F77BF203.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating peaks in November-December, and births occur in May-June after a gestation period of 185 - 195 days. Dominant males probably guard an individual female from other males when the female is in estrus. Prior to parturition, females separate from female groups to give birth. The newborn remains hidden for about a week after birth, until it is strong enough to follow the mother in rugged terrain. Nannies with kids form nursery groups. Nursery groups can exceed 100 individuals, but rarely exceed 30 animals by late autumn and winter. Most births are singletons, and twinning is rare, although triplets have been documented. Females in the established population in Caw Ridge, Canada, first give birth at four or five years of age. They attain mass at a slower pace than other ungulates, reaching peak kid production at eight to twelve years; most yearlings are the offspring of females eight to twelve years of age. On average at Caw Ridge, 87 % of kids survived to weaning age and 64 % survived to one year of age. Kid survival ranged from 38 % to 92 %. Survival to two years was 73 - 5 % for yearling males and 84 - 7 % for yearling females. After the age of eight, adult females experienced higher survival rates than males. Over 50 % of yearling females and less than 10 % of yearling males survived to ten years. Survival of females two to seven years of age was 94 %.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992AFF9103D9F877F77BF203.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. In summer, mountain goats are most active during the cooler periods of early morning and late afternoon but also have activity periods during the night. They usually have six to seven feeding-resting cycles throughout the day.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992AFF9103D9F877F77BF203.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Male and female groups are spatially segregated except during the mating season. Only during the rut are adult males dominant over adult females. At other times of the year, adult females are dominant over all age and sex classes. Adult females are highly aggressive and form linear hierarchies. Males can be solitary or form bachelor groups. Horn size, body mass, and body size are not related to social status; age is the most important factor. Males have larger home ranges than females during the rut but smaller home ranges during summer. Nursery groups (females with kids and 1 - 2 year-olds) make longer daily movements than bachelor groups or solitary males. Male home ranges encompass 6 - 3 - 21 - 5 km? and those of females are 8 - 9 - 25 km ®. Differences in home ranges are probably due to topography and proximity to neighboring groups during the rut. In east-central British Columbia, some mountain goats used separate winter and summer ranges 8 - 13 km apart; most exhibited seasonal shifts in elevation. In winter, they often used southerly aspects at lower elevations in commercial forest stands. Mountain goats use declined in areas farther than 500 m from escape terrain. The goats were found at lower elevations from evening to dawn more often than they were during the day. They used high-elevation licks that were within their home range or 6 - 14 km from their typical home range. In coastal Alaska, where goats selected elevations at 300 - 1200 m, females moved 0 - 9 - 5 - 5 km along valleys during the winter; males moved 1 - 4 - 4 - 3 km. Annual movements of females ranged from 2 km to 6 km and those of males varied from 3 km to 10 km. Mean winter home range size was 1 - 4 km? for females and 2 - 7 km? for males and included burned timbered areas. Forty-two percent of male goat use was in mature or old forest (greater than 80 years old) compared to 29 % for females. Males and females made less use of young forest (less than 40 years old) and used slopes between 41 ° and 60 ° and up to 70 ° for females.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992AFF9103D9F877F77BF203.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. An estimated 75,000 - 110,000 occur in North America, 36,000 - 63,000 in British Columbia, Canada, and 24,000 - 30,000 in Alaska. Mountain goats occurring outside protected areas are vulnerable to human disturbance because of unregulated tourist activities and habitat destruction resulting from mineral and oil and gas exploration and extraction and clear-cutting forestry practices. Habitat fragmentation is also a concern due to road construction and other developments. Introduction of mountain goats into areas not historically occupied should be done with caution, because they can cause degradation to alpine environments. Mountain goat populations are particularly sensitive to indiscriminate age and gender hunting, so a conservative management strategy is required.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF920371FE2DFEBFF48D.taxon	materials_examined	Mishmi Hills, E Himalayas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF920371FE2DFEBFF48D.taxon	discussion	The four takin species are differentiated on the basis of body color and mtDNA analysis of Chinese populations. Based on a phylogenetic study, takins are related to caprines and in particular to Ammotragus and Ouvis. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF920371FE2DFEBFF48D.taxon	distribution	Distribution. NE India (Mishmi Hills, Arunachal Pradesh), N Myanmar, S China (SE Xizang, NW Yunnan).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF920371FE2DFEBFF48D.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body ¢. 170 - 220 cm, tail c. 10 - 22 cm, shoulder height c. 107 - 140 cm; weight ¢. 150 - 350 kg. Male horn measurements of the Mishmi Takin are similar to those of Sichuan Takin (B. tibetana). Males are significantly larger than females in horn and body measurements. Horns grow slightly upward, and then turn outward and backward with the horn tips upward. Takins have large, bovine-like bodies, a shaggy coat including long hair on the side and under the jaws, stout legs, prominent dew claws, and are taller at the shoulder than the hip. Mature Mishmi Takins have black haunches, belly, legs, lower neck, and entire face; black coloration under the neck extends to the lower flanks. The upper body parts are pale yellow, with a brindled area between the upper body and the lower dark areas. Diploid chromosome number is 42.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF920371FE2DFEBFF48D.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Occur at elevation of 1200 - 3000 m but may occupy higher elevations in the summer to reach alpine meadows. They also inhabit mixed coniferous and broadleafed deciduous forests where forage can be seasonally more available. They also often occur in densely vegetated areas where they may be difficult to see. Takins are often found in steep terrain; they are most vulnerable to human disturbance at lower elevations, although livestock grazing is practiced at all elevations where they occur. Longevity is 16 - 18 years but mortality in wild populations is unknown. Larger predators probably do not cause significant mortality because they are rare.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF920371FE2DFEBFF48D.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Detailed studies of food habits have not been conducted. Takins are primarily browsers, feeding on shrubs and tree species, but forage preferences can vary seasonally. Forbs are an important forage in spring. Takins are able to bend or break smaller trees to feed on leaves. They also rear on their hindlimbs to reach higher vegetation. Salt licks are favored sites.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF920371FE2DFEBFF48D.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Although males and females reach sexual maturity by 3 - 5 years of age, males probably do not participate in mating until they are several years older. Older males probably do most of the mating. Mating probably occurs in August-September and births occur in March-April after a gestation period of c. 210 days. Only singleton births have been recorded. Pregnant females probably do not leave female herds to give birth.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF920371FE2DFEBFF48D.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Takins are usually most active in early morning and late afternoon but in winter they may feed intermittently throughout the day.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF920371FE2DFEBFF48D.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Detailed studies are lacking. Takins make seasonal movements from alpine meadows in summer to lower-elevation forested habitats in winter. Herds that exceed 100 animals form in spring, but large herds break up into smaller groups of 10 - 40 animals by autumn. Single males or two males together are common.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF920371FE2DFEBFF48D.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act of India. Status and numbers of most populations are unknown. Monitoring, population studies, and management programs are urgently needed. Illegal hunting, habitat loss due to deforestation, and habitat degradation due to livestock use of forage resources are threats. In Myanmar, takins are rare due to poaching. Cooperative management programs between countries that share takin populations should be implemented.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF92037EF4DAF789F93E.taxon	materials_examined	Bhutan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF92037EF4DAF789F93E.taxon	discussion	Usually classified as a subspecies of B. taxicolor. The four takin species are differentiated on the basis of body color and mtDNA analysis of Chinese populations. Based on a phylogenetic study, takins are related to caprines and in particular to Ammotragus and Ovis. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF92037EF4DAF789F93E.taxon	distribution	Distribution. N Bhutan, NE India (Sikkim & Arunachal Pradesh), China (Xizang).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF92037EF4DAF789F93E.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body c. 170 - 220 cm, tail ¢. 10 - 20 cm, shoulder height ¢. 107 - 140 cm; weight ¢. 150 - 350 kg. Horns grow slightly upward, then turn outward and backward, with the horn tips upward. Horns less widely spread, with tips less turned inward, than in the Sichuan Takin (B. tibetana). Males are significantly larger than females in horn and body measurements. Takins have large, bovine-like bodies, shaggy coats, including long hair on the jaws and chin, stout legs, prominent dew claws, and a greater height at the shoulder than at the hip. General body color of the Bhutan Takin is dark brown with paler back and a mid-dorsalstripe.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF92037EF4DAF789F93E.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Bhutan Takins occur at elevations from 3500 m to 1200 m in a variety of vegetative communities, from above timberline to subalpine and subtropical forests. Habitats, especially at lower elevations, have been modified by humans.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF92037EF4DAF789F93E.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Takins are opportunistic herbivores, but are primarily browsers feeding on shrubs and trees. Forbs can be an important food component in spring. They frequentsalt licks. They rear up on their hindlegs to reach higher vegetation.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF92037EF4DAF789F93E.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The mating season is probably in August-September and births occur in March-April after a gestation period of ¢. 210 days. They are sexually mature by 3 - 5 years of age, but males probably do not participate in mating until they are several years older than that. Only singleton births have been recorded in the wild.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF92037EF4DAF789F93E.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Bhutan Takins are probably similar to other takins, feeding in early morning and late afternoon. In winter, they feed intermittently throughout the day.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF92037EF4DAF789F93E.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Detailed ecological studies have not been conducted. Takins make seasonal movements to higher elevations in summer and lower elevations in winter. Large mixed herds form in spring and split into smaller herds by autumn. Mature males are solitary or form groups of twos. Mortality factors, including predation, home ranges, and other population parameters, have not been studied.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF92037EF4DAF789F93E.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under B. taxicolor). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (under B. taxicolor) and Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act of India. Many populations have a disjunct distribution and are vulnerable to extirpation due to poaching and habitat loss. Population status and numbers are unknown. Domestic Yaks may compete for summer forage at higher elevations. Unmanaged timber extraction may cause habitat loss in winter habitat.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF930676F889FEA2FB15.taxon	materials_examined	Moupin, Sichuan, China.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF930676F889FEA2FB15.taxon	discussion	Usually classified as a subspecies of B. taxicolor. The four takin species are differentiated on the basis of body color and mtDNA analysis of Chinese populations. Based on a phylogentic study, takins are related to caprines and in particular to Ammotragus and Ovis. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF930676F889FEA2FB15.taxon	distribution	Distribution. C China (W Sichuan, S Gansu).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF930676F889FEA2FB15.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body ¢. 170 - 220 cm, tail ¢. 10 - 22 cm, shoulder height c. 107 - 140 cm; weight ¢. 150 - 350 kg. Horn basal girth 20 - 32 cm (males), horn tip-to-tip spread 58 - 91 cm (males). Males are significantly larger than females. Takins have large, bovine-like bodies, a shaggy coat including long hair on the jaws and chin, stout legs, prominent dew claws, and a greater height at the shoulder than hip. Horns grow slightly upward, then turn upward and backward with the horn tips upward. Older Sichuan Takin males are dark golden brown to dark brown on the lower flanks, hindquarters, and lower legs, and have paler hair on the neck and shoulders that forms a distinct saddle. Adults have a black tail and distinct muzzle that contrasts with the paler color of the face.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF930676F889FEA2FB15.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Sichuan Takins usually inhabit elevations at 1500 - 3000 m. In the Tangjiahe National Nature Reserve in Sichuan, there are four principal vegetation zones, ranging from timberline above 3200 - 3300 m to mixed coniferous and broadleafed deciduous forest at 1700 - 2100 m; rhodendron and bamboos form an understory component at lower elevations. Vegetation communities below 2200 m have been modified by human activity.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF930676F889FEA2FB15.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Sichuan Takins are known to feed on 130 plant species, including 70 shrub and tree species. They are primarily browsers, but forbs are an important forage component in spring. They frequent salt licks. Their tall bodies allow them to reach browse unavailable to smaller ungulates and their broad, flexible lips enable efficient and selective foraging. Takins may push over or break smaller trees to obtain browse. They also rear up on their hindlegs to reach browse up to 2: 5 m above the ground.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF930676F889FEA2FB15.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Takins attain reproductive maturity at c. 3 - 5 years of age. Older males probably do most of the mating. Mating probably occurs in August-September and parturition is in March and April after a gestation period of ¢. 210 days. Only singleton births have been recorded.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF930676F889FEA2FB15.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Usually most active in early morning and late afternoon, but in winter they may feed intermittently throughout the day.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF930676F889FEA2FB15.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Takins undertake seasonal movements from alpine meadows in summer to lower-elevation forested areas in winter. One male was observed to cover about 6 km when foraging along a valley in the autumn and winter. Based on 51 herds observed in the Tangjiahe National Nature Reserve, mean herd size was 39 - 6 animals with most herds composed of 10 - 45 animals. Estimated density of takins was 1: 2 - 1 - 3 ind / km? ®. In another study of group sizes in the same area, 85 - 7 % of the males were solitary, 8: 3 % were groups of two males, and 4.2 % consisted of three males. Most mixed herds, made up of females, young, subadults, and adult males, consisted of 10 - 35 individuals; one herd of 93 - 112 takins was recorded. Larger herds form in May after parturition and split into smaller groups by autumn. Young and yearlings each comprised 20 % of the population in May and November, indicating low mortality in these age groups. The sex ratio was 50 males: 100 females. Leopards (Panthera pardus) and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) feed on takins, but these predators are scarce.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139929FF930676F889FEA2FB15.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under B. taxicolor). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (under B. taxicolor). The total population is estimated to be several thousand, with uncertainty about actual numbers. Negative impacts include poaching, human disturbance from tourism, and habitat encroachment. Habitat loss is a continuing concern. Ecological studies and monitoring of populations are lacking.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139928FF9303DBFB5AF8DEFD65.taxon	materials_examined	Tai-pei Shan, S Shaanxi, China.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139928FF9303DBFB5AF8DEFD65.taxon	discussion	Usually classified as a subspecies of B. taxicolor. The four takin species are differentiated on the basis of body color and mtDNA analysis of Chinese populations. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139928FF9303DBFB5AF8DEFD65.taxon	distribution	Distribution. C China (Quinling Range, S Shaanxi).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139928FF9303DBFB5AF8DEFD65.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body ¢. 170 - 220 cm, tail 7 - 12 cm, shoulder height ¢. 107 - 140 cm; weight ¢. 150 - 350 kg. Horn length up to 64 cm (males), horn basal girth up to 38 cm (males), horn tip-to-tip spread up to 91 cm (males). Horns grow vertically in the form of a short, thickened horn base, then curve outward and backward, with tips upward. Adult male body pelage is shaggy and creamy white to golden yellow with distinctly golden hair on the neck and chest of adult males. Golden Takins usually have black hairs on muzzle, knees, hock, and tail.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139928FF9303DBFB5AF8DEFD65.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Golden Takins occur at elevations of 1300 - 2800 m in diverse plant communities, depending on elevation. A mixed coniferous and broadleaf deciduous forest predominates at 1000 - 2200 m, a subalpine coniferous zone occurs at 2200 - 2900 m, and subalpine meadows above ¢. 2750 m. They use salt licks, and these sites influence their movement patterns and the location and size of their home ranges.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139928FF9303DBFB5AF8DEFD65.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Golden Takins feed on 161 plant species and are primarily browsers, with twigs, shoots, stems, leaves, and bark important dietary components.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139928FF9303DBFB5AF8DEFD65.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating occurs in June-August, and calves are born in February-March. Females reach sexual maturity at 4 - 5 years and males at 5 - 5 years. Gestation is about 220 days. Birth sites are in deciduous broadleaf or mixed coniferous and broadleafforests, high on south-facing slopes (2000 - 2404 m) with less than 5 % snow cover, or in thick bamboo communities or against a steep slope. Females give birth in female herds and do not segregate newborns. Calves are able to follow their mothers soon after birth. Longevity in the wild is about 16 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139928FF9303DBFB5AF8DEFD65.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. During spring and summer, Golden Takins are most active feeding, standing, and walking at about 06: 00 - 08: 00 h, 10: 00 - 12: 00 h, and 18: 00 - 20: 00 h. There is one active peak at night at 00: 00 - 01: 00 h. They most actively feed at 06: 00 - 07: 00 h and 18: 30 - 19: 30 h. Predation is not a major mortality factor.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139928FF9303DBFB5AF8DEFD65.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Elevational movements occur four times a year. Takins remain at 2200 - 2800 m in summer (June-August), in winter (December — March) at 1900 - 2400 m, and at lower elevations, between 1400 m and 1900 m, for short periods in spring (April-May) and autumn (September-November). Solar radiation and vegetation phenology are the factors that instigate these seasonal movements. Mean seasonal home ranges of four takins were 19 - 5 km? in summer, 22 km? in autumn, and 11 km? in winter. Within a nature reserve, mean group size of herds was 10 - 8 takins, with a maximum herd size of 59. Fifty percent of the animals were in herds larger than 15, and 53 % of groups had more than one adult female. Mean group size of herds formed by adults with subadults or calves was 14 - 8, and 63 - 3 % of herds had more than one subadult or calf. Only one all-male herd was recorded. The adult sex ratio was 49 males: 100 females. The population consisted of 17 - 3 % males, 35 - 4 % females, 35 % subadults, and 12 -: 2 % calves. In another study, mixed group composition was unstable because subadults moved between herds. Home ranges of subadult females were larger than those of adult females. Solitary individuals were common, especially during the mating season. Densities were 1 - 29 - 1 - 56 ind / km? in a high-density population within a protected area, but the range of densities in the Qinling Mountains was 0 - 14 - 0 - 22 ind / km? *.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139928FF9303DBFB5AF8DEFD65.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under B. taxicolor). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as B. t. bedfordi). Total population is ¢. 5000. Most takins occur in protected areas. Human encroachment and disturbance due to roads and poaching are concerns, as well as habitat loss and fragmentation even within nature reserves. Addditional protected areas and enlargement of existing areas are needed. Strict enforcement of wildlife and habitat protection laws are a priority.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139928FF9406D3FC6FF6EEFCB5.taxon	materials_examined	N Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139928FF9406D3FC6FF6EEFCB5.taxon	discussion	The Aoudad has been hypothesized to be the ancestral form of sheep (Ovis) or goat (Capra), but their evolutionary relationships remain in question. The Aoudad has a diploid chromosome number of 58, identical to the Ladakh Urial (O. vigner), but has anatomical similarities to goats. Immunoglobulin and seroprotein analyses and the sequence of amino acids of several hemoglobin chains do not reveal clear evolutionary relationships. Aoudads will interbreed with goats but not with sheep, and molecular data reveal a closer relationship to goats. Six subspecies have been described, but their validity needs clarification.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139928FF9406D3FC6FF6EEFCB5.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. A. l. lerviaPallas, 1777 — Morocco, NA. l., andNTunisia. A. l. angusiRothschild, 1921 — NWNiger (Air & TermitMassifs). A. l. blaineiRothschild, 1913 — SELybia, NEChad, andNW & NESudan (probablynowrestrictedtoRedSeahills). A. l. fassiniLepri, 1930 — NWLibya, extremeSTunisia. A. l. ornatus 1. GeoffroySaint-Hilaire, 1827 — SE & SWEgypt. A. l. sahariensis Rothschild, 1913 — S Morocco, Western Sahara, NW Mauritania, S A. l ria, extreme S Libya, NE Mali, SE Niger, and NW Chad. Introduced, free-ranging populations occur in S Spain, the Canary Is, USA (California, New Mexico, and Texas), and NE Mexico. Subspecies of free-ranging introduced populations are unknown because they originate from zoo animals of uncertain origin or from hybrids. Most introduced populations are probably from subspecies lervia, derived from European zoos. The Aoudad has become a widespread invasive species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139928FF9406D3FC6FF6EEFCB5.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body means 128 cm (males) and 112 cm (females), tail 17 - 5 — 20 - 5 cm, shoulder height 92 - 110 cm (males) and 80 - 85 cm (females); weight means 82 kg (up to 145 kg) for males and 41 - 3 kg (up to 86 kg) for females. Measurements and weights are from captive specimens; wild individuals probably are smaller. The Aoudad has a pale tawny brown or rufous body color and dark brown areas about the head and forequarters. The chin, undersides, and inside of legs are whitish. A short, erect hair line extends from the base of the neck to just behind the withers. Adult males have prominent long hairs on the cheeks, the throat, and the front of the neck, extending to the brisket. A unique feature is the long hair on the anterior of the upper part of the front legs. The hairs on the brisket and legs can extend to the ground. Long hair is not as well developed in females. The tail is terminally tufted and naked underneath. Males and females possess horns that grow upward and then curve downward. The longest recorded male horn length, basal circumference, and tip-to-tip spread of a specimen from Africa measured 87 - 9 cm, 33 - 2 cm, and 39 - 4 cm, respectively. Specimens have been recorded in the USA with horns up to 50 cm. Horns of females are less massive but can be equally long.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139928FF9406D3FC6FF6EEFCB5.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. No ecological studies have been conducted in Africa; ecological data are from introduced populations. Aoudads in Africa occur from arid to semi-arid mountainous, rugged, broken terrain to open forests with a precipitous component. Introduced populations do well in a variety of habitats, including montane habitats associated with canyons and gorges, level terrain with brushy vegetation, and woodlands and grasslands, but Aoudads prefer precipitous terrain. They can survive in areas without rainfall. In Africa, they are found at elevations from near sea level to 4000 m. In New Mexico, USA, they occur from less than 1000 m to 2312 m. In California, in a Mediterranean climate, Aoudads used woodlands in summer, grasslands in autumn and winter, and rugged terrain in spring, during the lambing period. In Spain, in an area consisting of three habitats (open with shrubs, closed formed by forests, and mixed habitats consisting of shrubs with scattered trees), neither adult females nor subadults showed preference for a particular habitat. During the parturition period, no animals of either sex were observed in closed forest; males were most frequently sighted in mixed habitats and females in open shrub habitats. During the mating season, in October, Aoudads were mostly observed in closed rather than open habitats. Population parameters and habitat use can be variable due to variability in population size, habitats, and rainfall and forage production within and between years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139928FF9406D3FC6FF6EEFCB5.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. In north-eastern New Mexico, diets from rumen analyses consisted of 64 % browse in summer, 58: 4 % browse in autumn, 86 % grass in winter, and 59 - 9 % browse in spring. Mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus breviflorus) and wavyleaf oak (Quercus undulata) were the browse species consumed. Mountain mahogany constituted 54 - 3 % of diets in the summer and 31 - 5 % in the autumn. Wavyleaf oak constituted 30 % of forage in summer and 54 - 3 % during autumn. On an annual basis, browse constituted 48 %, grasses 41 %, and forbs 9 % of diets. In western New Mexico, annual diets were 42 % browse, 38 % forbs, and 10 % grasses. In west-central Texas, diets consisted principally of forbs and grasses. Aoudads adjust to available forage, but browse is their principal food source in arid regions.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139928FF9406D3FC6FF6EEFCB5.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Females usually first mate at 18 months. The main rut occurs in September — November. During rut, older males from formerly segregated herds search and court individual females and guard estrous females from other males. Prior to parturition, females isolate themselves in rugged terrain. After a gestation of 155 - 165 days, they give birth to one or two offspring. In New Mexico, twinning ranged from 22 % to 58 %. Only multiparous females produce twins. Birth weights are 3.1 - 4 kg. Females do not rejoin herds until the neonate is able to follow their mother, usually within two days. Most births occur in March-April but parturition can occur in other months within a population. In captive populations, high-ranking females have shorter interbirth intervals and produce a higher proportion of twins, male calves, and heavier calves. They wean their calves earlier, produce heavier male neonates, and only they have male twins.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139928FF9406D3FC6FF6EEFCB5.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Aoudads are mostly diurnal, but their grazing periods can be equally divided between night and day. When disturbed by humans, feeding activity will shift to night. There is an increasing period of inactivity during the day from winter to summer. During warm weather, Aoudads rest in shaded areas. Rough, steep terrain is used significantly more for resting sites.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139928FF9406D3FC6FF6EEFCB5.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Daily movements of three Aoudads ranged from 0 - 2 km to 3 - 4 km. Diurnal movements ranged from 0 km to 1 - 9 km, without significant differences between seasons. Annual home ranges of two rams averaged 1547 ha and the home range of one female was 764 ha, indicating that males have larger home ranges than females. Released animals dispersed 32 - 3 km within 5 - 7 months. Abrupt seasonal movements of up to 23 - 4 straight-line km are known. Aoudads are gregarious and develop a dominance hierarchy within herds, but individual female rank can change depending on age and reproductive history. Mixed herds composed of adult males and females, subadults, and young usually formed during rut, have 2 - 63 animals, with a mean size of 14 - 7. Nursery and mixed herds in a population of 500 - 600 have 2 - 45, with a mean of 7 - 9. In another study, mean group size declined from 25 after the rut to five in the summer and increased during the autumn and winter, especially during the rut, when adult males joined female herds. In a captive population study, the higher the relatedness and age similarity, the closer the distance between individuals, indicating an ability to recognize close relatives. One population consisted of 30 % juveniles and subadults, 20 % males, and 50 % females. Survival rates were 35 % for the neonate to one-year-old cohort, 77 % per year for males 1 - 3 - 5 years of age, and 55 % for males 3 - 5 - 10 - 5 years of age. Longevity in the wild is 10 - 12 years and in captivity 24 years. In the introduced populations in America predators include Coyotes (Canis latrans) and Pumas (Puma concolor), but predation is usually not a significant mortality factor in the USA or Spain. Although diseases and parasites are usually insignificant causes of mortality, there have been population die-offs caused by a helminth nematode (Elaeophora schneideri) in the USA and mange (Sarcoptes scabiei) in Spain. The greatest adult mortality factor in the USA is sport hunting.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139928FF9406D3FC6FF6EEFCB5.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. An estimated 5000 - 10,000 Aoudads occur in Africa. They have undergone widespread extirpations and population decreases throughout most of their former range, including Egypt, Sudan, Libya, Chad, and Western Sahara. Present distribution and status over much of their range is unknown. Major threats are illegal hunting and habitat degradation and destruction due to livestock overgrazing and human disturbance. Feral camels can be forage competitors. Conservation measures include reestablishing extirpated populations, establishing protected areas with strict law enforcement and exclusion of livestock, and developing monitoring programs. Free-ranging, introduced Aoudad populations are a major management concern because of their potentially deleterious impacts on native wildlife such as deer and especially native Bighorn Sheep (Ovis canadensis) in the USA and Mexico and the Iberian Ibex (Capra pyrenaica) in Spain. Estimates are 12,000 in Texas, 4000 in New Mexico, 400 in California, probably fewer than 1000 in Mexico, more than 1000 in Spain, and hundreds in the Canary Islands. Most introductions were for the purpose of developing sporthunting programs; they are protected in private game preserves, from which they can escape and spread. Their high birth rate, adaptability to a wide variety of habitats and foods, lack of significant predation, resistance to native and domestic animal diseases, and their potential for being vectors of diseases all pose management challenges. There is a high potential for space and forage competition with native wildlife. They are capable of dispersing widely within short periods. They are a concern to federal and state agencies in the USA because of their spread into national forests, parks, and wildlife refuges. Bighorn Sheep are susceptible to die-offs from diseases transmitted from domestic sheep. Because Aoudads can thrive in areas grazed by domestic sheep and other domestic ungulates and are potential vectors of domestic sheep diseases, they are a threat to Bighorn Sheep. Aoudads are highly effective colonizers and thrive in desert habitats of Bighorn Sheep. In areas where Bighorn Sheep were extirpated, the presence of Aoudads precludes the reintroduction of Bighorn Sheep. Because the Aoudad and the Mule Deer (Odocoileus hemionus) have similar food habits, there is potential for forage competition between the two species. The same concerns apply to the Aoudad relative to the Iberian Ibex and other native ungulate species in Spain. In some cases, Aoudads should be eradicated or controlled to limit negative effects on native fauna and plants.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992FFF95064AFBBFFDB7FE05.taxon	materials_examined	Oman (Jebel Taw, Jebel Akhdar Range).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992FFF95064AFBBFFDB7FE05.taxon	discussion	This species is more closely related to Ammotragus lervia than to the other two tahr species (Hemitragus jemlahicus and Nilgiritragus hylocrius). Formerly classified in the genus Hemitragus but now classified in a separate genus, Arabitragus. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992FFF95064AFBBFFDB7FE05.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Endemic to the Hajjar Mts in N Oman and extreme NE United Arab Emirates.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992FFF95064AFBBFFDB7FE05.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 93 - 95 cm, tail 8: 4 - 10 cm, shoulder height 61 - 64 cm, hindfoot 20 cm; weight 38 - 45 kg (males) and 17 - 20 kg (females). This is the smallest of the three tahr species. The horns are close at the base, slender, and laterally compressed; they diverge at about 45 ° and curve backward, narrowing rapidly to the tips, with a relatively smooth anterior keel. The longest recorded male horn measured 32 cm. Female horns are shorter and with less curvature. Male winter coat is shaggy, with ruffs on the legs and tufts at the angle of the jaws. Pelage is tawny-brown with whitish underparts, dark markings on front of lower legs, and a black tail with a terminal tuft. Female pelage is paler. Males lack a beard. The head has two distinct black facial markings, one covering the dorsal aspect of the muzzle and another extending from the lower margin of the eyes toward the angle of the mouth. There is a pale brown narrow stripe between the black facial markings. There is a dark mid-dorsalstripe from the nape to near the base of the tail, and a mid-dorsal tuft of hairs, which is better developed in males than in females. The diploid chromosome numberis 58.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992FFF95064AFBBFFDB7FE05.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. They occur in precipitous, boulderstrewn, rugged terrain principally at elevations of 900 - 1800 m, in stark desert surroundings characterized by low rainfall and poor forage production. They prefer north and north-western-facing slopes and areas less used by domestic livestock.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992FFF95064AFBBFFDB7FE05.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Arabian Tahrs are probably primarily browsers, but feed on a variety offruits, leaves, and grasses.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992FFF95064AFBBFFDB7FE05.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Births in captivity occur throughout the year but in the wild, young are born principally in March-April and the mating season is from September to November. Gestation period is ¢. 150 days. Usually give birth to one young; twinning is rare.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992FFF95064AFBBFFDB7FE05.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably both diurnal and nocturnal, depending on the season and temperature.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992FFF95064AFBBFFDB7FE05.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Probably have daily elevational movements, but detailed studies are lacking. Long-range movements probably occur to find areas with green forage resulting from localized rainfall. Usually live in small groups composed of two adults or two adults and young, but solitary animals are common. Largest groups consisted of 4 - 11 animals. They do not form spatially segregated all male or all female groups, but this could be a consequence of the low population numbers. They are purported to be territorial but this has not been confirmed.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992FFF95064AFBBFFDB7FE05.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Because most populations are unmonitored, their status and numbers are unknown. Total population estimates range from less than 2000 to less than 5000. Arabian Tahrs occur in small, scattered populations that are vulnerable to extirpation because of poaching and competition with feral and domestic livestock, primarily domestic goats, resulting in degraded habitats and vulnerability to domestic livestock diseases. An increasing network of graded secondary roads is further fragmenting populations. A captive breeding population has been established in Oman. There is a need to establish a widespread network of protected areas with minimal intrusion of livestock; it should allow for metapopulation processes, including maintaining genetic variability. Populations should be monitored annually and ecological studies initiated. Cooperative tahr conservation and management programs should be developed between the governments of Oman and the United Arab Emirates.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992EFF9503C5FD0EF663FDA2.taxon	materials_examined	Nepal (Jemla Hills).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992EFF9503C5FD0EF663FDA2.taxon	discussion	Based on phylogenetic analyses, H. jemlahicus is closely related to Capra. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992EFF9503C5FD0EF663FDA2.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Himalayas in N India (Jammu and Kashmir, Sikkim), Nepal, and W China (S Xizang). Introduced into New Zealand (South Island), South Africa (Western Cape), and California (USA).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992EFF9503C5FD0EF663FDA2.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 130 - 170 cm (males) and 90 cm (females), tail 9 - 12 cm, shoulder height 100 cm (males) and 65 cm (females); weight 90 - 124 kg (males) and 55 - 72 kg (females). Horn length 28 - 38 cm (males), horn basal girth 20 - 25 cm (males). Horns are laterally compressed, diverging, and with an anterior horn edge with a sharp keel. General adult male color is coppery-brown to blackish, with conspicuous long hairs that cover the neck, shoulders, and chest down to the knees and from the back and rump to the flanks and thighs. Diploid chromosome number is 48.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992EFF9503C5FD0EF663FDA2.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Himalayan Tahr occurs at elevations of 1550 - 5300 m. In eastern Nepal, they occurred at 2500 - 4400 m in a variety of plant communities, depending on elevation, and favored steep cliffs with a cover of grass and small stands of forest and bamboo below 3500 m. They are usually found at 2000 - 3300 m in timberline habitats on the southern forested slopes of the Himalayas. In northern India they were in forested areas at 2000 - 3270 m and used steep terrain with some overstory, which provided security and thermal cover, and with a ground cover of shrubs and grasses. In northern India, Leopards (Panthera pardus) are the main predator of the Himalayan Tahr in areas below the tree line. Other large predators include Snow Leopards (P. uncia), Dholes (Canis alpinus), and Gray Wolves (C. lupus). In Sagarmatha National Park in Nepal, the staple diet of Snow Leopards, which had been extirpated but became naturally reestablished, consisted of tahrs. The relative occurrence of tahrs in Snow Leopard diets was 48 % in summer and 37 % in autumn, with a preference for the young of the year. After the return of Snow Leopards, there was a 70 - 90 % decrease in the kid population per year in summer, the majority of which was probably due to Snow Leopard predation. The number of tahrs decreased from 350 in 1989 to 100 in 2007. A continued high predation level could jeopardize the survival of the tahr population.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992EFF9503C5FD0EF663FDA2.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The greater portion of their diet consists of graminoids. Grasses can constitute up to 75 % of their winter diet. In Nepal, average annual consumption consisted of 34 % grasses, 21 % sedges, 38 % forbs and shrubs, 4 % ferns, and 4 % mosses.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992EFF9503C5FD0EF663FDA2.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Rut occurs in October — January with a gestation period of about 180 days. Females usually have their first young at age three. Most young are born in May and June. Males can reach sexual maturity at age two but do not participate in the rut until reaching adult age, when they can gain access to females by intimidating other males. Younger, paler-colored males have a higher rank than older darker males, the ruff color being used to signal rank and dominance. Males usually occur in separate groups except during the rut. Himalayan Tahrs live up to 22 years in captivity.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992EFF9503C5FD0EF663FDA2.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Peaks of activity occur before 09: 00 h and after 13: 30 h.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992EFF9503C5FD0EF663FDA2.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Seasonal movements occur from lower elevations in winter to above timberline in summer. In northern India, there were 2 - 3 ind / km ® and the largest group observed consisted of four. In Nepal, mean group size was 6 - 5, with herds consisting of 2 - 23 tahrs. Female herds in March had an average of four tahrs, and mixed groups, consisting of males, females, and young, had an average of 10 - 2. Sixty-four percent of the herds recorded were in mixed groups. The population was divided into three subunits of mixed herds: the largest group had eight adults and two yearling females; another subgroup had five young and eight males, of which two were yearlings; in the third group, four were subadults, and two were adults. Animals remained for over a month on about 1 km? Densities in separate protected areas in India were 2 - 3 ind / km ® and 17 ind / km?; they were up to 25 ind / km? in Nepal. In a protected area, 130 tahrs were recorded in an area of 2 km?. In areas where tahrs and livestock are sympatric, there is potential for spatial competition. In Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary, India, tahrs used steep slopes greater than 40 ° in areas mainly above the tree line and were more selective in their habitat use than domestic sheep and goats. The presence oflivestock could be limiting the spread of tahrs to lower-elevation areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992EFF9503C5FD0EF663FDA2.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Most populations are unmonitored and their statuses unknown. The Himalayan Tahr occurs in some areas with such rough topography that human disturbance has not been a factor, but also often occur in scattered, fragmented populations, especially outside protected areas. Increasing human populations and associated increased grazing and disturbance, resulting in habitat loss and degradation, and illegal subsistence and sport hunting are negatively impacting populations. Community-based protected areas have been successful in furthering wildlife conservation and management.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992EFF9606DCFCA8F850FED6.taxon	materials_examined	Himalayas, subsequently restricted to the Tibetan frontier of Nepal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992EFF9606DCFCA8F850FED6.taxon	discussion	The genus is more closely related to the genus Capra than to Ouvis. P. nayaur will hybridize with domestic goats but not domestic sheep. Although the Greater Blue Sheep is larger in body, horn, and skull measurements than the Dwarf Blue Sheep (P. schaeferi), there is only a weak genetic difference between the two species. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992EFF9606DCFCA8F850FED6.taxon	distribution	Distribution. China (S Xinjiang, Qinghai, Gansu, S Nei Mongol, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Xizang & N Yunnan), N Pakistan, N India, Nepal, Bhutan, and N Myanmar.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992EFF9606DCFCA8F850FED6.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 120 - 140 cm, tail 13 - 20 cm, shoulder height 80 - 91. 4 cm (males); weight 60 - 75 kg (males) and 35 - 55 kg (females). Horn length 38 - 76 cm (males) and 10 - 20 cm (females), distance between horn tips 57 - 82 cm (males), horn basal girth 23 - 34 cm (males). Horns of females much shorter and thinner and grow slightly outward, then backward. Males are over 30 % larger than females. Horns of males grow outward, then backward, and curve downward with the tips usually pointing slightly upward. Body color is brownish-gray in summer and bluish-gray in winter. Tail and front of neck, chest, and all four legs are black; a black stripe along lower side of flank separates the body color from the white underside. The flank stripe is continuous with the black of the front of the hindlegs. The inside and back of limbs are white, as is the distinct rump patch. Females have gray instead of black markings. Diploid chromosome number is 54 but a specimen from Gansu Province, China, had a chromosome number of 56.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992EFF9606DCFCA8F850FED6.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Greater Blue Sheep inhabit elevations of 1200 - 5500 m; usually occur at high elevations and with highly variable annual precipitation. They occur at 4000 - 4900 m in Xizang in alpine sedge meadows and areas free of tall vegetation near talus or rough, precipitous terrain, and also in much lower, arid, hilly terrain. A high-quality habitat in Nepal consisted of 29 % bare ground and 58 % grass cover. They seldom enter forested areas. The ranges of Greater Blue Sheep and Siberian Ibex (Capra sibirica) are sympatric in some areas. Greater Blue Sheep often share foraging areas with livestock, especially during summer. In the Helan Mountains of northern China, in a protected area, Greater Blue Sheep occur at 2000 - 3000 m in montane grasslands, woodland steppe, conifer forest, subalpine shrublands and meadows and had a preference for montane woodland steppe. Availability of grass species in the genus Stipa probably most influenced foraging habitat selection. Major mortality occurred in winter and spring due to climatic conditions and poor forage quality. Mortality rate of rams 1 - 5 — 4 - 5 years old was 0 % - 7 - 4 %, that of rams 5 - 5 - 10 - 5 years old was 14: 9 % - 25 %, and that of rams 11 - 5 - 15 - 5 years old was 40 - 7 % - 100 %. Percentage of rams that survived up to eight years old was 64: 7 % and that of rams that survived greater than 13 years was 7 - 8 %. On the Tibetan Plateau, over 80 % of males died between four and eleven years of age and at Dorpatan in Nepal, about 50 % of Greater Blue Sheep died between birth and two years of age. Greater Blue Sheep in the Manang District of Nepal (population about 1000 animals) were the prey of Snow Leopards (Panthera uncia), which consumed 11 - 24 % of the total number of blue sheep annually. Other mammalian predators are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Leopards (P. pardus) and Dholes (Cuon alpinus), but large predators have been extirpated in many areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992EFF9606DCFCA8F850FED6.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Greater Blue Sheep can obtain food resources from sparse, highelevation vegetation. Seasonal forage classes consumed vary regionally. In some areas diets are dominated by graminoids (up to 80 %) during summer, but graminoids can decline to less than 50 % in winter. In other areas, they feed mainly on sedges during summer. In Ladakh, India, Greater Blue Sheep and Tibetan Argali (Ovis hodgsoni) were spatially segregated due to habitat preferences and did not compete for forage. There can be substantial diet overlap with livestock, which can have a strong influence on the availability of forage. In Xizang, there was spatial overlap with livestock during summer and diet and habitat separation during winter. Forbs dominated the Greater Blue Sheep diet at the start of the growing season in spring but decreased gradually. Browse intake increased during autumn and winter. In summer, the three forage classes (forbs, sedges, and browse) did not differ significantly. Sedges were the most frequently eaten forage by Greater Blue Sheep throughout the year, but shrubs dominated the winter diet. Diet and spatial overlap of Greater Blue Sheep and livestock was greatest in the summer and lowest between Greater Blue Sheep and domestic sheep and goats in winter. Greater Blue Sheep overlapped extensively with domestic Yaks because both used similar elevations and both consumed high proportions of browse. In northern China, graminoids constituted 58 -: 8 % of summer diets. Winter diets consisted of 36: 7 % graminoids and nearly 50 % browse, including tree leaves. In northern Nepal, Greater Blue Sheep diet also was dominated by graminoids (51 %), and forbs and browse constituted about equal proportions. Greater Blue Sheep and domestic goats had the most similar diets, but differed in the proportions of the three forage classes consumed. In the Himachal Pradesh, India, the Greater Blue Sheep diet in winter was influenced mainly by the availability of graminoids. The increased intake of browse by Greater Blue Sheep in winter was due to the limited availability of graminoids because of their consumption by livestock in summer.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992EFF9606DCFCA8F850FED6.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Greater Blue Sheep usually mate in November — January and young are born in May-June. The mating season in one study area in Nepal was from mid-December to late January, with a peak in early January; parturition commenced on 23 May and probably peaked in mid-June, but births can extend into July. The gestation period is about 160 days. Most females give birth at age three. Twinning is rare. Estrus lasts one to four days with a peak of about 20 - 36 hours. The estrous cycle lasts about 25 days and females recycle if not impregnated. Creches, in which a larger number of nursing young temporarily associate with a few females, have been documented. Males join females to form mixed groups and actively court females with a variety of courtship displays. Dominant males, older than five years old, do most of the mating.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992EFF9606DCFCA8F850FED6.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Greater Blue Sheep are diurnal and are most active before 09: 30 h and after 16: 00 h but also have a feeding bout about midday. In Nepal, during rut in December, Greater Blue Sheep were least active during the warmest period of the day (13: 30 - 15: 00 h) and activity increased in late afternoon. In May-June, activity peaked later in the afternoon.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992EFF9606DCFCA8F850FED6.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Greater Blue Sheep are usually gregarious. On the Tibetan Plateau, female herds averaged 14 - 5 individuals and mixed herds 23 - 2 individuals. In one area in Nepal, 66 % of males were in mixed herds before rut and 80 % during rut. In the Helan Mountain region in northern China, densities ranged from 3: 6 ind / km? in spring to 4 - 6 ind / km? ® in summer of the following year. Herds consisted of an average of 4 - 2 individuals in winter and 5 - 6 in spring and summer. Home ranges were 3 - 7 km? for males and 2 - 5 - 5 km? for females in winter. In other areas of China, densities were 3 - 6 - 5 - 3 ind / km ” in better-quality habitats; in Nepal they ranged from a low of 0 - 7 ind / km? to 6 - 6 - 10 - 2 ind / km?. Adult sex ratios and other population parameters vary widely among areas. In the Manang District, Nepal, mean group size was 15 - 6, with smaller groups in winter than other seasons probably due to lower forage abundance and quality. Adult sex ratios per 100 females were 93 - 7 males in spring, 126 - 9 in autumn and 91 - 7 in winter. The population consisted of 34 % adult males, 32 % ewes, 15 % yearlings, and 19 % lambs. The lamb per 100 ewe ratios were 52 - 5 in spring, 70 in autumn and 55 - 4 in winter. Yearling per 100 ewe ratios were 32 - 9 in spring, 59 - 9 in autumn and 38 - 1 in winter. Yearling to female ratios on the Tibetan Plateau usually were from 26: 100 to 40: 100. Mother-young groups were most numerous in spring and male-female groups were present only in winter. Adult males and females are not always segregated in separate herds during the non-mating period.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992EFF9606DCFCA8F850FED6.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Locally common in many areas. Probably the most numerous ungulate in western China, where some populations have remained stable or slightly increased. In the Helan Mountain region of northern China within a protected area devoid of livestock, the Greater Blue Sheep population exceeds 10,000 animals. There are a minimum of 10,000 Greater Blue Sheep in north-western Xizang. In Ladakh, India, in the late 1980 s, there were c. 11,000 Greater Blue Sheep, and in Nepal ¢. 10,000. In many areas, subsistence and commercial poaching, lack of government-sponsored wildlife conservation and management programs and habitat degradation by livestock are concerns. Most populations are unmonitored and their statuses unknown. In Pakistan, a sarcoptic mange infection probably transmitted by livestock caused the death of many Greater Blue Sheep. The potential for competition between Greater Blue Sheep and livestock is high because in many areas both prefer alpine meadows during summer. There is a need to add protected areas and prioritize Greater Blue Sheep and other wildlife by reducing or excluding livestock, in coordination with incentive-driven wildlife conservation programs at the community level.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992DFF96064EFE1EFA52F3BE.taxon	materials_examined	China (upper Yangtze Gorge, Drupalong, south of Batang).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992DFF96064EFE1EFA52F3BE.taxon	discussion	The Dwarf Blue Sheep is smaller in body size, horn and skull measurements than the Greater Blue Sheep (P. nayaur) but not significantly different genetically. The two species are separated by a forest zone that extends 1000 m between the lowerelevation habitat inhabited by Dwarf Blue Sheep and the higher-elevation habitat of the Greater Blue Sheep. It is speculated that Dwarf Blue Sheep may be an isolated population in the process of speciation or its small body size is due to lower-quality habitat. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992DFF96064EFE1EFA52F3BE.taxon	distribution	Distribution. SC China (Upper Yangtze River Gorge in Batang County of W Sichuan) and adjacent area of Mukang County in Xizang.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992DFF96064EFE1EFA52F3BE.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Few measurements available. Shoulder height 70 - 80 cm; weight 28 — 35 kg (males) and c. 25 kg (females). Horn length 28 - 55 cm (males), horn basal girth 14 - 23 cm (males). Horns are more upturned and lack the inward curve characteristic of the horns of Greater Blue Sheep. Winter coat is drab, with a silvery sheen; dark markings develop only in older males. Diploid chromosome numberis 54.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992DFF96064EFE1EFA52F3BE.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Presently occurs at an elevation of 2700 - 2900 m on rocky, steep terrain with 70 - 80 ° slopes. Annual precipitation is about 650 mm with most occurring in summer. The vegetation consists principally of low shrubs (Berberis spp., Rosa spp., Cotoneaster spp., Cladrastris spp., Ephedra spp., Rhododendron spp.). Principal mammalian predators are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Dholes (Cuon alpinus), and Leopards (Panthera pardus), but predation has not been quantified.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992DFF96064EFE1EFA52F3BE.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Probably feed principally on graminoids in summer and browse in winter.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992DFF96064EFE1EFA52F3BE.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Based on local informants, mating occurs in November — December and offspring are born in May-June.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992DFF96064EFE1EFA52F3BE.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Feeding peaks in summer occur at 06: 00 - 09: 00 h, 10: 00 - 11: 00 h, and 16: 00 - 20: 00 h, and a bedding peak at 11: 00 - 15: 00 h. Adult males spend more time feeding and standing than other individuals, juveniles spend more time moving and in other activities, and females spend more time bedding. The population is characterized as timid and wary.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992DFF96064EFE1EFA52F3BE.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Movement studies are lacking. Group sizes are 2 - 15 with an average herd size of 6 - 2. Of 142 Dwarf Blue Sheep observed, 21 (14 - 8 %) were males, 31 (21 - 8 %) were females, and eleven (7 - 7 %) were young; 79 (55: 6 %) were of undetermined gender. The sex ratio was 67 - 7 males: 100 females and the ratio of young to combined adult and yearling females was 35 - 5 - 100: 100 in winter. In another study, population density was 0 - 71 ind / km?, and group sizes were 2 - 10 animals. Of those whose sex and age were determined, 17 (31 %) were young, 39 (29 - 8 %) were subadults, and 75 (57 - 2 %) were adults, and the adult sex ratio was 70 - 4 males: 100 females.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713992DFF96064EFE1EFA52F3BE.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The entire population consists of about 200 individuals, with 140 Dwarf Blue Sheep in Batang County. It has undergone a population decline estimated to be greater than 50 % in the last 21 years. It has a small distribution, principally between the villages of Suwalong and Zhubalong, 40 km south-west of the town of Batang, and concentrated in an area of 200 - 295 km? * The area is subjected to extensive livestock grazing and farming. Its small distribution renders it especially vulnerable to continued habitat degradation by unmanaged domestic livestock grazing and disturbance by pastoralists. Poaching also occurs and game laws are not enforced even within a protected area. Despite the small population and declining status, it is not formally on the national list of protected species of China. Creation of a community-based conservation hunting program that economically benefits the rural population and caters to foreign hunters is a possibility, but only if a detailed management plan is developed that provides for trained personnel to monitor and enforce hunting regulations and a multispecies grazing program that provides for the sustainable use of rangelands.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139923FF980375FE1CF8C1F877.taxon	materials_examined	Daghestan District of Caucasus, S Russia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139923FF980375FE1CF8C1F877.taxon	discussion	The name C. aegagrus is used here for the wild species. Populations on Mediterranean islands are derived from domestic forms and classified as feral domestic goats (C. hircus). The subspecies blythi (S Pakistan) and turemenica (S Turkmenistan) are not valid because these populations cannot be differentiated from populations inhabiting areas in other regions. The “ Chiltan Goat ” population (chialtanensis), of which the only viable population now occurs in the Hazarganji-Chiltan National Park in NW Pakistan, has been classified as a subspecies of either a Wild Goat or a Markhor (C. falconeri), or it may be a hybrid population between them. Chiltan Goat populations were formerly sympatric with both Wild Goat and Markhor populations, and share anatomical characters of both species. The Wild Goat was the progenitor of the domestic goat, but domestic goats have probably been hybridized with other wild goat species in Asia. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139923FF980375FE1CF8C1F877.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Turkey, S Russia (Daghestan and Chechnya), NE Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, N Iraq, Iran, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, and SW Pakistan. A free-roaming population introduced in 1970 in SC New Mexico, USA, increased to 2000 animals, but the population is actually maintained at 500 - 1000 by legalized sport hunting.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139923FF980375FE1CF8C1F877.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 129 - 152 cm (males), tail 11 - 13 cm (males), shoulder height 73 - 90 cm (males) and 55 - 60 cm (females), hindfoot 30 - 31 cm (males); weight 45 - 90 kg (males) and 25 - 55 kg (females). Newborn kids weigh 2: 5.3 - 3 kg (males) and 2 - 3 kg (females). The longest recorded horn is 152 cm, with a basal circumference of 20 cm, but horns rarely exceed 127 cm. Basal horn girth of males 4 - 11 years old is 16.5 - 25 cm. Horns of males curve upward and backward and are laterally compressed and frontally keeled, with knobs, which form at the borders of annual segments, projecting from the keel. Tips of horns grow parallel or diverge, or infrequently the horn tips converge, sometimes crossing. The lateral sides of horns are convex and inner sides are flat. Horns of females rarely exceed 33 cm and lack frontal knobs. Adult males have a prominent dark beard growing from the middle of the chin. Subadult males are brownish-gray to reddish-brown; adult males in the winter coat have a distinctive cinereous to whitish body color that contrasts sharply with the blackish-brown color of the face, front of neck, breast, area between the front legs, and front of the legs (except for the knees, where callosities develop). A callosity can also develop on the breast plate. There is a dark dorsal stripe extending from the nape to the black tail, an equally dark broad streak encircling the shoulder and connecting with the dark back stripe and neck front, and a dark flank stripe connected with dark breast and stripes on the hindlegs separating the belly. Males rarely live more than eleven years. The record for longevity in captivity was 14 years. Diploid chromosome number is 60.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139923FF980375FE1CF8C1F877.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Wild Goats occur in rocky, precipitous habitats associated with cliffs from sea level to 4000 m, but usually occur below 2500 m. In Daghestan, they inhabit montane forests, principally of pine and birch, at elevations of 1000 - 2700 m, but avoid areas with tall, dense vegetation stands on gentle slopes. Females inhabit the steep lowerriver valleys, including areas with interspersed human habitations and farmlands. Males remain in the upper forest zones, but will occasionally enter alpine areas inhabited by Daghestan Tur (C. cylindricornis). Females and young remain in the lower valley sides within a forested zone only 300 - 500 m in width. In areas other than Daghestan, most Wild Goat populations inhabit deserts and semi-arid areas. In the central Kopet Dagh Mountains of southern Turkmenistan, the percentage of time spent in five habitat types was 5 - 3 % on small hills, 7 - 2 % on plateaus, 15 - 3 % on grass-covered slopes, 42 - 1 % on rocky slopes, and 30 - 1 % on ledges. They have been recorded in shallow, accessible valleys and semi-desert foothills, but only in areas undisturbed by humans. Natural predators such as Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Leopards (Panthera pardus) have been extirpated in most areas occupied by Wild Goats.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139923FF980375FE1CF8C1F877.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. They are grazers, but feed on high percentages of browse in arid regions. In southern Pakistan, Wild Goat diets consisted of grasses when available but diets shifted to browse during the dry season.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139923FF980375FE1CF8C1F877.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Females become sexually mature at 2 - 3 years. Although males are sexually mature at two years, they do not participate in mating until they are four. In southern Turkmenistan, mating occurs in November and kids are born in late April and early May. In arid southern Pakistan, most mating occurs in mid-October to November, although mating can commence as early as August. Most births are in February and March, but births can extend into April. In the Caucasus, the principal mating period is from November to January but the mating period can extend into February, and births can occur as late as mid-July. Gestation is 150 - 160 days. Twinning is common but triplets are uncommon. In Daghestan, 52 % of females (n = 19) with young had twins. In Turkey, 30 % of females had singletons, 66 % had twins, and 4 % had triplets. Kids are occasionally preyed upon by golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) and bearded vultures (Gypaetus barbatus). Reproductive success of females is probably most influenced by annual rainfall variation of the current and previous year. During years of low rainfall, females fail to conceive or give birth to weak offspring. In arid southern Pakistan, vegetative growth resulting from rainfall as early as August can induce physiological female recovery, enabling females to reproduce. Wild Goats are serially polygynous; dominant males do most of the mating. Males remain within a female herd during the mating season instead of wandering from herd to herd searching for estrous females.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139923FF980375FE1CF8C1F877.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Wild Goats are diurnal and feed in the early morning and late afternoon during warm weather. During the dry season, large congregations can occur near watering sites.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139923FF980375FE1CF8C1F877.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Detailed movements and home range studies have not been conducted. Migrational movements have not been recorded. Seasonal movements involve elevation shifts to lower areas to avoid deep snows. Herds show a high degree of fidelity to specific areas. In October, at the initiation of the mating season, adult males join female herds and males and females remain in mixed herds during winter and spring. During the breeding season, most adult males form male herds that separate from the female herds. Males associate with other males of equal age or social status. During the rut, younger males do not associate with older, larger, dominant males. In areas with large populations, herds of 100 - 200 animals can occur.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139923FF980375FE1CF8C1F877.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Wild Goats occur in disjunct populations throughout their range. The Wild Goat was extirpated from Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria. Its present status in Iraq and Afghanistan is unknown. Wild Goats have been reported from Oman, but the possibility remains that they are feral populations of domestic goats. There are few population estimates. In Daghestan, there were an estimated 1500 in the early 1990 s. In the Kirthar National Park, southern Pakistan, the goat population increased from about 400 - 500 (3 - 3 — 4 - 1 ind / km? ®) in the early 1970 s to 700 - 1000 (11: 8 - 16 - 3 ind / km?) in the mid- 1980 s after the area was protected in a national park. Prior to 1980, Wild Goats were numerous in Iran, occurring in most mountain ranges. Populations have decreased since then, but census figures are not available. They have been extirpated over large areas of their former distribution range due to livestock usurpation of rangelands, resulting in habitat deterioration. Other contributing factors have been illegal hunting, destruction of woodlands, human disturbance, and feral and domestic dogs, which can be significant predators. Roads can also isolate populations, causing population fragmentation and increasing vulnerability to extirpation. Over most of their distribution, viable populations rarely occur outside protected areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139923FF99064FF7C1F7CCFDED.taxon	discussion	The Markhor is the most anatomically dissimilar species of Capra. Phylogenetic data based on mitochondrial genome fragments reveal that the genetic distance separating Markhor from other Capra species is small. Phylogenetic analysis of Y-chromosome data reveals that the Wild Goat (C. aegagrus) and the Markhor belong to one clade; the mtDNA data reveal support for the monophyly of all Capra species except for the Siberian Ibex (C. sibirica). The relationship of the Markhor to other Capra species remains unresolved. The so called “ Chiltan Goat ” population (chialtanensis), sometimes recognized as a separate subspecies, is most probably a population of Markhor x Wild Goat hybrids. Three subspecies recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139923FF99064FF7C1F7CCFDED.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. C. f. falconeriWagner, 1839 — NEAfghanistan, NPakistan, andNIndia. C. f. heptneriZalkin, 1945 — STajikistan, SETurkmenistan, SWUzbekistan, NAfghanistan. C. f. megaceros Hutton, 1842 — WC Pakistan, E Afghanistan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139923FF99064FF7C1F7CCFDED.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 155 - 170 cm (males), tail 10 - 20 cm, shoulder height 65 - 104 cm; weight 80 - 108 kg (males) and 32 - 50 kg (females). Horn length 80 - 165 cm (males), rarely longer than 35 cm in females, horn basal circumference 15 - 34 cm (males). Females weigh about 50 % less than males. There is great variation in the tightness of the horn twist and horn flare; Markhors have the greatest variation in horn configuration of all wild Capra. Horns either spiral upward and then flare, with the tips highly divergent, typical of subspecies falconeri and hepineri, or grow relatively straight in a tight spiral, typical of subspecies megaceros, but there can be variation within a population. General body color is reddish-gray, but with more yellow-buff tones in the summer coat of both genders and more gray in the winter coat. In males, a darker crest of longer hair extends from the withers down the spine. Long, white or gray shaggy hair develops on older males on the front of the neck, brisket, shoulder, upper part of the forelegs, and upper front of hindlegs. The long hair on the sides of the cheeks is continuous with the long, dark hair that forms the beard. Females also develop a beard. Neck and chest ruff in subspecies megaceros are not as well developed. The belly and legs are creamy, except for the front of the shanks, which are darker. A callosity surrounded by white hairs on the knee breaks the dark pattern on the front legs. The rump patch is small and whitish. The dark tail is short and not as bushy as that of ibexes. Males rarely live more than twelve years. Diploid chromosome numberis 60.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139923FF99064FF7C1F7CCFDED.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Markhors occur at 600 - 3600 m above sea level. In the Himalayas, Markhors occur at higher elevations (1700 - 3600 m) than do southern populations. They are found in open, forested areas of oaks and conifers or in areas with tall shrubs and scattered trees interspersed with smaller shrubs in northern, higher elevations. Markhors can inhabit areas with a high percentage of canopy cover. In west-central Pakistan, they inhabit arid, almost treeless areas, largely denuded by human overexploitation, with temperatures of up to 45 ° C and average annual precipitation of 200 - 250 mm; prolonged droughts can occur. Females use open, steeper resting sites than males. In Turkmenistan, adult males occurred at elevations higher than 1800 m and females generally occurred below 1800 m in large rugged canyons. Markhors have the reputation of being the most agile climbers of all wild Capra in Asia, able to occupy the steepest and rockiest habitats. Major wild predators are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Snow Leopards (Panthera uncia).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139923FF99064FF7C1F7CCFDED.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding: Markhors eat equal proportions of graminoids and forbs (26 % each) and 48 % browse. They prefer graminoids and forbs in summer and browse in winter. In northern Pakistan, oak leaves constituted 88 % of their winter food; they also actively seek oak acorns. They actively climb trees to browse on leaves and twigs during winter. On one occasion, 27 out of a group of 40 were feeding in trees. Females in northern Pakistan spent 37 % oftheir total feeding time foraging in trees, usually at a height of 1 - 5 m, but up to 9 m. They are agile climbers, capable ofjumping from limb to limb. Males older than three years of age do not climb trees because of their weight and the hindrance of their horns. They feed on leaves on the ground, especially those that fall when others are foraging in trees. In some regions, trees are not a major habitat component, and they spend considerable time feeding on steep slopes and cliffs. In Tajikistan, adult females consumed 7 - 11 kg and kids 2.4 - 4 kg of forage per day based on fresh forage weight.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139923FF99064FF7C1F7CCFDED.taxon	breeding	Breeding. In northern Pakistan, Markhors mate in mid-December to early January. In southern subspecies megaceros populations, mating occurs in October-November. Females first give birth at 2 - 3 years old. Older males actively court individual females and do most of the mating. After a gestation period of 165 - 175 days, females give birth to one or two neonates in late April to earlyJune.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139923FF99064FF7C1F7CCFDED.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Moving and feeding are most common in the morning and late afternoon. Resting is common at noon and early afternoon. Markhors prefer southern slopes in summer and winter. During winter, at midday, after valley bottoms warm, Markhors descend and forage on the slopes until after dark.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139923FF99064FF7C1F7CCFDED.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Markhors move around considerably during the course of a year. Distance between winter and summer range can be 10 - 15 km; total annual range is 80 km ®. Detailed home range studies have not been conducted. In northern Pakistan, in a population of about 100 Markhors, 31 % were adult females, 8: - 5 % yearling females, 40 % young, and 20 - 5 % males. Of the males, 7 - 9 % were yearlings, 2 - 4 % were 2 - 5 years old, 4 - 2 % were 3 - 5 years old, and 6 - 1 % 4 - 5 years old or older. The sex ratio was about 50 males: 100 females. Female herds consisted of 2 - 18 individuals, with a mean of nine. In Tajikistan, in a population of about 50 Markhors, 26 % were adult females, 40 % were kids, 24 % were yearlings, and 10 % were adult males. In a strictly controlled hunted population in west-central Pakistan, 14 % of males were six or more years old.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139923FF99064FF7C1F7CCFDED.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Most populations are unmonitored and population numbers are not documented. The total number of subspecies falconeri probably does not exceed 8500 and the total number of subspecies megaceros probably does not exceed 3500. Populations of subspecies heptneri greatly declined recently due to a disease outbreak in Tajikistan; the total number throughout its range probably does not exceed 800. Populations in Afghanistan are unprotected and particularly vulnerable: there are probably fewer than 200. The threat throughout the Markhor’s range is illegal commercial and subsistence hunting. There has been widespread extirpation; habitat degradation and fragmentation have relegated the Markhor to marginal habitats. Most populations are isolated and disjunct because of increasing agricultural development, excessive grazing of rangelands, and other human intrusions. Livestock and wildlife-coordinated grazing management and incentive-driven community-based conservation programs need to be developed and implemented. Population monitoring and enforcement of game laws are also urgently needed. Successful trophy-hunting programs for subspecies falconeri and megaceros have been developed in Pakistan, and have generated more than US $ 2 million for community development. Markhors are protected by local game wardens paid by funds generated through sport-hunting programs, and populations have increased. Of the US $ 35,000 trophy fee charged per Markhor, 20 % goes to the government and 80 % to the local community. These populations are periodically monitored. Under the protection of local Pathan tribesmen, the Markhor population increased from 700 in 1994 to 2500 in 2005.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139922FF9A06DCFD36FDFEF2F9.taxon	materials_examined	Pyrenees.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139922FF9A06DCFD36FDFEF2F9.taxon	discussion	This species and the European Ibex (C. ibex) are monophyletic; the two species evolved by vicariance speciation from a single immigration of Capra into Europe. Preliminary genetics data indicate there is need of a taxonomic subspecies revision. Of four historically recognized races, two are extinct. The nominate subspecies pyrenaica (Schinz, 1838) lived in the Pyrenees in France, Spain, and Andorra until 1998 when the last individual died; the subspecies lusitanica (Schlegel, 1872) ocurred in northern Portugal and southern Galicia and disappeared at the end of 19 " century. There are two extant subspecies.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139922FF9A06DCFD36FDFEF2F9.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. C. p. hispanicaSchimper, 1848 — S & ESpain. C. p. victoriae Cabrera, 1911 — N & W Spain and N Portugal (reintroduced).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139922FF9A06DCFD36FDFEF2F9.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 108 - 155 cm (males) and 97 - 130 cm (females), tail 12 — 13 cm, shoulder height 65 - 89 cm (males) and 65 - 76 cm (females); weight 50.4 - 90 kg (males) and 31.3 - 41 kg (females). Horn length 42 - 101 cm (males), 13.5 - 28. 7 cm (females); horn basal circumference 20 - 26 cm (males), 8: 6 — - 14 cm (females). Males can be 50 % larger than females. Male horns grow upward, then curve out and back, with the tips pointing up or down; females’ horns are much shorter and grow up and back. Adult males in winter pelage are grayish to pale brown to whitish on the side of head, throat, and upper front and sides of the neck, as well as on the upper sides of the body, extending to the hindquarters. The forehead, beard, front and back of the neck, chest, brisket, and front of the shoulder and legs are black; there is a dark mid-dorsal stripe extending to the dark tail. There is usually a dark line of variable width extending from the dark back of the lower neck around the base of the neck to the dark chest. The lower sides of the body, the front of the upper hindlegs, and the lower front legs are black; the dark area of the lower body can be continuous with the dark area of the front shoulder. A narrow white rump patch, not extending above the base of the tail, is continuous with the white of the back of the hindlegs and white belly; the back of front leg is also white. Females have a uniformly brown body, except for white underparts, but also have a dark mid-dorsal stripe. Diploid chromosome numberis 60.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139922FF9A06DCFD36FDFEF2F9.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Elevations range from near sea level to 3500 m. Habitats range from alpine to subalpine and lower elevations in open and closed pine and oak forests, shrublands, areas dominated by grasses and forbs, and mixtures of these types and, rarely, cultvated fields. These habitats are in or in proximity to rocky, rough, precipitous terrain that is essential for escape cover. Tall vegetation, when available, is used for thermal cover. Iberian Ibexes use lower-elevation habitats in winter and higher elevations in spring and summer. In areas with a high-elevation component, 80 % of the population in summeris above 2300 m between July and September. Females occupy habitats with a lower component oftall vegetation, probably to better detect predators, and closer to rugged terrain, especially during and after parturition. After the breeding season, males may spend the summer in forested areas; females use more open areas. Larger mixed groups usually occur in open areas where visual communication is facilitated. In some areas, habitat use may be influenced by human disturbance: the ibexes may select habitats of lower quality that are farther from humans.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139922FF9A06DCFD36FDFEF2F9.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. In the Gredos Mountains, where browse availability is low, grasses constitute 80 % of diets in spring and summer, 75 % in autumn, and 69 % in winter. In higher-elevation mountains (Sierra Nevada) in south-eastern Spain, diets consisted of 80 % grasses in July and 58 % grasses in August. In lower-elevation mountains, browse predominated; annual diets were 72: 4 % browse, 8: 4 % forbs, and 19 - 2 % grasses. Of the 126 plant species available, 36 species were detected in fecal samples. Population density was negatively correlated with diet diversity. Males consumed a higher percentage of browse than females. Diets were most influenced by plant diversity and structure, accessibility, and seasonal precipitation. In southern Spain, young animals were principally grazers, adult males were browsers, and females were intermediate feeders. In areas where foraging of Iberian Ibexes, domestic Sheep (Quis aries), domestic goats (C. hircus), free-ranging sheep (called “ Mouflons ”), and Common Fallow Deer (Dama dama) were sympatric, diet overlap was greater between wild and free-ranging domestic species than between wild and domestic ungulates. All species increased their intake of browse during winter, which was the season when competition was most likely to occur. There was a greater diversity of diet in wild species, and diversity of diets increased with decreasing ungulate densities. There was also a high dietary overlap of browse between Iberian Ibexes and Western Red Deer (Cervus elaphus). The greater the availability of palatable forage, the greater the amount of time spent foraging.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139922FF9A06DCFD36FDFEF2F9.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Prior to parturition, females separate from young of the previous year and most yearlings leave female herds. Mating occurs in November-December. Males are polygynous, mating with several females. Older males do most of the mating. The presence of adult males probably stimulates ovulation in adult females. Females in the wild first give birth at age three and may reproduce until the age of 13. Gestation lasts 175 - 185 days; parturition occurs in May and earlyJune in rugged, rocky, steep terrain, where newborns are safer from predators. Twinning is rare. In some areas, females with young and yearlings use habitats with tall vegetation, probably because tall vegetation affords cover. In south-eastern Spain, neonates suckle 3 - 3 times / hour, but after a week, suckling frequency decreases to 1 - 6 times / hour. During the same period, the duration of suckling bouts decreased from 77 seconds to 26 - 5 seconds. The ratio of young (0 - 1 year old) per female ranged from 0 - 30 to 0 - 58 in one population during six years and 0 - 68 to 0 - 81 in another population during two years; higher survival was correlated with higher spring precipitation. Kid — ewe ratios ranged from 35 - 3 to 94 kids: 100 ewes, and yearling — ewe ratios ranged from 12 - 5 to 44 - 8 yearlings: 100 ewes. Annual yearling survival in two populations monitored for three years each ranged from 21 % to 53 % (females: 9 - 54 %; males: 31 - 85 %). There was a positive correlation between yearling survival and annual precipitation in August and September. Annual survival of young 0 - 1 years old was lower in populations with higher adult densities. Females can live up to 15 years in the wild.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139922FF9A06DCFD36FDFEF2F9.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Foraging usually occurs in early morning and late in the day, with a midday rest period. They were observed feeding at night during summer and on moonlit nights. Adult females spend more time feeding during winter and spring than during the autumn mating season and summer. Females become more mobile in spring, when forage availability increases, and they engage in more agonistic behavior. Adult males spend more time in social interactions than females. In high-elevation areas, they use south-facing slopes in autumn and winter, and north-east-facing slopes during warm weather in spring and summer. In all seasons except winter, they use eastfacing slopes in mornings and west-facing slopes in afternoons.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139922FF9A06DCFD36FDFEF2F9.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. In spring, males form separate herds from females and occupy different elevations. Segregation occurs even in areas where they occupy the same elevation. Iberian Ibexes have a high dispersalability, about 1 - 2 — 1 - 8 km / year. In high-elevation areas, there is a seasonal movement from lower elevations in winter to increasingly higher elevations as the snow line recedes. Home ranges are larger in spring than in winter. Most densities recorded varied between 1 - 2 ind / km? and 4 - 4 ind / km?, with the highest density exceeding 15 ind / km?. In south-eastern Spain, females with young have larger home ranges (mean of 0 - 72 km?) than females without young (0 - 14 km ®). Females of different ages did not have significant differences in home range size. In higher-elevation mountains, females’ home ranges were 1: 94 km? in autumn and 3 - 21 km? in spring. Population density, forage availability, and plant density influence home range size. Annual male population age structure in southern Spain from 1982 to 1987 varied as follows: 0 - 2 years old (27 - 9 - 43 - 2 %), 2 — 4 years old (9 - 2 - 23 - 5 %), 4 - 6 years old (10 - 2 - 21 - 8 %), 6 - 8 years old (8 - 17 - 3 %), 8 - 10 years old (5 - 8 - 18: 7 %), and ten years old (0 - 01 - 9 - 2 %). Adult sex ratios were 1 - 100 males: 77 - 192 females. Ratios of yearling males to yearling females were 100: 14 - 170. During the monitoring of two populations for a total of nine years (one population for five years and the other for four years), the sex ratio favored females in only one year, indicating that during the first year, males had a higher survival rate, but adult sex ratios favored females due to the higher mortality of adult males. The highest percentage of mixed herds is in October (36: 8 %), November (63 - 6 %), and December (45 - 2 %), which coincides with the mating season.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139922FF9A06DCFD36FDFEF2F9.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are more than 50,000 Iberian Ibexes in Spain and about 100 in Portugal. They have reoccupied areas through restoration programs and natural dispersal where they were extirpated; e. g. subspecies victoriae recently expanded into northern Portugal, reestablishing a population there. There are 8000 wvictoriae in the Gredos Mountains in west-central Spain, and 30,000 hispanica in Andalusia in southern Spain and 8500 in eastern Spain; hispanica comprises 80 % of the total population. They are the highest priced game mammal in Spain; about 1500 are legally killed each year. Illegal hunting is not a major problem. Livestock are a concern because they may be forage and space competitors, displacing ibexes from optimal habitats, and capable of transmitting diseases to wild populations. Exotics, especially the Aoudad (Ammotragus lervia), are also a threat. Aoudads were introduced in southern Spain and continue to increase in uncontrolled numbers and to disperse in arid, montane areas in habitats also favored by Iberian Ibexes. Aoudads are both potential competitors and transmitters of disease. Iberian Ibexes underwent significant population declines due to an outbreak of sarcoptic mange (Sarcoptes scabier); domestic animals and exotics are suspected vectors. Another concern is human disturbance in protected areas, which could displace the ibex from preferred habitats and result in decreased body condition and productivity. Additional concerns are habitat fragmentation and lack of ecological and population status information.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139921FF9B064EFE8BFA6BF6FC.taxon	materials_examined	Egypt.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139921FF9B064EFE8BFA6BF6FC.taxon	discussion	Formerly classified as a subspecies of C. ibex. Based on phylogenetic data, it warrants classification as a separate species. Monotypic:.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139921FF9B064EFE8BFA6BF6FC.taxon	distribution	Distribution: EgyptE of Nile River, NE Sudan, Israel, W Jordan, Saudi Arabia, SW Oman, SE Yemen; occurrence in Eritrea is not confirmed.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139921FF9B064EFE8BFA6BF6FC.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 119 - 160 cm (males) and 90 - 120 cm (females), tail 9 - 17 cm (males) and 6 - 16 cm (females), shoulder height ¢. 75 - 110 cm (males) and ¢. 65 - 100 cm (females), ear 13 - 20 cm (males) and 13 - 18 cm (females); weight 50 - 85 kg (males) and 25 - 40 kg (females). Horn length 88 - 127 cm (males), rarely longer than 35 cm (females), basal horn circumference 15 - 24 cm (males). Ear is longer than tail. Males weigh 50 % more than females. Mature male horns diverge slightly and grow upward, scimitarshaped, with the tips pointing forward. The relatively flat frontal surface of male horns has transverse knobs. Older males develop dark beards 7 - 10 cm long. General body color is pale brown to reddishsandy. Chin, belly, and usually upper inside of legs and scrotum are white. In males in winter pelage, lower neck, chest, and upper front and sides of front legs can be black. There is a dark, mid-dorsal stripe from the neck to the tail and a well-defined or faint flank stripe. A silver saddle can develop in older males. In both sexes the rump patch is small, narrow, and white; tail is black and tufted (hairs 3 cm long); and dark front of legs and hooves sharply contrasts with white knees and pasterns. Females lack dorsal and flank stripes. Male longevity rarely exceeds eleven years in the wild.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139921FF9B064EFE8BFA6BF6FC.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Nubian Ibexes occur from below sea level in the Dead Sea area to 2600 m in mountainous terrain interspersed with rocky wadi beds (riparian areas), cliffs, escarpments, boulderstrewn scree, and plateaus in proximity to precipitous escape terrain. Annual precipitation can be less than 70 mm and daytime temperature can exceed 40 ° C. Springs, natural water catchments in canyon pools and riparian areas are important watering sites and the associated vegetation is an important food source. Wild large mammalian carnivores, principally Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Leopards (Panthera pardus), are not significant predators because they occur in low numbers or have been extirpated. Harassment and predation by domestic and feral dogs, especially livestock guard dogs, can have a major negative impact on ibexes, especially females and young. Females with young are especially at risk of predation. Females not accompanied by kids select richer feeding areas, spend more time feeding, forage farther from precipitous escape terrain, and associate in smaller groups than females accompanied by young. Females with kids probably prioritize minimizing risk predation to offspring by adopting a conservative behavior strategy, especially by remaining in proximity to rough, steep, rocky escape terrain.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139921FF9B064EFE8BFA6BF6FC.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. In Israel, Nubian Ibexes fed on 40 plant species. Plant species consumed varied seasonally, with an increase in browse during the dry season. Nubian Ibexes frequently feed on 28 plants: 14 shrubs, nine trees, four perennial grasses, and one forb species. The five principal plant foods are four shrubs and one perennial grass. During the rainy season, diet changed from browse to perennials, which allowed the shrub and tree species to recover from heavy grazing during the dry period. During a winter of higher than average rainfall, Nubian Ibexes fed exclusively on annual vegetation, avoiding shrubs. In other areas, acacia twigs, and leaves and pods on plants and on the ground, are principal food sources. Females have rapid food passage rates, are more selective of forage intake, and more thoroughly masticate forage than males, probably to promote digestion by reducing forage particle size. Males masticate less thoroughly, feed more on fibrous browse, and promote digestion by prolonging exposure of food particles to rumen digestion.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139921FF9B064EFE8BFA6BF6FC.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating occurs in late September and October. In Oman, there appeared to be two mating periods, one in autumn and a second in spring. After a gestation period of 165 - 175 days, females give birth in late March and April in isolation in rough, steep terrain that provides protection from predation. The neonate, usually a singleton, remains secluded for several days and is fed periodically by the mother until it is mature enough to follow her andjoin a female herd. About 20 - 30 % of females have twins, and females have been observed with triplets. Males tend individual females and do not form harems. Mature, older males do most of the mating and by aggressive behaviors, prevent younger, subdominant males from participating in the rut. Younger males tend to avoid older males and interact with males of similar age and socialstatus. Kid — female ratio during the mating season in Israel was 22 kids: 100 females in 1979 and 72 kids: 100 females in 1980. The higher kid survival in 1980 was attributed to higher rainfall and subsequent higher forage availability that year. In northern Arabia, during a two-year period, the ratio was 89 - 100 kids at age six months: 100 females. In Israel, annual mortality of young during the first 120 days after birth averaged 37 %. Neonatal survival can be highly variable, depending principally on seasonal forage availability. In southern Israel, as many as 47 kids became accidentally entrapped in successive years in a concavity in a steep canyon, because they were unable to scale the precipitous walls until the age of up to 13 days for single kids and up to 20 days for twins. Their mothers returned periodically to nurse trapped young.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139921FF9B064EFE8BFA6BF6FC.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Daily activity begins at dawn. In hot weather, Nubian Ibexes move to north-facing slopes by 08: 00 h, where they remain in the shade during the hottest hours of the day. They become active again at about 17: 00 h. During cold weather, they are active most of the day. In southern Sinai, where lower-elevation areas are occupied by livestock and herders in winter, the ibexes remain at elevations above 2500 m, although daytime temperatures are cold and stressful; they graze in sunlight to absorb solar heat. Females with kids adopt spatial and temporal activity patterns that minimize predation.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139921FF9B064EFE8BFA6BF6FC.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Nubian Ibexes have established daily movement routes, moving from nocturnal sleeping sites to activity areas, which in most areas are in wadi beds. During long movements, they avoid lower elevations and instead use higher-elevation trails. Seasonal movements from lower areas in winter to higher areas in spring can occur during the rainy season. Daily movements are about 4 - 6 km, but vary considerably depending on forage availability and proximity to cover. During the mating season, adult males can move 5 - 10 km in one day from one mixed herd to another. Females are less prone to move long distances. Home ranges can be 0 - 5 km? or smaller, but some female groups can range over an area of 15 km? ®. Nubian Ibex social groups consist of mature, mating-age males (greater than or equal to six years of age), female herds that include kids and young males (less than or equal to three years of age); temporary associations of immature males 4 - 6 years of age; female herds that include kids and young males up to three years of age; and mixed groups composed of adult females and males and younger males and females including young. Adult females have a linear dominance hierarchy. During the non-mating period, females and mature males are in separate herds. Young males attain the body weight of adult females by age three and separate from female herds by age four. Population densities in a protected area with a population of about 200 ibexes in northern Arabia were 0: 26 - 2: 67 ind / km? ®. The highest densities were in areas more distant from human disturbance. The population structure was 32 % females, 40 % kids, and 28 % males. Mixed groups consisted of up to 36 animals and those of female-young groups were 2 - 8, with a minimum of a female and her offspring. The male age classes broke down as follows: 38 % were 1 - 3 years old, 27 - 5 % were 4 - 5 years old, 20 % were 6 - 8 years old, and 15 % were nine years or older. Unlike other areas, where mature males and females segregate during the non-mating period, males tended to remain with females except during parturition, probably due to the limited area of primary ibex habitat in the reserve.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139921FF9B064EFE8BFA6BF6FC.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Nubian Ibex was extinct in Syria and Lebanon and greatly decreased throughoutits range and extirpated over wide areas due to illegal hunting, competition with increasing livestock numbers, habitat deterioration, and habitat fragmentation due to human settlements, agricultural development, roads, vehicular traffic, and the associated human disturbance. Establishment of protected areas and travel corridors, with strict enforcement of game laws and limited numbers or complete absence of livestock, is urgent. Protected areas should also be established in areas where ibexes have been extirpated, and populations should be reestablished with wild ibexes from adjacent areas. Monitoring to determine population status, which is conducted in few areas, should be a priority. International management programs between countries that share ibex populations should be initiated. Strictly managed sport-hunting enterprises should be considered; these could provide economic incentives to local communities to maintain and establish wild populations.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139920FF9B03CDF644F6FBF6AC.taxon	materials_examined	Ethiopia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139920FF9B03CDF644F6FBF6AC.taxon	discussion	Sometimes classified as a subspecies of C. nubiana. Molecular genetic data indicate that C. walie and C. nubiana have had a long-term disjunct distribution and form a monophyletic clade separate from an ancestral central Asian ibex. Genetic data and its unique ecological adaptations indicate that C. walie is a separate species. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139920FF9B03CDF644F6FBF6AC.taxon	distribution	Distribution. N Ethiopia, principally in the Simien Mountains National Park along 25 km of the N escarpment.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139920FF9B03CDF644F6FBF6AC.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 175 - 196 cm (males), tail 22.5 - 25 cm (males), shoulder height ¢. 75 - 110 cm (males) and ¢. 65 - 100 cm (females); weight 100 - 125 kg (males). Horn length 89 - 114 cm (males), basal horn circumference 25 - 30. 5 cm (males), about 13 cm (females). The horns, which are flattened laterally, diverge slightly and grow upward in a scimitarshaped curve. The relatively flat surfaces of the horns of males have transverse knobs. General body color is chestnut-brown. Chin, throat, underside of the body, and inner surfaces of the legs are whitish, with a black stripe extending down the front of each limb. White bands above the knees and hooves cut across the black stripe of the front and hindlegs. Males seven years and older have a prominent dark beard, and dark chest and flank stripes that connect with the dark upper front legs and dark upper front surface of the hindlegs. Females and young males lack beards. Males have a black mid-dorsal stripe that extends to the tail. The whitish rump patch is small, confined to the anal area, and mostly covered by the relatively long tail. Males rarely live more than eleven years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139920FF9B03CDF644F6FBF6AC.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Occur at an average elevation of 3390 m (range: 2500 - 4200 m) in areas oftall vegetation, including forested areas and tall shrub habitats, but also tall grass meadows and savannas. Have a strong proclivity for using shrubby, savanna, and forested habitats. Their habitats are particularly characterized by heterogeneous slopes including escarpments, deep canyons, gorges, cliffs, and other rocky habitats in steep, rough terrain. Thirty percent of sightings of Walia Ibexes were on 30 - 40 ° slopes and 64 % on slopes greater than 45 °. Females are associated with steeper terrain than males.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139920FF9B03CDF644F6FBF6AC.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Grasses may comprise 11 % of diet, but browse is the diet component. Detailed studies of seasonal preferences have not been conducted. Walia ibexes feed on slopes or terraces near steep, rugged terrain.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139920FF9B03CDF644F6FBF6AC.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating occurs throughout the year, with a peak in March — May. A relatively large number of animals are in mixed groupsatthis period, indicating a peak in sexual activity. Also at this period, 30 % of adult males older than four years of age are in rut, and the greatest numbers of adult females are followed by rutting males. Dominant older males, at least seven years old, probably do most of the mating. Males mate with a single female at a time and do not form harems. There is a birth peak in September — October, toward the end of the rainy season. The gestation period is about 165 - 175 days. Twins are probably rare.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139920FF9B03CDF644F6FBF6AC.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Walia Ibexes are usually active on east-facing slopes, which receive more rain than west-facing slopes. Resting animals prefer ridges that overlook large areas of terrain and afford security. Groups concentrate on areas oftaller, dense plant cover, with a higher utilization of shrubby, savanna, and forested habitats.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139920FF9B03CDF644F6FBF6AC.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Walia Ibexes usually do not have seasonal movements. Males probably have larger home ranges than females, but detailed studies have not been conducted. Males and females are not completely segregated at any time of the year, probably because there are females in estrus throughout the year. Forty percent of ibex herds contained males and females of all ages; 84 % of the animals were in mixed herds, indicating that males join female herds during all seasons. Males at the age of two to three years join older male herds.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139920FF9B03CDF644F6FBF6AC.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Population currently numbers about 450 in the Simien Mountains National Park, Ethiopia, an increase from 300 in the 1980 s. Small numbers occur outside the park. Because excessive numbers of livestock are causing habitat degradation and disturbance to native wildlife, livestock should be removed from the national park. The increasing human population in scattered settlements within and outside the park and ensuing agricultural development in steep terrain are further degrading habitats through soil erosion. Cutting of trees and shrubs for firewood and human-induced forest fires add to the continuing habitat degradation and destruction. Development of a buffer area surrounding the park and connectivity corridors for ibexes within and outside the park are urgently needed. The creation of strictly managed game ranching enterprises outside the park, including sport hunting, could promote incentive-driven, community-based conservation initiatives, encourage the protection of ibexes outside park boundaries and make it possible to establish populations in other areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139920FF9C06C5F6FBF620FB9F.taxon	materials_examined	Switzerland.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139920FF9C06C5F6FBF620FB9F.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered by some as a polytypic subspecies including three subspecies: Alpine Ibex (C. i. ibex), Siberian Ibex (C. i. sibirica), and Nubian Ibex (C. i. nubiana). The mtDNA and Y-chromosome data indicate that C. ibex and C. pyrenaica are monophyletic and evolved from an ancestral immigration of Capra into Europe, where they were subsequently geographically isolated and evolved into separate species. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139920FF9C06C5F6FBF620FB9F.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Switzerland, S Germany, Liechtenstein, Austria, N Italy, and SE France. Introduced into NW Slovenia and Bulgaria.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139920FF9C06C5F6FBF620FB9F.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 115 - 135 cm (males) and 55 - 100 cm (females), tail 21 - 29 cm (males) and 15 - 23 cm (females), shoulder height 65 - 95 cm; weight 70 - 120 kg (males) and 40 - 50 kg (females). Horn length 75 - 102 cm (males), up to 35 cm (females), basal horn girth 20 - 25 cm (males) and 12 - 16 cm (females). In winter, older males are dark chestnut brown with white belly; sides of body, lower chest, and legs are dark; tail is black and bushy. Calluses develop on the carpal joint of front legs. White, narrow rump patch is restricted to area about the length and width of the tail. Females are uniformly brown but with a black tail and dark stripe along lower portion of body. In summer, males and females are yellowish-brown but males have paler neck, forehead, and flanks. Male horns grow upward and diverge in a scimitar shape. Horn growth is greatest during the second year, with significant individual heterogeneity in horn growth. Individuals with the longest horn growth as young adults also have the longest horns later in life; longer horn length in adult males is indicative of genetic quality. Growing long horns probably does not negatively affect longevity. Males reach maximum bodysize at 8 - 5 - 10 - 5 years and females at 4: 5 - 5 - 5 years. Females can weigh 50 % less than males. Males may lose 20 % of body weight in winter. Males live up to 22 years in captivity; but in the wild, they live up to 16 years; females may live 19 years. Diploid chromosome numberis 60.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139920FF9C06C5F6FBF620FB9F.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Alpine Ibex principally occurs at elevations of 1600 - 3200 m in alpine and subalpine habitats but can use open forests in rocky terrain associated with ledges, cliffs, and precipitous valleys. Optimal precipitation is 100 - 1000 mm / year. Females tend to live above the tree line year-round, in three habitat types: steep rocky slopes, alpine meadows, and stone ravines. In winter, both sexes use precipitous 30 - 45 ° slopes with minimal snow cover. Overhanging ledges and caves provide thermal cover. Alpine Ibexes usually avoid extensive wooded areas, especially during deep snow, but adult males in high-density populations can use coniferous and broadleaf forests all winter. Younger males stay closer to rocky slopes than males aged eleven years or older. During the rut, males select for rocky terrain and avoid tall shrub habitats. Survival of females and males 2 - 8 years old exceeds 95 % under high-quality forage conditions. Greatest mortality factors are old age, starvation, disease and avalanches. Population density and snow depth and their interaction can negatively affect population size. Predation is negligible because of absence of large predators. Infectious keratoconjunctivitis, an eye disease resulting in blindness, can result in 30 % mortality, but epizootic diseases do not usually result in die-offs.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139920FF9C06C5F6FBF620FB9F.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Annual diets consist of about 60 % graminoids, 38 % forbs, and 2 % browse. Consumption of browse increases in winter and spring.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139920FF9C06C5F6FBF620FB9F.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating occurs in December — January. In the wild, males and females can reach sexual maturity by 1 - 5 years, but a female's first pregnancy can be delayed until 3 — 4 years of age or later in high-density and poorly nourished populations. Parturition occurs in June after a gestation period of 165 - 175 days. Twins are rare, but in captivity, 30 % of older females can twin. Neonates weigh 2.3 - 5 kg. Prior to parturition, pregnant females leave ewe herds and give birth in isolation in steep, rugged terrain where neonates are safer from predators and human disturbance. After the neonate is strong enough to follow, females join herds of females with kids. In a high-quality, recently established population, 43 % of females gave birth at two years of age and 87 % of females three years old or older gave birth in consecutive years. Alpine Ibexes have a serial polygynous mating system. Males can mate with more than one female during a mating season but only guard and court one female at a time. Dominant males do most of the courting and mating and attempt to prevent other bucks from mating with the guarded female. In one study, 83 % of males 9 - 12 years old did most of the mating. Younger males achieve temporary access to guarded females by causing them to run and separate from the dominant courting male.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139920FF9C06C5F6FBF620FB9F.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. In the Gran Paradiso National Park in northern Italy, in a high-elevation habitat, male foraging activity decreases at midday and evening as temperature and solar radiation increase. Grazing occurs primarily in the morning and evening. On average, males spend 51 % oftheir daily activity budget grazing, 38 % resting, 4 - 8 % standing, 2 - 4 % moving, and 3 - 8 % in other activities. Ibexes move to higher elevations and nearly stop feeding during hot and sunny days, and remain at lower elevations and feed at all hours during cooler and cloudy days. During evenings, males grazed for about 70 % of the time in earlyJune, 35 % in mid-July, and 85 % in early September. On cooler, cloudy days, they foraged at about 2500 m; they moved to elevations of about 2750 m on sunny days. Heavier males moved higher compared to smaller males, given the same increase in air temperature. Small males spent more time feeding than large males. Daily altitudinal movements are probably a thermoregulatory tactic. In a study area in France, adult males spent 6 - 11 % of the daytime feeding. In contrast, females spent 26 - 33 %), yearling males 20 - 33 %, and yearling females 34 - 47 % of the daytime feeding. Males spent more time lying, standing, and walking than females. Males of all ages spend less time foraging during the rut than before or after the rut. Lactating females are more vigilant than non-breeding females, yearlings, or males.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139920FF9C06C5F6FBF620FB9F.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. During the winter, males and females may move to lower-elevation, snow-free areas. They follow the retreating snow line upward, feeding on fresh plant growth, during spring and remain at higher elevations from July to October. They prefer southand south-west-facing slopes that are steep and snow free during winter. There are regional differences in the use of elevations, but there is usually overlap between winter and summer ranges. Female groups, particularly those with young, use habitats in or close to precipitous, rocky terrain. Males are not dependent on steep habitats. They move greater distances than females, seek out alpine meadows, and make more frequent use of areas disturbed by humans, such as roads, villages, and hiking trails, which are characterized by higher forage quality. Snow cover can restrict home range size. Home ranges are larger in summer and autumn, smaller in spring, and smallest in winter; the ranges of males are larger than those of females. In northern Italy, the mean annual home range of females was 186 ha; the mean home range size was 20 ha in winter, 136 ha in summer, and intermediate in size in autumn and spring. Those of males were 300 - 500 ha in summer, 250 - 400 ha in autumn, 100 - 200 ha in spring, and 50 - 180 ha in winter. Home ranges of recently translocated populations can be several times larger than those of established populations. Males and females are spatially segregated from spring to autumn. Males associate with other males of similar age and social status. Adolescent males remain with females until about age three, when theyjoin male herds. A linear social hierarchy is established within male herds and probably also in female herds. Malesjoin female herds during the mating season.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139920FF9C06C5F6FBF620FB9F.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Alpine Ibex was on the verge of extinction in the 1800 s, but a protected population remained in northern Italy and is the source from which reestablished populations in the Alps of Austria, Switzerland, Lichtenstein, Germany, and France originated. Although there are concerns about the low genetic variability, this has not been an obstacle in succesfully establishing populations. There are now over 22,000 animals in free-ranging populations. Hunting is allowed in managed populations in Switzerland, Austria, Liechtenstein, and Slovenia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139927FF9D0648FBE4FDD0F8D9.taxon	materials_examined	Siberia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139927FF9D0648FBE4FDD0F8D9.taxon	discussion	Formerly, it was sometimes classified as a subspecies of C. ibex, butit is strongly distinct. It occurs over a wider area than any other ibex and is the most primitive ibex. Numerous subspecies have been described, resulting in a confusing array of names. There is a need for a taxonomic revision of this species. Four subspecies are tentatively recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139927FF9D0648FBE4FDD0F8D9.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. C. s. sibiricaPallas, 1776 — Russia (Siberia), NWChina, WMongolia, NEKazakhstan. C. s. alaianaNoack, 1902 — Kyrgyzstan, SEKazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, NAfghanistan, WChina. C. s. hagenbeckiNoack, 1903 — C & SMongolia, NChina. C. s. sakeen Blyth, 1842 — N Pakistan, N India.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139927FF9D0648FBE4FDD0F8D9.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 103 - 132 cm (males) and 85 - 101 cm (females), tail 18 - 20 cm (males) and 13 - 22 cm (females), shoulder height 65 - 105 cm; weight 60 - 130 kg (males) and 30 - 56 kg (females). Horn length 91 - 148 cm (males) and 19 - 39 cm (females), basal horn girth 20 - 31 cm (males) and 9 - 14 cm (females). Male horns diverge and curve backward; the tips in older males curve forward or downward and eitherslightly inward or outward. Anterior surfaces of horns are flattened, with transverse ridges or bosses. Beard is long (up to 20 cm), bushy, and thick. Tail is flat and hairless underneath. Coloration is highly variable regionally. General winter coat in males, including the tail, beard, legs, and belly, is a shade of brown, ranging from pale to chocolate. A prominent whitish saddle patch is divided by the dark dorsal stripe. An additional whitish area can develop at the base of the back of the neck. In specimens from southern Mongolia, the whitish areas may be absent. Females lack whitish coloration. In the wild, males rarely live more than twelve years; they live up to 15 years in captivity and females live up to 22 years. Diploid chromosome number is 60.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139927FF9D0648FBE4FDD0F8D9.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Siberian Ibex occurs at 700 m above sea level in low, rocky hills in the Gobi Desert and up to ¢. 6700 m in the Himalayas in rocky, precipitous terrain interspersed with cliffs, deep valleys, scree, and rocky outcrops. They forage in alpine meadows, gentle slopes, and even wet meadows of mountain streams, usually staying close to precipitous escape terrain. They avoid areas with deep snow and tall vegetation, but will occasionally enter forests during heavy snow. In northern India, Siberian Ibexes were predominantly observed within 50 m of rugged, steep terrain. Larger feeding groups were significantly farther from cliffs than smaller groups, and were within 100 - 200 m of escape terrain a minimum of 90 % of the time. Ibexes usually occur at higher elevations than other wild ungulates. Major predators include Snow Leopards (Panthera uncia), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx). Up to 78 % of lynx feces and 19 % of wolf feces contain remains of Siberian Ibex. Of 104 successful wolf predations, 74 ibexes were males and 30 were females. Die-offs due to disease, such as pleuropneumonia, can occur. About 25 - 35 % of kids survive their first year, but survival can be lower during harsh winters. Of 87 male skulls found in the Tianshan, 53 % were of 6 - 8 year-olds.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139927FF9D0648FBE4FDD0F8D9.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. On an annual basis, the diet of the Siberian Ibex consists primarily of graminoids in summer and browse in winter, but diets can vary depending on plant species’ availability. They feed in timberline sedge and herb meadows and in steppe and alpine meadows. Up to 85 % ofthe diet can be browse seasonally. Males can eat up to 16 kg and females up to 10 kg of green forage per day. They frequentsalt licks when available. In the Himalayas, ibexes, domestic goats and sheep, and free-ranging horses had similar diets, preferring grasses. Siberian Ibex diet differed most from those of domestic Yaks, donkeys, and cattle.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139927FF9D0648FBE4FDD0F8D9.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating occurs in October — January, with regional differences during rut. In healthy populations with abundant, nutritious forage, females become pregnant when 2 - 5 years old, but most females first become pregnant at age 3 - 5 years. Estrus lasts 20 days, and females can cycle again if not impregnated. In one population, only 25 % of two-year-old females were pregnant, but 98 % of females older than three were pregnant. Females reproduce until 9 - 15 years of age. In northern areas, births occur in April-early May; in the Himalayas and central Tianshan mountains, births occur in late May — early June; and in the Pamirs in June. Gestation is 170 - 180 days. Singletons are most common but twinning can be 4 - 25 %. Triplets have been recorded. Newborns usually weigh 3.4 - 5 kg. Malesfive years old and older do most of the courting and mating.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139927FF9D0648FBE4FDD0F8D9.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. During winter, ibexes are most active before and after sunrise and are inactive at midday. During periods of heavy snows, they are most active at midday. In winter and summer, they preferred south-facing slopes.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139927FF9D0648FBE4FDD0F8D9.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Daily movements in the Himalaya were less than 300 m and the longest movements seen were 3 — 4 km. Seasonal movements and migrations vary from 40 km to 100 km, with an altitudinal shift of 700 - 2000 m. Movements in autumn commence after heavy snow. Movements can also be influenced by livestock intrusions, hunting, and bothersome insects. They usually remain within a seasonal home range, but home rangesize has not been determined. Heavy snows can cause shifts in home ranges. During winter, they descend to steep, grassy, south-facing slopes. Herd size depends on population size, with means ranging from 5 - 4 animals to 29 animals. Mixed-group herds have as many as 100 - 200 animals. During autumn, 80 - 96 % of Siberian Ibexes are in mixed herds; this decreases to 17 - 8 % in summer. Males form separate herds from females in May-July and rejoin female herds in autumn. Both males and females probably form linear social hierarchies.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139927FF9D0648FBE4FDD0F8D9.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The largest numbers of Siberian Ibexes occur in China (40,000 - 50,000), the former Soviet republics of Central Asia (105,000), and Mongolia (over 50,000). There are probably no more than 20,000 individuals in all other countries combined. These estimates are based on unsubstantiated data. Siberian Ibexes have been extirpated over large areas, especially in war-devastated Afghanistan. Major threats include competition with livestock and associated human disturbance, illegal subsistence hunting, and habitat degradation and fragmentation.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139926FF9D03D8F822F5E8F46F.taxon	materials_examined	Central Caucasus.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139926FF9D03D8F822F5E8F46F.taxon	discussion	Sometimes treated as a polytypic species with Daghestan Tur (C. cylindricornis) as a subspecies. However, mtDNA data support two clades of tur with a strong differentiation of eastern (Daghestan Tur) and western (Kuban Tur) forms congruent with two species, but morphological and genetic data indicate probable hybridization of Daghestan x Kuban Tur. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139926FF9D03D8F822F5E8F46F.taxon	distribution	Distribution. W Great Caucasus Mts in Georgia and Russia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139926FF9D03D8F822F5E8F46F.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 159 - 196 cm (males) and 136 - 164 (females), tail 12 - 17 cm (males) and 8 - 14 cm (females), shoulder height 90 - 110 cm (males) and 78 - 90 cm (females); weight 123 - 155 kg (males) and 58 - 71 kg (females). Horn length 66 - 107 cm (males); basal horn girth 28 - 34 cm (males). Female horns rarely exceed 30 cm. Male horns grow upward, outward, and then backward in an arc with tips inward or outward. Horns in cross section are subtriangular, with a broad frontal surface and prominent transverse ridges in lower portion of horn. Beard length is usually longer than 12 cm and up to 18 cm, narrow and prominent. In winter, regardless of age and sex, coloration varies from grayish-brown to dirty-white. Underparts are whitish or yellowish-gray. Tail is dark brown, as are the stripes along the front of the legs and the beard in males. The rump patch is small, narrow, and whitish. Summer coats in males and females are brighter, ranging from reddish-gray to reddish-chestnut. Dimorphic coloration is not conspicuous. Diploid chromosome number is 60.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139926FF9D03D8F822F5E8F46F.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Kuban Tur occurs in steep terrain with cliffs and valleys, rocky, broken terrain associated with meadows, and subalpine and alpine montane zones at elevations of 1000 - 3300 m. West Caucasusis rather humid, with rainy summers and snowy winters, especially on the southern slopes. Kuban Tur avoid forested areas of spruce and fir, occurring only in sparse pine stands; they rarely winter on the southern, Georgian, slope. Annual mortality is about 10 %. In Teberda Nature Reserve, Kuban Tur remains were found in 46 % of Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) droppings annually, the proportion rising to 70 % in winter-spring. Annual loss due to wolf predation is about 4 % of the population. Wolf predation might be higher, because these data were collected during periods of low wolf numbers. In the Caucasus Nature Reserve, the proportion of Kuban Tur remains in wolf droppings is considerably lower (about 23 %), probably due to an abundance of Western Red Deer (Cervus elaphus), the main wolf prey. Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) probably prey principally on young animals and females, but they are not predators because they occur in low numbers. Large birds of prey occasionally successfully hunt newborn kids. Additional mortality of Kuban Tur is due to poaching; legal hunting is limited. In Teberda, mortality due to illegal hunting rose from 1 - 4 % (of all animals found dead) in 1986 - 1990 to 21 - 6 % in 1996 - 2000. Snow avalanches are a major mortality factor. On average, nine Kuban Tur were killed annually by avalanches on 10 km? of wintering areas in the Caucasus Nature Reserve, about 3 % of the total population. In Kabardin-Balkaria, 10 - 25 Kuban Tur were found dead at a single avalanche site, and the total annual mortality was estimated at no less than 4 % of the population. In Teberda, mortality is about 4 - 6 % and avalanches are supposedly responsible for 30 - 85 % of adult tur mortality. However, these latter estimates are based on undocumented data. Avalanches are probably not a major mortality factor except in winters with abnormally high snow accumulation.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139926FF9D03D8F822F5E8F46F.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Kuban Tur consume over 150 plant species. Grasses (Bromus, Festuca, Alopecurus, Phleum) are forage sources, but diets vary annually. Kuban Tur also eat different plant parts in different months. In May-June, they feed on the entire plant. In July-August, they select buds and blossoms, the most nutritious parts. In winter, the animals often browse on pine, spruce, and willow. In summer, raw contents of female stomachs weigh 5.5 - 5 kg; male stomachs weigh 7 - 8 kg. In winter, stomachs of females weigh up to 8 - 10 kg and those of males weigh 13 - 14 kg. Grasses comprise 80 - 90 % of stomach contents in summer and up to 70 % in winter. During winter, tur consume over 70 % of phytomass on their pastures. The Kuban Tur often visits natural salt licks, mostly in late spring to beginning of summer. Kids start salt-licking before the age of one month.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139926FF9D03D8F822F5E8F46F.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating occurs principally in November-December. Males delay mating activity until six years of age. Males defend a single estrous female and prevent other males from mating with the guarded female. Females bear their first young at age three years or even four. Gestation lasts 165 - 175 days. Kids are born in May-June, but births occur as late as August. In Caucasus Nature Reserve, during 40 consecutive years, young of the year comprised about 13 % (7 - 18 %) of the population in a given year. In Teberda Nature Reserve, young of the year comprised 11 % (7 - 16 %).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139926FF9D03D8F822F5E8F46F.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. In winter, Kuban Tur usually feed during the day, with peaks at 05: 00 11: 00 h and 17: 00 - 19: 00 h. In summer, there are feeding peaks at 03: 00 - 09: 00 h and 15: 00 - 21: 00 h. Kuban Tur become highly nocturnal when hunted or if they have to share pastures with livestock. During harsh weather, they seek shelter in overhanging cliffs and rock outcrops.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139926FF9D03D8F822F5E8F46F.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Detailed movements studies have not been conducted. Some herds move 10 - 12 km from one mountain to another. Wintering areas can encompass 0 - 08 - 5 - 5 km? summer areas encompass 0 - 02 — 1 - 9 km? ®. Kuban Tur can be highly gregarious, with herds of 100 - 300 individuals in high-density populations. In populations of several thousand, herds usually have 11 - 20 animals. Individuals may interchange between herds. Population densities are 3 - 6 ind / km * in populations of 1300 - 2700 animals. In the early 1960 s, when there were 12,000 Kuban Tur in the Caucasus Nature Reserve, winter habitat consisted of about one-third of the summer habitat above timberline in the reserve; consequently, the population density was greater than 44 ind / km? in winter and only 13 ind / km? in summer habitat.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139926FF9D03D8F822F5E8F46F.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Its range is only about 250 km in length and a maximum width of 70 km, the smallest range of any species of Capra. The Kuban Tur is protected in several nature reserves and national parks, but their numbers on the southern slope of the Main Range in Georgia are minimal. Ritsa Protected Area, which borders the Caucasus Nature Reserve, is devoid of Kuban Tur. Despite listings in regional red data books and occurring in a number of protected areas, Kuban Tur underwent a considerable, and even catastrophic, decline in the late 1980 s — 1990 s due to uncontrolled hunting. In Teberda Nature Reserve, the population dropped from 1750 animals in 1982 to 1000 in 2000, and in Caucasus Nature Reserve, it declined from 10,000 - 12,000 in the first one-half of 1970 s to about 4000 - 6000 in 1980 s, and then to about 3000. Kuban Tur numbers outside protected areas are low, even minimal. Currently, there are a total of about 5000 - 6000 Kuban Tur. Poaching is a major threat because of lax enforcement of game laws. It was probably extirpated in two nature reserves in Georgia. The largest number occurs on the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus in Russia. Additional threats include competition with livestock and human disturbance. There is an urgent need for additional protected areas with adequately trained personnel to monitor populations and prevent poaching.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139926FF9E06DFF3B5F8EDF564.taxon	materials_examined	Caucasus.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139926FF9E06DFF3B5F8EDF564.taxon	discussion	There has been uncertainty in the past whether the Daghestan Tur and the Kuban Tur (C. caucasica) are conspecific. They are marginally sympatric where their ranges meet and hybridize in captivity. Morphological and genetic data indicate probable hybridization in the wild, but this has not been fully confirmed, and this explanation is denied by some authors. The situation is unresolved, but it is clear that the two are quite distinct morphologically and easily recognizable in the field. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139926FF9E06DFF3B5F8EDF564.taxon	distribution	Distribution. E Caucasus stretching about 500 km in Georgia, Azerbaijan, and within the Russian Federation in Kabardin — Balkaria, North Ossetia — Alania, Ingushetia, Chechnya, and Daghestan; E distributional limit is the Babadagh Mts in Azerbaijan, W limit is the Bezengi Cherek River.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139926FF9E06DFF3B5F8EDF564.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 178 - 192 cm (males) and 135 - 141 cm (females), tail 11 - 15 cm, shoulder height 79 - 105 cm (males) and 65 - 70 cm (females); weight 100 — 143 kg (males) and 48 - 64 kg (females). Horn length 70 - 90 cm (males) and 20 - 22 cm (females); basal horn girth 26 - 30 cm (males). Male horns grow upward and diverge, then twist backward and upward. The tips point upward and are broomed or broken. Horns are triangular in young males and subtriangular to cylindrical in mature males. Mature male body color, including top of head and tail, is dark brown in winter pelage; front of hind and front legs distinctly darker. Mature males are uniformly dark; rump patch is yellowish and narrow, covered by tail. In young males, belly and inner surfaces of front and hindlegs are whitish. Female winter pelage is grayish is sandy-yellow with whitish ventral body and dark brown stripes on front of legs. Beard of males is 12 cm long (or shorter; shortest beard of all wild Capra) and directed slightly forward. When bent forward it does not reach beyond the chin. The male’s beard is almost absent in summer; females are rarely bearded. Summer coat of all ages and genders sandyyellow, but belly and inner surfaces of legs are dirty-yellow; there are dark brown stripes on frontal surfaces of legs. Diploid chromosome numberis 60, typical of all Capra.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139926FF9E06DFF3B5F8EDF564.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Daghestan Tur occurs at elevations of 1000 - 4000 m in alpine and subalpine open forests, meadows, and river valleys in or adjacent to steep, rocky habitats. Females have a greater affinity to precipitous terrain than males. Most populations spend the year at 2500 - 3200 m in alpine areas in summer and lower areas in winter. Some populations spend the entire year in open forested areas. Over 80 % of herds of females, kids, yearlings, and young males remain in open forests; over 50 % of adult males prefer higher elevations. In summer in areas above timberline, 63 % of females in groups occurred in steep terrain and over 83 % of adult males fed on gentler slopes; in some areas males use medium-steep (26 — 46 °) slopes. In general, males prefer higher, gentler slopes, and open habitats and females use lower, steeper, and open, sparsely forested areas. Females live up to 22 years, and males in the wild 15 - 16 years. Mortality of young of the year can reach 40 %. At age three, mortality is 9: - 5 % for both males and females, and by age 14, is 32 % for males and 14 % for females. In North Ossetia, the kid-female ratio correlates negatively with the depth of the previous winter’s snow. A succession of severe snowy winters caused a significant decrease of the population due to a drop in birth rates and kid survival. Most mortality is caused by avalanches and predators. Avalanches may account for 60 % of annual mortality, mostly of adult males. In one area, avalanches annually killed about 370 animals (4 % of population). In another area, during a particularly snowy winter, 367 animals (35 % of annual mortality) died. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) can account for up to 20 % of annual mortality; mortality from predation is highest in less rugged and steep terrain. In the central Caucasus, Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) may account for 58 % of kid mortality annually. Large birds of prey can cause 5 - 7 % of annual kid mortality. The Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) 1 s a minor predator.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139926FF9E06DFF3B5F8EDF564.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Daghestan Tur are primarily grazers; grasses comprise 30 % or more of annual diets, much as 65 % in summer and early winter and less in summer (30 %), when forbs become available. Up to 60 % of winter diets may consist of browse; they may subsist on pine needles during heavy snow periods. They can use 29 - 51 % of phytomass in a given area, which can alter plant community composition and biomass. They consume mineralized soil and drink from mineral springs. They will paw through snow up to 30 cm deep to reach the underground parts of plants, bend branches with their forelegs, rear up on their hindlegs to reach high forage, and climb slanting trees.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139926FF9E06DFF3B5F8EDF564.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Rut lasts up to 1 - 5 months, from mid-November to the beginning ofJanuary. Gestation period is 165 - 175 days. Parturition occurs from the end of May until the end ofJuly, with occasional births in August. Females reach sexual maturity at age two but usually first give birth at age three or four, almost always to singletons; only 3 - 3 - 3 - 7 % of females twin. Neonates weigh 3 - 4 — 4 - 1 kg. Prior to parturition, females isolate themselves in rugged, precipitous terrain. They hide the neonate for 2 - 3 days and periodically return to nurse until the kid is strong enough to follow the mother. In summer, kids constitute about 16 - 22 % and yearlings 7 - 8 % of the population. Males older than eight years do most of the mating. They guard a single estrous female but will mate with several females during the rut. Adult males establish a dominance hierarchy and dominate younger males, attempting to prevent them from mating. Adult males receive 0 - 2 aggressive interactions from other adult males per hour; young males receive 0 - 75 interactions from adult males per hour. Intensity of courtship in adult malesis higher (3 - 2 displays / hour) than in 3 to 6 year-old males (2 - 1 displays / hour). Courtship attempts by young males can be aggressive toward females; females responded aggressively to 15 - 5 % of the courting attempts of young males, but only 9 - 5 % of those by adult males.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139926FF9E06DFF3B5F8EDF564.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Daghestan Tur favor northern slopes above timberline in summer (63: 5 % of sightings) and southern slopes in winter (93 %). Adult males are least active from 08: 00 h until 16: 00 h. Females are more active during daylight than males, perhaps due to higher nutritional needs in lactating females; they also feed at night. There can be daily vertical movements, to higher elevations in the morning, where they graze in meadows, to lower, rugged terrain in early evening, where they spend the night. This pattern of movements may be reversed in some areas. Daily movements of males are about 1500 m horizontally and 1000 m vertically; those of females are 500 m horizontally and 300 m vertically. Males during the rut scent-mark (0 - 1 mark / hour for each male) by rubbing bark from tree trunks and bigger branches with their horns, rubbing their post-cornual area on debarked vegetation; they sniff the mark periodically.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139926FF9E06DFF3B5F8EDF564.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Vertical movements occur seasonally between lower winter ranges and higher summer ranges. Seasonal movements rarely exceed 5 km, but they can be up to 15 km during heavy snows; males usually move longer distances. Female annual home ranges encompass 4 - 6 km ®. Males have larger home ranges because of their greater movements during the mating season. Adult male groups consistently use the same trails, resting sites, and feeding areas. Population densities vary from 1: 5 - 1 - 7 ind / km? to up to 66 ind / km? in wintering areas. Herds consist of adult male groups (greater than six years old) with some younger males; younger male groups; female groups that may include young males; and mixed groups consisting of females and males of several ages that include at least one adult male and one adult female. Mixed groups occur during the pre-rut and rutting period only. Adult male mean group size is 12 - 2. Mean group size of mixed groupsis ten animals during high population densities. That of female herdsis 6 - 8; these are the most stable groups. The kid — female ratio is inversely correlated with population density, ranging from 73 kids: 100 females at a density of 1 - 8 ind / km? to 48 kids: 100 females at a density of 7 - 3 ind / km? *. Average annual group size is 7 - 4 but may change from 5 - 8 in November-December to 9 - 5 in May-July. Herds of 300 can be observed in highdensity areas. Large herds are temporary groupings, often due to concentrations at artificial salt licks. Group size correlates with population density, ranging from a mean of 11 - 15 when population density is 1 - 8 ind / km? * to about 30 at a density of 7 - 3 ind / km? *. Topography can influence group size more than snow cover, population density, and forested terrain. In a protected area in Ossetia, mean group size was 9 - 7 in steep terrain and 24 in undulating and less steep terrain. It was over 70 in Azerbaijan in the latter terrain. Herd sizes are negatively correlated with intensity of domestic sheep grazing. In areas without intensive livestock grazing, winter Daghestan Tur density was about 3 - 1 - 3 - 5 ind / km?; it decreased to 1 - 2 - 1 - 5 ind / km? in rangelands where greater than 80 % of the winter pastures of Daghestan Tur were used by domestic sheep.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139926FF9E06DFF3B5F8EDF564.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Daghestan Tur is threatened by competition with livestock and associated human disturbance, including illegal hunting, inadequate size and number of existing protected areas, and lack of enforcement of wildlife regulations. Populations decreased from 30,000 in the 1970 s to about 20,000 currently; actual numbers are unknown due to lack of monitoring. Most populations are concentrated in small protected areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993BFF800371FE20F768FD63.taxon	materials_examined	Nilgiri Hills, S India.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993BFF800371FE20F768FD63.taxon	discussion	Formerly classified in the genus Hemutragus. Nilgiritragus is a sister-group of Quis. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993BFF800371FE20F768FD63.taxon	distribution	Distribution. SW India in the Western Ghats range along the border of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993BFF800371FE20F768FD63.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Few measurements available. Shoulder height 80 - 100 cm; weight 50 - 100 kg. Horn length 28 - 44. 5 cm (males), horn basal girth 12: 7 - 25 cm (males). The keel of the horn is confined to the inner edge. The pelage of females is dusky-brown to gray-brown, with a whitish abdomen. Males are dark brown to blue-black. In some, the sides of the neck are gray, and in older males, the lower back, sides, and occasionally the rump are pale in color. The throat, abdomen, and carpal joints are white. Both sexes have a dark, mid-dorsal band extending the length of the back. In adult males, the dark muzzle is separated from the dark cheek by a pale stripe from the ear down the side of the muzzle. Diploid chromosome number is 58.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993BFF800371FE20F768FD63.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Nilgiri Thar is the only member of the tribe Caprini that lives in the tropics. Annual temperature fluctuations are not pronounced at elevations of 1200 - 2600 m in the Western Ghats, where they occur. They live near cliffs and steep slopes; rolling grasslands provide their preferred forage. Some areas receive an average annual rainfall of 4000 mm, mostly from June to August, during the monsoon. The grasslands are on steep slopes below cliffs and among rock slabs, interspersed with shrubs and forested deep valleys; the trees rarely exceed ten meters in height. Cliffs, which provide security, are a limiting factor because of their limited availability. Nilgiri Tahrs are distributed in subpopulations, some with limited exchange of individuals. They are the prey of Leopards (Panthera pardus) and Dholes (Cuon alpinus), but predation is not a significant mortality factor.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993BFF800371FE20F768FD63.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Primarily grazers, with grasses comprising a much greater volume than forbs, shrubs, and trees. During the dry season, browse consumption increases. In drier, lowland habitats, they are probably primarily browsers. They occasionally feed at the edges of forest patches.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993BFF800371FE20F768FD63.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating season is in July-August, during the monsoon season, and most births occur in January-February, during the period of least thermal stress. Gestation period is 175 - 185 days. Females give birth to one offspring. Twinning is extremely rare. Unlike temperate caprins, whose mating season occurs during the end of the period of decreasing daylength, Nilgiri Tahrs mate during the period of increasing daylength. Some females whose offspring die at an early age conceive twice in one year and hence can have two young per year. Second births occur during the monsoon, during which period newborns are subject to thermal stress. Young born during the monsoon are exposed to wet, cold, windy weather and have a higher mortality than those born during January and February.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993BFF800371FE20F768FD63.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Most tahrs feed in early morning until about 08: 00 h. From 10: 30 h to 14: 30 h about half are active. A second feeding peak occurs after 16: 00 h.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993BFF800371FE20F768FD63.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Basic social units consist of mixed groups and male groups. Mixed groups (females, offspring, subadults, and during the rut, adult males) average 42 (2 - 150) animals. Male groups form during the non-mating season and have an average of three (2 - 20) animals, but solitary males are common. Populations in two areas were 13: 4 % and 15 - 2 % adult males, 7 - 9 % and 4 - 2 % subadult males, 34 - 2 % and 33 - 6 % females, 18: 9 % and 17 - 3 % yearlings, and 25 - 6 % and 29 - 6 % young. Density increases with the increase in cliff area. The population in the Eravikulam National Park had a mean density of 6 - 27 ind / km? (5: 68 - 8: 16 ind / km?) in April, the highest tahr density recorded throughout their range. Females comprised about 40 - 45 % of the combined subpopulations. The ratio of young-of-the-year to adult female was 30 - 90: 100 and the yearling ratio was 20 - 55: 100 females. The sex ratio varied from 53 - 7 to 66 - 7 males: 100 females, with a mean of 59 - 7 males: 100 females. Annual mortality within the park was 44 - 52 % for young, 31 - 37 % for yearlings and 17 - 24 % for adults. At birth, life expectancy was 3 - 3 - 5 years. Herds continually change members between groups. Older males are rarely permanent members of mixed herds, but rather continually enter and leave mixed herds. Social behaviors include butting horns, but most encounters involve body contact and displays.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993BFF800371FE20F768FD63.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List and in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act of India. Total population is probably less than 2000 animals, in scattered populations, of which ¢. 800 tahrs inhabit the Eravikulam National Park. Most populations are fragmented, unmonitored, their status is unknown, and many consist of less than 50 animals occurring in 50 - 60 localities. Also, many populations occur outside protected areas and are highly vulnerable to extirpation. Nilgiri Tahrs are subjected to poaching, human intrusions, and disturbance, exotic tree monocultures, and competition with livestock. Community-based conservation programs are lacking. Ecological studies to determine habitat requirements and status of tahr habitats are a high priority as are annual monitoring of populations with a reliable monitoring protocol. A landscape management approach should be used to develop a metapopulation network to ensure the genetic viability of isolated populations. Enlargement of present protected areas and reestablishment of tahrs in areas where they have been extirpated are also essential, as is the enforcement of game laws.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993BFF810676FC6DFEFAFDC7.taxon	materials_examined	Erzerum, Asia Minor (Turkey).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993BFF810676FC6DFEFAFDC7.taxon	discussion	Sheep taxonomy is controversial; the Anatolian Sheep, the Isfahan Sheep (O. isphahanica), and the Laristan Sheep (O. laristanica) were usually formerly classified as subspecies of O. orientalis, a classification also adopted by IUCN. However, the name orientalis is based on a hybrid population and is not useable. There is a hybrid zone in the central Alborz Mountains of north-central Iran where Anatolian Sheep and Afghan Urials (O. cycloceros) are sympatric. This has been verified by chromosomal and molecular genetic studies. It is probably the species from which domestic sheep (O. aries), as well as the feral sheep known as “ Mouflon ” on Cyprus, Corsica, and Sardinia, are derived. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993BFF810676FC6DFEFAFDC7.taxon	distribution	Distribution. SC & E Turkey, N Iraq, S Armenia, Azerbaijan (Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic), N Israel (Mt Carmel), and NW Iran; its distribution boundaries in Iran have not been fully determined. Introduced on Kabudan I in Lake Urumiyeh, NW Iran.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993BFF810676FC6DFEFAFDC7.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 128 - 140 cm (males) and 124 - 128 cm (females), tail 11 - 13 cm (males) and 11 - 12 em (females), shoulder height 83 - 91 cm, hindfoot 37 - 40 cm (males) and 34 - 37 cm (females); weight 55 - 67 kg (males) and 35 - 45 kg (females). Females are hornless. Males lack a bib and have a dark ruff extending from the front of the lower neck to the chest. A white saddle patch that often extends to the middorsal area is present. There can be a dark line separating the white undersides from the body coloration. Body color of males and females is a shade of brown. The lower portions of the legs are white. Male horns grow upward and curve back over the neck (supracervical). Diploid chromosome number is 54.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993BFF810676FC6DFEFAFDC7.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Anatolian Sheep occur in dissected mountain foothills, montane habitats, and undulating steppe. In agricultural areas, they principally occur in adjacent, steeper, rougher terrain.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993BFF810676FC6DFEFAFDC7.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Like other wild sheep, they are principally grazers, with graminoids comprising the largest percentage of their diets. They also feed in cultivated fields, where wheat can be a major seasonal regional component of their diets.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993BFF810676FC6DFEFAFDC7.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating occurs principally in December, and lambs, singletons or twins, are born in May. Gestation lasts 150 - 160 days. Newborn lambs weigh approximately 3 kg. Males seek estrous ewes over a wide area and individual dominant rams guard individual estrous ewes from other rams, but will mate with several ewes during a mating season. Copulations last 2 - 3 seconds.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993BFF810676FC6DFEFAFDC7.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Anatolian Sheep are crepuscular, tending to feed early in the morning and in the evening, and resting during the middle of the day.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993BFF810676FC6DFEFAFDC7.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Detailed studies have not been conducted. Males establish social hierarchies in which larger-bodied, longer-horned individual are dominant over younger, smaller, rams. Aggressive interactions may entail several non-violent displays such as the front kick, in which the front leg is lifted toward the opponent, and the head twist, in which the head is rotated sharply right or left. Older rams do not disturb non-estrous ewes during the mating season, but younger rams can be aggressive toward ewes even if they are not in estrus. Older rams occur in stable social groups and prevent younger rams from participating in the rut.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993BFF810676FC6DFEFAFDC7.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix 1 (as O. orientalis ophion). Classified as Vulnerable on the The IUCN Red List (as O. o. gmelini). Populations of the Anatolian Sheep in Iran, Turkey, and Iraq are disjunct and have decreased, but census data are not available. The largest populations in Turkey and Iran are in protected areas. The population in the Bozdag Wildlife Protected Area in south-central Turkey numbers about 600, a major increase from the less than 40 remaining when the reserve was established. Sheep on Kabudan Island probably number over 1500. Major threats are competition with domestic livestock, transmission of disease from domestic livestock, and illegal hunting. Wild sheep in Iran are parasitized by 25 species of gastrointestinal nematodes that are shared by domestic sheep.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8103C7FD0FFC83F59D.taxon	materials_examined	Esfahan (= Isfahan), Iran.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8103C7FD0FFC83F59D.taxon	discussion	Sheep taxonomy is controversial; the Anatolian Sheep (O. gmelinz), the Isfahan Sheep, and the Laristan Sheep (O. laristanica) were usually formerly classified as subspecies of O. orientalis, a classification also adopted by IUCN. However, the name orientalis is based on a hybrid population in north-central Iran and is not useable. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8103C7FD0FFC83F59D.taxon	distribution	Distribution. WC Iran (SW & NW ofthe city of Isfahan), but its distribution limits are undetermined, especially to the E.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8103C7FD0FFC83F59D.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. No specific body measurements available. The horns grow in an arc, with the tips growing toward the neck or above the neck. Males in winter pelage have a full-length black neck ruff extending from below the throat to the brisket, and have a distinct white saddle patch. The undersides and upper portion ofthe legs are brown. The area from knees to pastern is usually white in both sexes. The muzzle and chin are white. Females are horned. Diploid chromosome numberis undetermined except for specimens from Mooteh Wildlife Refuge, which have a diploid number of 54.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8103C7FD0FFC83F59D.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Isfahan Sheep occur in lower, less precipitous portions of mountain ranges surrounding the city of Isfahan at elevations not exceeding 2000 m above sea level. In one protected area inhabited by Isfahan Sheep, wild sheep are the most frequently killed prey of Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). The wild predator is probably the Gray Wolf (Canis lupus), but its impacts on wild sheep populations are unknown.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8103C7FD0FFC83F59D.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, butit is likely primarily a grazer like other members of the genus.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8103C7FD0FFC83F59D.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but based on closely related species, likely to bear one or two young after a gestation period of 150 - 160 months.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8103C7FD0FFC83F59D.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but most likely crepuscular, with bulk of daily activity in early morning and evening, with resting during the hot part of the day.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8103C7FD0FFC83F59D.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, but related species are gregarious, especially females and young.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8103C7FD0FFC83F59D.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as O. orientalis isphahanica). It occurs in the Gamishloo, Tange-Sayad, and Kola-Ghazi wildlife refuges and the Tandooreh National Park. It also occurs in the Mooteh Wildlife Refuge, 80 km north-west of Isfahan. Major threats are encroachment of habitat from surrounding urban populations, agricultural development, predation, and harassment by feral dogs, livestock overutilization of rangelands, and transmission of diseases from domestic livestock. Census data are not available, but the entire population probably does not exceed 500 animals.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8103DBF5E1F6C5F68B.taxon	materials_examined	Laristan, S Persia (Iran).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8103DBF5E1F6C5F68B.taxon	discussion	Sheep taxonomy is controversial; the Anatolian Sheep (O. gmelini), the Isfahan Sheep (O. isphahanica), and the Laristan Sheep were usually formerly classified as subspecies of O. orientalis, a classification also adopted by IUCN. However, the name orientalis is based on a hybrid population in north-central Iran and is not useable. Diploid chromosome number is 54, the same as O. gmelini, but they differ in anatomical body features. Because Laristan Sheep possess both urial characteristics (horns curl along the side of the head) and Anatolian Sheep characteristics (saddle patch present), it is possible that this species originated from a hybrid that became geographically isolated and evolved into a form with urial-type horns but with Anatolian Sheep-type chromosomes and pelage. However, it is also possible that Laristan Sheep evolved from an isolated Anatolian Sheep population that evolved urial type horns but retained the anatomical features of Anatolian Sheep (i. e. reduced neck ruff and a saddle patch). Horn shape can be variable within a sheep population and isolated forms could have evolved a uniform horn shape. Wild sheep sampled 160 km south of the city of Kerman in south-eastern Iran in the Khabrva-Rouchoun Wildlife Refuge have a variable diploid chromosome number of 54 and 55, indicative of a hybrid population. The range of these “ Kerman Sheep ” is geographically intermediate between that of Laristan Sheep to the west and Afghan Urial (O. cycloceros) from southern Pakistan. They resemble Laristan Sheep in having curling horns and a white saddle but differ in that the neck ruff is black and may be restricted to the lower neck or extend the full length of the neck. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8103DBF5E1F6C5F68B.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S Iran, from the area N of the city of Shiraz S into Fars Province, at least as far S as the Hormoud Protected Area.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8103DBF5E1F6C5F68B.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body mean 124 cm (two adult males) and 119 cm (two adult females), tail 12 - 8 cm (males) and 12 cm (females), ear 11 - 3 cm (males) and 11 - 5 cm (females), hindfoot 35 cm (males) and 32 - 5 (females); weight 49 - 3 kg (males) and 29 - 5 kg (females). Horns curl along side of head. The longest recorded male horn measured 79 cm, with a basal horn circumference of 25 cm; males can weigh up to 64 kg. Female horns rarely exceed 25 cm in length and 11 cm in circumference. Males are at least 30 % larger than females. In winter pelage, adult males have a black neck ruff on the lower neck and chest and a white saddle patch of variable size. Both males and females have a brown body color and a distinct light rump patch.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8103DBF5E1F6C5F68B.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. In the Bamou National Park north of the city of Shiraz, Laristan Sheep occur from valley bottoms to undulating and mountainousterrain. They usually are not sighted in steep, rocky terrain. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Leopards (Panthera pardus) are the predators. Wild sheep in Iran are parasitized by several species of platyhelminths. The high incidence of some larval cestodes indicates the presence of canid reservoir hosts, probably wild and domestic canids, including sheep-herding dogs.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8103DBF5E1F6C5F68B.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Laristan Sheep preferably graze on grasses, but in arid southern Iran, browse probably predominates.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8103DBF5E1F6C5F68B.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating probably occurs in November; after a gestation period of 150 - 160 days, ewes give birth to one or two young in April. The reproductive tracts of 57 ewes aged from one to four or more years of age were examined during late gestation, and all of the ewes were pregnant. None of the yearlings or two-year-olds had twins, but 25 % of the three-year-olds and 53 % of those four or older had twins. None of the lambs examined were pregnant, indicating that Laristan Sheep mate as yearlings and give birth at age two.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8103DBF5E1F6C5F68B.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely more active in early morning and evening, like other sheep.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8103DBF5E1F6C5F68B.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably similar to other wild sheep.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8103DBF5E1F6C5F68B.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as O. orientalis laristanica). During the 1970 s, the population in the Bamou National Park was estimated at 1150. Recent estimates are not available. The Laristan Sheep population near the city of Shiraz, which borders the Bamou National Park, is highly vulnerable to illegal hunting, predation by feral dogs, and transmission of diseases from domestic sheep and goats. Outside protected areas, Laristan Sheep occur in areas overstocked with livestock and subjected to illegal hunting. Populations have been extirpated over widespread areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8206D3F6D0FC43F9C6.taxon	materials_examined	Astor, Kashmir.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8206D3F6D0FC43F9C6.taxon	discussion	Urial taxonomy is controversial; formerly urial species: Ladakh, Punjab (O. punjabiensis), Bukhara (O. bochariensis), and Afghan (O. cycloceros) recognized here, were usually classified as subspecies of O. orientalis, or all as subspecies of O. vigne:. (The name orientalis is based on a hybrid population in north-central Iran and is not usable.) Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8206D3F6D0FC43F9C6.taxon	distribution	Distribution. N India (restricted to the Ladakh region along the Shyok, Nubra, and Indus river valleys and their tributaries) and Pakistan (W bank of the Kunar River from Chitral S to Drosh and areas near the cities of Skardo and Gilgit).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8206D3F6D0FC43F9C6.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Few measurements available. Tail 10 - 125 cm, shoulder height up to 91 - 5 cm (males) and 68 cm (females). Adult male horn circumferences range from 23 cm to 26 cm. Horns of males tend to grow upward and then curve backward, but horn shape can vary. Horns of females rarely grow more than 13 cm. Males in the winter coat have a white bib and black neck ruff and usually a two-colored saddle patch, dark in front followed by white. Body pelage in winter is grayish. Diploid chromosome numberis 58.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8206D3F6D0FC43F9C6.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. In India, Ladakh Urials occur along river valleys, where they sometimes occupy a narrow band of low hills at elevations of 3000 - 4250 m, but usually occur in lower habitats. Habitats are characterized by sparse, xerophytic vegetation in alpine scrub communities classified as Arid Mountain Steppe. They use rockier, steep habitats and cliffs as escape terrain and travel corridors. Snow cover is usually light. The higher elevations are occupied by Siberian Ibexes (Capra sibirica) and Greater Blue Sheep (Pseudois nayaur). Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Snow Leopards (Panthera uncia) are the primary predators.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8206D3F6D0FC43F9C6.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The only available data on food habits are from two rumen samples examined in India in May. One stomach contained 50 % grasses, the other 60 % grasses; the remainder was Ephedra.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8206D3F6D0FC43F9C6.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating occurs in November-December and singletons or twins are born in May — earlyJune.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8206D3F6D0FC43F9C6.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably diurnal or crepuscular with most activity in the early morning and evening, as with other urials.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8206D3F6D0FC43F9C6.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, but in India the population density in 2002 was 0 - 46 ind / km? in an area of 1500 km? *. Most populations number less than 50 individuals, thus herds are small.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993AFF8206D3F6D0FC43F9C6.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I (as O. vigne: vignei). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as O. orientalis vignei). Ladakh Urials are dispersed in small populations of 30 - 200 individuals, and these small groups are highly vulnerable to extirpation. In India, total population numbers were 1000 - 1500 in the 1980 s and had dropped to an estimated 700 in 2002. Its status in Pakistan is probably even more precarious. Habitat loss, degradation, and competition with domestic livestock are threats. Urial habitats have been encroached by agricultural development and human habitation. Other human intrusions include road construction for civilian and military use. Illegal sport and subsistence hunting by military personnel and civilians is a further threat. The lower, undulating habitats along river valleys occupied by Ladakh Urials are preferred sites for agricultural development and livestock grazing. There is an urgent need to develop a community-based conservation program with sustainable methods of rangeland utilization and stricter enforcement of game laws.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139939FF820371F90DF720F62B.taxon	materials_examined	Pakistan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139939FF820371F90DF720F62B.taxon	discussion	Urial taxonomy is controversial; formerly urial species: Ladakh (O. vigne:), Punjab, Bukhara (O. bochariensis), and Afghan (O. cycloceros) recognized here, were usually classified as subspecies of O. orientalis, or all as subspecies of O. vignei. (The name orientalis is based on a hybrid population in north-central Iran and is not usable.) Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139939FF820371F90DF720F62B.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Punjab Region in Pakistan, restricted to the Kala Chita and Salt ranges between the Jhelum and Indusrivers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139939FF820371F90DF720F62B.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 109 - 116 cm (males), tail 10.9 - 11. 9 cm (males), shoulder height 78 - 92 cm (males), hindfoot 33 - 34 cm (males); weight 40 - 45 kg (males) and c. 25 kg (females). Horns of males are sickle-shaped. Males have a white bib, black neck ruff, and usually a white saddle patch, but the patch can be bicolored or absent. Males lose their ruffs during the spring molt. General body color of males and females is reddish-gray.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139939FF820371F90DF720F62B.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Prevailing habitat of the Punjab Urial consists of stony, rounded hills in dry, subtropical semi-evergreen scrub forest at 250 - 1000 m above sea level. The hills are interspersed with gullies and ravines. In the Kalabagh Game Reserve in the Salt Range, yearly rainfall is 452 mm and 60 % of precipitation occurs during summer. Although Punjab Urials usually avoid tall vegetation, they do enter tall vegetation habitats for thermal and security cover and for foraging. However, they are more often found in rugged topography with low vegetation cover. Areas with tall dense vegetation are the least utilized. They share habitats with domestic sheep, goats, and cattle. Predators include feral dogs, Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes), and Golden Jackals (Canis aureus). The latter two predators could prey on lambs. Gray Wolves (C. lupus), Caracals (Caracal caracal), and Leopards (Panthera pardus), formerly the predators, were extirpated.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139939FF820371F90DF720F62B.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Punjab Urials, and all other urials, are primarily grazers, feeding on grasses and sedges, but they can switch to browse during the autumn and winter when grasses have lost their nutritional value. They feed on 44 plant species, and their annual diet consisted of 67 % grasses, 18 % forbs, and 16 % browse (shrubs and trees) in a protected area devoid of livestock. Diet overlap with domestic sheep and goats may be significant.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139939FF820371F90DF720F62B.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Urials are serially polygynous. Larger, dominant rams actively seek ewes in estrus. A male mates with one estrous ewe at a time; the rams do not form harems. Females first mate at 1 - 5 years and give birth at age two. Mating occurs in October — November, the gestation period is 150 - 160 days, and parturition occurs in early April. Females separate from the herd one or two days before giving birth. Within a week after birth, lambs are able to follow their mothers even in rough terrain. In a study of a population in a protected area, 15 % of pregnant ewes had twins; lamb and yearling survival averaged 55 % and 88 %, respectively. Survival of 2 - 3 year-olds was 47 %, a low percentage for ungulates, but was possibly influenced by emigration. Survival was adequate to allow for population growth. Punjab Urial males reach sexual maturity by age two but probably are not sexually active until their fourth year.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139939FF820371F90DF720F62B.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Punjab Urials are principally diurnal. At temperatures of 27 - 29 ° C, they avoid open areas. Animals begin feeding at sunlight, between 04: 30 h and 06: 00 h during warm weather, but they retreated into shade by 07: 30 h and did notfeed again until 17: 00 h and later. During the warm season, they probably forage at night. During cooler weather, they feed until 09: 00 - 10: 00 h, then retreat to shaded plant cover until 16: 00 to 16: 30 h. During winter, they can remain in the open throughout the day, grazing and resting intermittently.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139939FF820371F90DF720F62B.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Within a 40 km * protected area, Punjab Urials formed two to five aggregations of variable herd numbers, with few solitary individuals. They occasionally formed herds of 30 - 40 individuals, but most female herds consisted of four to six members. Most males segregate into ram herds during the birthing period, but yearling rams usually remain with ewe groups. Ram herds usually consist of rams of equal age or social status. Punjab Urials avoid domestic animals. In interactions observed between Punjab Urials and domestic sheep and goats, urials moved away in 78 % of encounters, and there was a flight reaction in the livestock in only 7 % of the interactions.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139939FF820371F90DF720F62B.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under O. vigner). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as O. orientalis punjabiensis). There are an estimated 1000 - 1100 Punjab Urials in the entire range of the species. The Punjab Urial population has probably undergone a 50 % decline in the last 25 years. There are approximately 500 Punjab Urials in the Kalabagh Game Reserve, which is 3899 km * on the western end of the Salt Range. Livestock grazing is prohibited within a 20 km? core area, and livestock outside the core area are few. There are approximately 360 Punjab Urials outside the reserve. One of the greatest threats is the overutilization of rangelands by domestic livestock, principally domestic sheep, goats, and cattle, which number in the thousands each in the Salt Range. Domestic ungulate ectoparasites and diseases can readily be transferred to urials. Lungworms (Cystocaulus) are a common parasite, as are roundworms such as Trichuris and Trichocephalus, The Punjab Urials can also be infected with coccidia (Eimeria). The diet overlap between urials and domestic sheep can be significant and can result in competition. Overexploited rangelands can also negatively affect ram horn growth. In the Punjab, 74 % of the 23 plant genera consumed by Punjab Urials and domestic sheep were eaten by both. Domestic sheep are potential forage competitors. Diets of domestic sheep are also dominated by grasses, consisting of 72 % grasses, 13 % forbs, and 14 % browse on an annual basis. Although domestic goats are primarily browsers, they are also potential competitors, because Punjab Urials increase their intake of browse during the critical winter period. Direct human threats include illegal sport, subsistence, and commercial hunting and removal of wood for fuel and grass for fodder. In an unprotected area in the eastern portion of the Punjab, near human habitation and with lax anti-poaching enforcement, poachers removed about a quarter of the lamb crop for sale in the pet trade and shot all rams older than six years of age. In the Kalabagh Game Reserve, which has a low population density of Punjab Urials, but where wildlife laws are strictly enforced, fewer than 5 % of the lambs were removed and about 34 % of adult rams were six years of age or older. Illegal trafficking in pet lambsis the principal short-term threat to the Punjab Urial. Livestock management systems that are based on a sustainable use of rangeland forage and the conservation of wildlife are critically needed. Viable populations of Punjab Urial occur only in protected areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139939FF830648F679FD5EFA07.taxon	materials_examined	Russian Turkestan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139939FF830648F679FD5EFA07.taxon	discussion	Urial taxonomy is controversial; formerly urial species: Ladakh (O. vignei), Punjab (O. punjabiensis), Bukhara, and Afghan (O. cycloceros) recognized here, were usually classified as subspecies of O. orientalis, or all as subspecies of O. vignei. (The name orientalis is based on a hybrid population in north-central Iran and is not usable.) This species is in need of distributional, anatomical, karyological, and molecular genetics studies to define its distribution and relationship to other urial species. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139939FF830648F679FD5EFA07.taxon	distribution	Distribution. NE Turkmenistan, S Uzbekistan along the border with Turkmenistan, S Tajikistan, and N Afghanistan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139939FF830648F679FD5EFA07.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Measurements and weights are not available, noris a clear description, but these are medium-sized sheep. Maximum skull length in males averages 24 - 6 cm and in females 22 - 4 cm. The general body coloris sandy-yellow or cinnamonyellow, sometimes paler in the summertime. Like the Ladakh Urial, the species it most resembles, males have a black neck ruff and a saddle patch. The horns grow upward and sideways from the skull and are crescent-shaped in a single plane or almost so. The outer rib is quite faint and transverse folds are small. Horn length up to 73 cm, rarely longer, and circumference of base averages 24 - 5 cm. Females invariably bear horns. Diploid chromosome numberis 58.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139939FF830648F679FD5EFA07.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Similar to Ladakh Urial, the Bukhara Urial occurs in mountainous terrain with associated rough, precipitous habitats at elevations of 1000 - 4500 m.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139939FF830648F679FD5EFA07.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species. On the whole, no less than 180 plant species are known to be eaten by mountain sheep within the former Soviet Union, but a thorough study of their food in different regions has not been conducted.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139939FF830648F679FD5EFA07.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but it probably mates in November — - December and young are born 150 - 160 days later in May and June.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139939FF830648F679FD5EFA07.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but in summer, especially if the weather is warm, wild sheep are most active in the early morning and twilight hours.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139939FF830648F679FD5EFA07.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, but for much of the year, except for occasional shifting between summer and winter ranges, which occurs in autumn and spring, most sheep do not undertake long distance movements.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139939FF830648F679FD5EFA07.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under O. vignei). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red Book (as O. orientalis bochariensis). This is the scarcest urial; probably fewer than 200 remain. It has been extirpated over most of its historical distribution and now occurs in isolated populations. Major threats include illegal hunting, habitat degradation, and habitat destruction due to agricultural development and livestock competition. There is an urgent need to create reserves where it can be protected and to reestablish populations where it has been extirpated.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139938FF8303DBFA4CFD9AF33C.taxon	materials_examined	Oman.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139938FF8303DBFA4CFD9AF33C.taxon	discussion	This species was originally described as a subspecies of O. ammon, based on an adult male (one of five seen) collected in the Wadi Kharbora, 35 km west of Kharbora, Oman. A second specimen was collected in the Hatta area, Oman. A live specimen was brought in as a lamb from the Sharawrah area on the south-eastern edge of the Rub’ al Khali in Saudi Arabia. The type specimen has close affinities with the Afghan Urial (O. cycloceros) based on horn shape and measurements and pelage characteristics; it has a predominantly white ruff and the horns are sickle-shaped. A live specimen, based on a photograph when adult, exhibited pelage and horn similarities to a Laristan Sheep (O. laristanica); it had a predominantly black ruff. However, the possibility remains that free-roaming wild sheep observed on the Arabian Peninsula were derived from specimens originating from southern Iran and Pakistan and sold in the pet trade to private owners. Indeed, two females caughtlive in the Hatta area were subsequently placed in a private collection where they were mixed with wild sheep from Laristan, Iran. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139938FF8303DBFA4CFD9AF33C.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Oman.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139938FF8303DBFA4CFD9AF33C.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. The only measurement data available are head-body 100 cm and tail 11 cm. This is a relatively small wild sheep, but the horns of the male are robust and widely divergent. Females are hornless or have very short horns. The general color is chestnut fulvous, and the short tail is tipped with black.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139938FF8303DBFA4CFD9AF33C.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Desert habitat in mountainous terrain, but there is no specific information available.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139938FF8303DBFA4CFD9AF33C.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely mainly feeds on grasses, supplemented by browse.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139938FF8303DBFA4CFD9AF33C.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably has one or two young per year, after a gestation period of 5 - 6 months.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139938FF8303DBFA4CFD9AF33C.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably crepuscular, active in early morning and twilight, resting during the heat of the day.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139938FF8303DBFA4CFD9AF33C.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, butlikely gregarious like other sheep.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139938FF8303DBFA4CFD9AF33C.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. This species has not been assessed due to its new taxonomic status and lack of data on numbers, distribution, habitat use, and threats. Hunting is a definite concern; the type specimen was shot by a hunter. Its rarity, limited distribution, and illegal hunting warrant that it be classified in one of the threatened categories on The IUCN Red Lust.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139938FF8403C4F287F87BFDA5.taxon	materials_examined	Afghanistan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139938FF8403C4F287F87BFDA5.taxon	discussion	Urial taxonomy is controversial; formerly urial species: Ladakh (O. vignei), Punjab (O. punjabiensis), Bukhara (O. bochariensis), and Afghan recognized here, were usually classified as subspecies of O. orientalis, or all as subspecies of O. vignei. (The name orientalis is based on a hybrid population in north-central Iran and is not usable.) There is a hybrid zone, which has been confirmed by karyological and molecular genetic studies, where the distributions of this species and the Anatolian Sheep (O. gmelini) overlap in the Alborz Mountains of north-central Iran. Urials differ from all other wild sheep in having a diploid number of 58 chromosomes while all other sheep have 52, 54, or 56 chromosomes; also males in the winter coat usually have a distinct white bib (long hairs growing from the throat) and a white or black neck ruff restricted to the front of the neck. Two subspecies recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139938FF8403C4F287F87BFDA5.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. O. c. cyclocerosHutton, 1842 — C & NEAfghanistanandW & SPakistan. O. c. arkal Eversmann, 1850 — NE Iran, S & NW Turkmenistan, and W Kazakhstan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139938FF8403C4F287F87BFDA5.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Measurements from north-eastern Iran, head-body 135 - 160 cm (males) and 120 - 134 cm (females), tail 12 - 13 cm (males) and 11 - 13 cm (females), shoulder height 94 - 97 cm (males) and 82 - 88 cm (females), hindfoot 37 - 40 cm (males) and 34 - 37 cm (females); weight 62 - 66 kg (males) and 36 - 42 kg (females). Mean body measurements from southern Pakistan, head-body 127 cm (males) and 94 cm (females), tail 11 cm (males) and 10 - 5 cm (females), shoulder height 75 cm (males) and 72 cm (females), hindfoot 34 cm (males) and 32 cm (females); weight 36 kg (males) and 26 kg (females). There is great variation in body size of Afghan Urials. Also, population quality can vary depending on forage availability in areas shared by urials and domestic livestock. Males from north-eastern Iran in protected areas without livestock and in lush rangelands can attain weights of 85 kg; males from desert populations in southern Pakistan rarely exceed 40 kg. Both sexes possess a clearly delineated white rump patch that is restricted to below the base of the tail. The back of the hindquarters and lower legs from the knee to the hooves are usually white. Males in the winter coat from north-eastern Iran and southern Turkmenistan lack a saddle patch, but those from eastern populations usually possess a saddle patch of variable size. The throat ruff and neck ruff are variable in color; in general, western races have a white throat and neck ruff and eastern forms have a white throat ruff and a black neck ruff.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139938FF8403C4F287F87BFDA5.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Afghan Urial has a greater distribution and occurs in a greater variation of habitats than any other species of urial. Populations occur from near sea level to above 3000 m, but rarely exceed 4000 m. Annual precipitation in Afghan Urial habitats varies from less than 150 mm in desert areas to over twice that in some montane habitats. In southern Pakistan, these urials occur in low-elevation mountain ranges below 1200 m. Many occur in degraded habitats grazed by domestic livestock. They usually use rounded, broken montane terrain at lower elevations, but readily access precipitous terrain as escape cover. Predators include Leopards (Panthera pardus), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Golden Jackals (C. aureus), Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes), and feral and domestic dogs. Wolves, although extirpated in some areas, probably account for the greatest percentage of mortalities by wild carnivores. Afghan Urials rarely live more than ten years. A study of population age structure based on captured live specimens and horns collected in the field in southern Turkmenistan revealed that none of the rams was older than eight years old. Urial densities can vary from less than 1 ind / km? in poor-quality habitat overgrazed by domestic livestock to 4 - 5 ind / km? in good habitat.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139938FF8403C4F287F87BFDA5.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. This species is an opportunistic herbivore, feeding on grasses and shrubs.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139938FF8403C4F287F87BFDA5.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Most males reach sexual maturity by age two but do not participate in the rut until 4 - 5 years old. Females first give birth at age two. The mating season occurs in November — December in colder climates but can vary in desert populations. Most births in desert areas in southern Pakistan occur in February and the rut occurs in August. Reproduction is dependent on summer precipitation in desert populations. Twinning can be common, but in years of low precipitation, single offspring prevail. Under extreme drought conditions, females can fail to reproduce and there is high lamb mortality. In contrast, in areas with high forage production, productivity is high. In north-eastern Iran, based on ewes collected during late gestation, 100 % of threeyear-olds and those greater than four years old were pregnant. Fifty per cent of the two-year-olds and 56 % of the yearlings were pregnant. Eleven percent of the threeyear-olds and 42 % of those four years old and older had twin fetuses; none of the yearlings or two-year-olds had twins.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139938FF8403C4F287F87BFDA5.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Mostly active during morning and afternoons. During the warmest period of the day, they seek thermal cover in tall vegetation.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139938FF8403C4F287F87BFDA5.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Movements and home range data are not available. Except for the mating season, adult males and females segregate into separate groups. Ram groups are composed of two-year-olds and older males. Female groups consist of ewes, lambs, yearlings, and occasionally younger rams. Ram groups usually number less than 30, but female groups can exceed 100. In areas with high populations, ewe groups consist of 10 - 49 animals. Adult rams form dominance hierarchies, with older, larger rams dominant over younger rams. Dominance hierarchies probably also occur among ewes.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139938FF8403C4F287F87BFDA5.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under O. vignei). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as O. orientalis cycloceros and O. o. arkal). The Afghan Urial occurs in fragmented populations and rarely occurs outside protected areas. Statuses of populations in Iran and Afghanistan are unknown. Their greatest threats are competition with livestock and illegal hunting. In north-eastern Iran, until the early 1980 s, one protected area alone supported a population of 15,000 animals; its present status is unknown. Populations in all countries have greatly declined. Protected areas rarely have populations exceeding 500. Most populations in Afghanistan have probably been extirpated.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF860372F306FA33F75F.taxon	materials_examined	Karatau Province of Syr Darya, on east bank of Syr Darya River.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF860372F306FA33F75F.taxon	discussion	Usually classified as a subspecies of O. ammon. DNA sequence data reveal that the Karatau Argali is the most primitive argali and although closely related to Severtzov’s Argali (O. severtzout), both should be considered separate, evolutionarily significant units. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF860372F306FA33F75F.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S Kazakhstan (NW half of Karatau range, W Tianshan Mts).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF860372F306FA33F75F.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. The only measurements, those of a three-year-old ram, are headbody 150 cm, tail 10 cm; weight 70 kg. Horn length 71 - 5 cm, basal circumference 28 cm. The Karatau Argali is the second-smallest argali; only Severtzov’s Argali is smaller. General body color is dark brown, with a paler neck. It has a creamy white, short neck ruff that blends gradually with the body hair. The white belly is set off by a dark flank stripe. The fronts of the forelegs are white, but the fronts of the hindlegs have dark stripes. The distinct white rump patch does not extend beyond the base ofthe tail.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF860372F306FA33F75F.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Karatau Argali mostly inhabit the northern slope of the north-western Karatau Range, which is dissected by deep ravines, among cliffs and scree. They seldom use plateau areas because these are occupied by livestock. They often dwell in deep valleys overgrown by trees and tall shrubs. Their resting sites are in high grass and brush, which is atypical of argali. Seasonal migrations are uncommon, but in particularly snowy winters they move to areas with less snow, or even descend to the plain.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF860372F306FA33F75F.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but other argali feed on grasses, sedges, and some herbs and lichens.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF860372F306FA33F75F.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Rut takes place in October, some 5 - 10 days earlier than in Tianshan Argali (O. karelini) inhabiting the south-eastern Karatau Range. Lambs are probably born in April. In the late 1970 s, out of 139 argali, there were 45 males (32: 4 %), 49 females (35: 3 %) and 45 lambs (32: 4 %), with a ratio of 92 lambs: 100 ewes, indicating high productivity.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF860372F306FA33F75F.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely diurnal or crespucular, like other argali.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF860372F306FA33F75F.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Karatau Argali are generally sedentary. Population density in autumn is low, having decreased from 3 - 5 ind / km? in the 1970 s to 0 - 05 ind / km? by the late 1990 s. Consequently, group size is small (2 - 11 animals), with an average of 3 - 4.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF860372F306FA33F75F.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I (as O. ammon nigrimontana). Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List (under O. ammon). Major threats to the Karatau Argali are illegal hunting and overgrazing by domestic livestock. In the 1970 s, numbers totaled 150 - 250, based on optimistic estimates. In the early 1990 s, numbers probably rose to about 300, but the latest census in 2001 revealed 100 animals at most. The Karatau Argali is the most endangered argali and is on the verge of extinction. Hybridization with migrating Tianshan Argali in south-eastern Karatau Mountains is a possibility. Establishment of protected areas that exclude livestock and strict enforcement of game laws are crucial to the survival of the Karatau Argali.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF860372FE81FF0BF3BE.taxon	materials_examined	Nura-Tau Mountains, Uzbekistan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF860372FE81FF0BF3BE.taxon	discussion	Severtzov’s Argali had been classified as a subspecies of O. ammon or a subspecies of urial. Recently it has been determined to be an argali, based on anatomy and its karyotype (diploid number of 56 and Gbanding), which are identical in all argali. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF860372FE81FF0BF3BE.taxon	distribution	Distribution. NE Uzbekistan, mainly in Nuratau Range, but also in Tamdytau Mts to the W, and at least until 1980 s on the Turkestan Range to the E; possibly also in NW Tajikistan and SW Kyrgyzstan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF860372FE81FF0BF3BE.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. No specific measurements available. Severtzov’s Argali is the smallest argali; skull length is 26 - 27 cm. Horn length of adult male rams is 75.5 - 83 cm; basal circumference is 23.5 - 25. 5 cm. Males in winter coat are characterized by a palecolored neck ruff restricted to the front half of the neck that contrasts with the color of the rest of the neck and body. The body color is cinnamon to chestnut brown, with a dark brisket and white abdomen and rump patch; the white rump patch does not extend above the base of the tail. A dark band of hair extends from the withers to the base of the tail. The legs are white from the knee to the hooves.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF860372FE81FF0BF3BE.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Mainly foothills and mountains of medium height in the Nuratau Range up to 2190 m. Argali dwell mainly in mountain steppe with shrubs and rocky outcrops. The Aktau massif within the Tamdytau Range is more arid and more precipitous. Freshwater sources are scarce and grass dries out by the end of May. Main predators of Severtzov’s Argali are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), responsible for 20 % of annual mortality.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF860372FE81FF0BF3BE.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. In the Nuratau Range, in autumn and winter, animals browse on ephedra shrubs that may constitute up to 90 % of stomach content, almond and maple trees, and they graze on grasses and various herbs. On an annual basis, grasses and forbs are their forage components. Severtzov’s Argali also dig up roots of plants.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF860372FE81FF0BF3BE.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Rut occurs from the end of October until the third week of November, with a peak in the first week of November. Births occur on 10 - 15 April. In May — - August of the 1960 s in Nuratau Range, the population consisted of 26 - 8 % males, 39 - 8 % females, and 33 - 4 % lambs. The lamb — female ratio was 0 - 84: 100, indicating frequent twinning. In 2002, in the Hayat Valley, Nuratau Range, of 193 Severtzov’s Argali sighted, the lamb — female ratio was 0 - 79 with seven pairs of twins. The yearling — female ratio was 0 - 26; the low yearling ratio was caused by a drought in 2001.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF860372FE81FF0BF3BE.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. In the warm time of the year, animals are active in the morning until 09: 00 h and in the evening beginning at 18: 00 h. With the approach of winter weather, activity gradually rises in the daytime and in winter they are active throughout the day.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF860372FE81FF0BF3BE.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. In summer, Severtzov’s Argali prefer montane steppe mainly above 400 m on north-facing slopes, moving to south-facing slopes during winter, often outside of the nature reserve. In the 1960 s, in the Nuratau Range, average groups sizes were 5 - 3 in May, 8 - 4 in June, 9 - 6 in August, and ten in October-November. Average group size in May 2002 in the Nuratau Range was 9 - 3; the average female group size was eight. During rut, most animals form mixed herds with a maximum of 54 animals. Outside rut, mixed groups are rare and mixed groups consist of younger males that may associate with females and vice versa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF860372FE81FF0BF3BE.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under O. ammon). Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List (under O. ammon). Competition with domestic livestock and illegal hunting are the threats. Formerly animals occurred also on low mountains of north-eastern Kyzylkum in southern Kazakhstan but they have disappeared from there completely by now. About 1200 - 1300 occurred in 1991 in a protected region in the Nuratau Range in Uzbekistan and about 400 occurred outside the protected area and surrounding mountains. By the end of the 1990 s, numbers in the Nuratau Range rose to 2000 individuals with a population density averaging 50 ind / km *. However, data are unavailable for recent years and other areas. The Turkestan Rangeis separated from the Nuratau Range by a broad valley with a busy highway and railway, which in effect isolated the main population in Uzbekistan from contact with possible populations in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. The Nuratau Nature Reserve is the only protected area harboring Severtzov’s Argali; several are kept in a large enclosure near the Nuratau Reserve Research Station.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF87064AF6A5FE7DF485.taxon	materials_examined	Alatau of Semirechye, between Ili River and Issyk-Kul Lake, Kyrgyzstan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF87064AF6A5FE7DF485.taxon	discussion	The Tianshan Argali is usually classified as a subspecies of O. ammon. It is most closely related and most similar anatomically to Marco Polo Argali (O. polii). Some specimens of Tianshan Argali are difficult to anatomically differentiate from Marco Polo Argali. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF87064AF6A5FE7DF485.taxon	distribution	Distribution. NE Uzbekistan, N Kyrgyzstan, SE Kazakhstan, and NW China. Occurs in the W of Tianshan Mt System (except W Karatau), just E of the cities ofJambul and Shimkent in Kazakhstan and the city of Tashkent in Uzbekistan, and extends E through Tianshan Mts (excluding inner Tianshan) surrounding Issyk-Kul Lake and Jungarian Alatau, and in China at the edge of the distribution of the Gobi Argali (O. darwini) on the Chinese-Mongolian border.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF87064AF6A5FE7DF485.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 158 - 190 cm (males), tail mean 12 cm (males), shoulder height 103 - 112 cm (subadult males), ear 11 - 12 cm (males); weight 97 - 152 kg (males) and 47 - 66 kg (females). Horn length 114 - 165 cm (males) and 26 - 34 cm (females). Exceptionally long horns can have a double curl. Animals in central Tianshan and Jungarian Alatau are larger than those from semi-desert areas and western Tianshan. The muzzle and lowerlip are white; the top of the head, sides, and front of the face are dark gray. A prominent white ruff with hair longer than body hair surrounds the neck. The chest and brisket also are white. A distinct flank stripe separates the dark body hair from the paler belly hair of both males and females, but is more conspicuous in females. In general, body coloris similar in pelage coloration to the Marco Polo Argali, but darker, and the Marco Polo Argali lacks a dark flank stripe. Diploid chromosome numberis 56, as in all other argali.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF87064AF6A5FE7DF485.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Tianshan Argali occurs in diverse habitats, ranging from lowland semideserts in Kalkan Mountains to typical highland montane steppes, subalpine meadows, and other subalpine areas in western and central Tianshan. In Kalkan Mountains, females occur in more precipitous broken terrain in summer, and males occur on plateaus and rolling hills. Formerly, animals migrated seasonally from higher mountain habitats in summer to wintering sites in lowlands and foothills with lower snowfall accumulation, but because lowland areas have been deleteriously affected by livestock intrusions and human settlements, Tianshan Argali remain at higher elevations yearround. In Jungarian Alatau, about 30 % of mortality was due to wild predators. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) are the principal predators. In western Tianshan, argali remains occurred in 7 - 3 % of wolf droppings; in the lower Kalkan Mountains, argali remains occurred in 35 % of wolf droppings; in Jungarian Alatau in the 1960 s, there were argali remains in 63 % of wolf droppings. Snow Leopards (Panthera uncia) also prey on argali, especially if they are the most numerous ungulate.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF87064AF6A5FE7DF485.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Tianshan Argali are primarily grazers. In semi-desert Kalkan Mountains, stomach contents consisted of up to 90 % grass (Festuca) in winter, 70 % in summer, and 50 % in autumn. The other 50 % in summer consisted of Ephedra. In general, grasses and sedges dominate winter diets, but spring and summer diets have higher forb content.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF87064AF6A5FE7DF485.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The gestation period is 155 - 165 days. Rut usually lasts one month, from mid-October to mid-November. Lambing occurs in late March and early April. Females usually give birth to one offspring, but up to 13 % twin. Up to 34 % of females did not conceive after a drought the previous summer. The ratio of lambs per female varies from 0 - 22 in the high-elevation Terskey Alatau to 0 - 75 in the semi-desert Kalkan Mountains. Lamb survival can be highly variable; in one instance, mortality during the first year oflife was 57 %. During especially cold winters and drought, lamb mortality can exceed 90 %. Males rarely live longer than ten years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF87064AF6A5FE7DF485.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Activity patterns of the Tianshan Argali are similar to other argali. In Kalkan Mountains, where winter is characterized by fierce winds, the animals usually avoid feeding during high winds.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF87064AF6A5FE7DF485.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Seasonal migrations of up to 70 km were characteristic in the past, when Tianshan Argali crossed broad valleys, rivers, and even railway tracks. Usually these migrations were to avoid deep snow at higher elevations, but severe drought and extreme high temperatures could also initiate movements, as in the semi-desert Kalkan Mountains. Seasonal movements also may be caused by anthropogenic factors, such as the presence of livestock and related human disturbance. Herds of Tianshan Argali are usually small. In the Aksu-Djabagly Nature Reserve, the two largest herds consisted of 37 animals in spring and 52 in summer. The annual average group size was 15 - 5 for female groups and 7 - 5 for males. Usual group size in Jungarian Alatau, Terskey Alatau, and Trans-Ili Alatau is 2 - 6 animals.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993DFF87064AF6A5FE7DF485.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under O. ammon). Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List (under O. ammon). Populations of the Tianshan Argali have been declining and in many areas have been extirpated. However, there was an increase in numbers in the 1980 s. Estimates of the status of populations vary. A conservative estimate is 2000 in the former USSR and 6000 in China. There may have been as many as 6000 in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan in the early 1980 s, and up to 8000 in China. A captive breeding population should be established as a source of animals for reestablishing extirpated populations. There is a critical need to monitor populations and strictly enforce wildlife laws in protected areas. A major challenge is the large number of domestic livestock throughout their range, which has displaced argali populations; multispecies grazing programs should be established to coordinate grazing of wild and domestic populations.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993CFF8703C3F4CEF8FEF5E7.taxon	materials_examined	Kyrgyz Steppe, North of Lake Balkhash.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993CFF8703C3F4CEF8FEF5E7.taxon	discussion	This species is usually classified as a subspecies of O. ammon or as a synonym of O. karelini. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993CFF8703C3F4CEF8FEF5E7.taxon	distribution	Distribution. C & E Kazakhstan (Saur and Tarbagatai Mts between Lake Balkhash and Irtysh River N of Tianshan Mts) extending into NW China; an isolated population in Ereymentau, Koitas, and Niyaz Mts, N of the town of Ereymentau town, Kazakhstan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993CFF8703C3F4CEF8FEF5E7.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 165 - 199 cm (males) and 136 - 160 cm (females), tail 10 - 17 cm (males) and 7 - 16 cm (females), shoulder height 108 - 135 cm (males) and 85 - 100 cm (females), ear 9 - 14. 5 cm (males) and 10 - 14 cm (females); weight 108 - 157 kg (males) and 43.2 - 62 kg (females). Horn length 94.5 - 154 cm (males) and 26 - 32 cm (females), basal horn girth 32.3 - 43 cm (males), horn weight 11 - 15 kg (males). Average length of Kazakhstan Argali horns is shorter than the Tianshan Argali (O. karelini). Coloration resembles that of the Tianshan Argali, but is somewhat brighter and more contrast ing. Based on a color photograph, the upper portion of the face is gray contrasting sharply with the white muzzle, lower lip, chin, and throat; a white ruff surrounds the neck and extends to the white chest and brisket. The upper portion of the front and hindlegs is dark; the lower portion is white. There is a dark, wide flank stripe extending from the front leg to the hindleg. Otherwise, the Kazakhstan Argali is similar to Tianshan Argali. Diploid chromosome numberis 56.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993CFF8703C3F4CEF8FEF5E7.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Kazakhstan Argali occurs in the Kazakh Uplands at 1000 - 1500 m above sea level, mostly in steppe habitats. Climate is sharply continental and arid, with winters lasting for 5 - 5 - 5 months and average snow cover of 20 - 26 cm. Some habitats are precipitous, others undulating and gentle. Tarbagatai-Saur Mountains rise more than 2500 m above sea level. In Tarbagatai, the Kazakhstan Argali inhabit mainly steppe habitat on the northern slope, at elevations below 2000 m; in Saur, they mostly occur in subalpine and alpine meadows. Unlike other argali, Kazakhstan Argali often feed in shrub and open forest stands. In Kent Mountains, males feed in pine forests and rest in thick pine or dense juniper stands. More often argali females with young rest and seek secure cover in dense shrub thickets; males prefer more open habitats. Usually there is a strong ecological and spatial segregation of males and females. In summer, females with young can occur in separate mountain ranges from males. Lamb mortality during summer can be as high as 30 %. Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) predation can account for 40 - 73 % of annual mortality.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993CFF8703C3F4CEF8FEF5E7.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. In Kazakh Upland, diet consists of higher proportions of forbs than graminoids and browse. Browse can dominate the winter diet. In more arid southern areas, browse consumption increases. Kazakhstan Argali often feed in cultivated grain fields in valleys in winter, spring, and summer.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993CFF8703C3F4CEF8FEF5E7.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Rut occurs in the second half of October and lasts through November. Parturition occurs from late March to early May. Newborns weigh 3.4 - 5 kg. About 17 - 33 % of females twin, but twinning can decrease to 2 % after harsh winters. Lamb — ewe ratios are 42 - 67 lambs: 100 ewes, with an average of 58 lambs: 100 ewes.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993CFF8703C3F4CEF8FEF5E7.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Daily activity of Kazakhstan Argali resembles that of other argali.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993CFF8703C3F4CEF8FEF5E7.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Kazakhstan Argali migrate seasonally between mountain ranges. There are also irregular movements caused by droughts and steppe fires. In East Tarbagatai in the spring, the animals migrate into China; they return in autumn. Mean group size depends on population density. During the rut in October, average group size was 3 - 1 - 8 - 6 animals, with densities of 2: 3 - 15 - 2 ind / km? In summer 1997, average female group size was 2 — 4 - 4, with a maximum of 11; males usually occurred alone or in pairs, with a maximum of five animals. In another study, population densities in different mountain ranges varied from 0 - 24 ind / km? * to 0 - 35 ind / km? and adult males made up 44 % and yearlings 7 - 6 - 11 % of the population.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993CFF8703C3F4CEF8FEF5E7.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under O. ammon). Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List (under O. ammon). There was a distinct decline in numbers and distribution in the late 1970 s and early 1980 s, but numbers increased by the late 1980 s, occurring in areas where the species had not been seen in years. They even populated undulating lowlands far from mountains. However, a decline occurred in the mid- 1990 s. There were about 10,000 in Kazakhskiy Melokosopochnik in 1990 s, some 1000 in other areas of Kazakhstan, and 2000 - 3000 in China. The current total estimate is about 13,000 - 14,000. Most common threats are poaching, competition with livestock, and steppe fires.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993CFF8806DDF529F6C9FD9A.taxon	materials_examined	Pamir Plateau, Russian Turkestan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993CFF8806DDF529F6C9FD9A.taxon	discussion	Usually classified as a subspecies of O. ammon. There appears to be high genetic variation and connectivity between populations in Tajikistan and the Wakhan District of Afghanistan, but based on molecular genetic studies, argali in adjacent area of Taxkorgan, China, appear to be isolated. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993CFF8806DDF529F6C9FD9A.taxon	distribution	Distribution. E Kyrgyzstan, E Tajikistan, N Afghanistan, N Pakistan, and W China.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993CFF8806DDF529F6C9FD9A.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 160 - 180 cm (males) and 143 - 5 cm (females mean), tail 8: 5 - 11. 3 cm (males) and 9 - 2 cm (females mean), shoulder height 101.5 - 120 cm (males) and 87 - 2 cm (females mean), ear 10 - 10. 7 cm (males) and 10 - 6 cm (females mean); weight 100 - 124 kg (males) and 48.5 - 61. 5 kg (females). Horn length up to 190 cm (males) and 33 - 49. 5 cm (females), horn girth at base 32 - 47 cm (males) and 13.5 - 16 cm (females), horn mass 7.7 - 14. 4 kg (males). They have the longest but not the most massive horns, and basal horn circumferences are greater in the Altai Argali (O. ammon). Marco Polo Argali juveniles are significantly heavier than neighboring Tianshan (O. karelini) and Kazakhstan Argali (O. collium) juveniles of the same age. In winter coat, general body color on the back and body sides can be reddish-brown or rust-cinnamon-brown, but usually it is a paler grayish-brown or buff. The large white rump patch, which can have a distinct border with the body hair or have a gradual transition in light-colored individuals, extends from above the tail to the entire hindquarters and joins with the white thighs, hindlegs, belly, chest, and forelegs. The hair forming the neck ruff, which is about 14 cm long and is longer than body hair, covers the entire neck; it is pale and blends gradually with the body hair color. The neck ruff is absent in females. The general body color of females is similar to that of males except that the back of the neckis light brown.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993CFF8806DDF529F6C9FD9A.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Marco Polo Argali are usually associated with Pamirs, a Central Asian landform consisting of montane areas with broad valleys and steep to gently undulating hills above 3000 m, flanked by rugged mountain ranges. Marco Polo Argali occur in habitats up to 5700 m. They prefer undulating terrain. Their long-legged antelopian bodies are adapted for out-running predators. They descend into valleys to cross between mountains and to feed, but they will ascend precipitous terrain to escape from predators. They are associated with well-drained soils, and during winter, areas cleared of snow by wind. They avoid areas with tall vegetation. They are sympatric with Siberian Ibex (Capra sibirica), but ibexes usually occur in precipitous terrain. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) are their principal predator. Based on skeletal remains of 145 argali in Kyrgyzstan, 37 - 5 % had been killed by wolves. Of these, 78 % were rams greater than five years old and 43 % were rams over seven years old. Marco Polo Argali are more vulnerable to predation during the winter, when marmots are in hibernation and Wolves concentrate on argali as their principal prey. Argali, especially older rams with large horns, are particularly vulnerable in deep snow, where running is difficult. Death rates of adult males were 33 % for 4 - 5 year-olds, 21 % for 6 - 8 year-olds, and 21 % for those greater than eight years old. Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia) occasionally feed on argali, but their principal prey consists of Siberian Ibexes and Greater Blue Sheep (Pseudois nayaur). Lambs can be preyed upon by golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) and bearded vultures (Gypaetus barbatus) but predation by raptors is insignificant. Lamb mortality in one study was 67 %.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993CFF8806DDF529F6C9FD9A.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Marco Polo Argali are primarily grazers. Grasses, sedges, and forbs are their primary foods; grasses and forbs can comprise 59 - 88 % of their diet, based on stomach samples. In the Tajik Pamirs, males consume 18 kg and females 16 kg of vegetation per day.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993CFF8806DDF529F6C9FD9A.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Females attain mating age at 1 - 5 - 2 - 5 years. Males can reach sexual maturity at two to three years but do not participate in the rut until they are four to five years old. Mating occurs in December — January, and after a gestation period of 155 - 165 days, single offspring are born in the latter half of May and first half ofJune. In Kyrgyzstan, both the rut and births are about half a month earlier. In the Pamirs, lamb — ewe ratios were 45: 100 in September and 32: 100 in November. In an increasing population in Kyrgyzstan, lamb — ewe ratios can be as high as 67: 100 in summer.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993CFF8806DDF529F6C9FD9A.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Marco Polo Argali are active throughout the day, with feeding periods alternating with resting periods. On sunny, warm days they are active in the morning and evening. Lactating females usually spend less time resting and a longer time feeding than males because of the higher energy demands.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993CFF8806DDF529F6C9FD9A.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Detailed studies of movements and home ranges of Marco Polo Argali have not been conducted. During spring, males separate from female herds and move to higher elevations, but they can also shift from southto north-facing slopes. Herds can be classified according to sex and age composition: these include female, lamb, and yearling herds; male-only herds; and mixed-sex herds. Male herds are usually rams of similar age or social status, but the herd composition can vary. During summer, yearlings can form small separate herds but remain close to female groups. Yearlings can also join adult ram herds; in Kyrgyzstan, 17 - 4 % of male herds had yearlings. Two-year-old males can remain with female herds, but also can join herds of younger rams. Larger herds of up to 500 animals of mixed composition can be observed, especially in winter, but these are usually aggregations of several smaller herds. In Tajikistan, males older than five years comprised 6 - 3 % of the population. Population densities in protected areas may exceed 2 - 5 ind / km?.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F50713993CFF8806DDF529F6C9FD9A.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under O. ammon). Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List (under O. ammon). Major threats to Marco Polo Argali include illegal hunting, overgrazing by domestic livestock and associated human disturbance, and dogs, which chase and occasionally kill argali. Livestock encroachment is the greatest long-term threat; livestock displace argali. Livestock can also transmit diseases and parasites such as pasteurellosis, rinderpest, malignant anthrax, and coccidian infections. Commercial hunting for meat and skins in the past accounted for 1000 - 4000 animals / year (a conservative estimate). Currentillegal subsistence hunting probably exceeds 500 animals / year. Even in protected areas, humans account for almost two-thirds of annual loss of males. The current population in the Tajikistan Pamirs is about 25,000, and an estimated 5000 occur in the Tianshan Mountains of Kyrgyzstan, mostly in the border-zone areas. Populations in China and Afghanistan have been greatly reduced due to degraded range conditions and illegal hunting. There are an estimated 2500 in China and less than 1000 remain in Afghanistan. In Pakistan, during the construction of a highway through prime argali habitat, Marco Polo Argali were killed for food and sport. Marco Polo Argali in Pakistan do not exceed 150 and most are present only in the winter when they cross into Pakistan from China.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139933FF890677FDE3FC18FDC0.taxon	materials_examined	Tibet, probably on Nepal frontier.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139933FF890677FDE3FC18FDC0.taxon	discussion	This species is usually classified as a subspecies of O. ammon. Some authors assign two argali forms to the Tibetan Plateau: hodgsoni (southern Tibetan Plateau) and dalailamae (northern Tibetan Plateau). These two forms cannot be distinguished phenotypically or karyologically. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139933FF890677FDE3FC18FDC0.taxon	distribution	Distribution. N India (including N Sikkim), N Nepal, and SW China (mostly Xizang).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139933FF890677FDE3FC18FDC0.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 167 cm (males) and 148 cm (females), tail 5 - 5 cm (males), shoulder height 115 - 118 cm (males) and 99 - 112 cm (females); weight 98 — 105 kg (males) and 68 kg (a female older than four years). Basal horn circumference 39.4 - 43 cm (males) and 19 cm (females); horn length 86 - 145 cm (males) and 36 - 46 cm (females). Male skulls with horns weight 7.2 - 18 kg, longest recorded horn 145 cm (males). Horns of older males are broomed (broken off at ends). This species is characterized by a white ruff that surrounds the neck and is distinctly set off from the body. The body is grayish-brown near the back and paler on the sides, with a white rump patch that surrounds the tail. The front of all four legs is dark, but the back of the legs, belly, and face are white. A dark lateral stripe divides the upperparts from the white belly.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139933FF890677FDE3FC18FDC0.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Tibetan Argali occur on undulating or broken terrain, occasionally on upper slopes of mountains but not in rugged, precipitous areas. They are usually not found on plains or low hills, except when crossing from one mountain range to another. They use high ground such as broken, jagged cliff terrain to visually scan the landscape to detect predators and have adequate warning to outrun any threat. Their principal predator is the Gray Wolf (Canis lupus). Even when running from a predator, they usually do not seek cover in precipitous terrain. In Ladakh, 64 % of Tibetan Argali observations were farther than 250 m from precipitous terrain, indicating their preference for areas with gentle, open slopes and away from cliffs. Snow cover is a major limiting factor in winter ranges. They require areas with minimal or patchy snow cover; areas with more than 20 cm of snow are avoided. Snow limits their ability to forage, and they are more vulnerable to predation in areas with deep snow. They occur in scattered, low-density populations with a discontinuous distribution.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139933FF890677FDE3FC18FDC0.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. They feed principally on graminoids and forbs in summer and shrubs in winter. In northern Nepal, Tibetan Argali diets in summer were dominated by forbs (85: 4 %), followed by graminoids (11 %) and browse (3 %). They also selected for forb communities and avoided shrub communities. In Xizang, they fed principally on forbs, followed by graminoids. During summer in northern India, males select sites with the highest percent of green forage followed by non-lactating and then lactating females.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139933FF890677FDE3FC18FDC0.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating occurs in December — January. Lambs are born after a gestation period of 155 - 165 days in late May and early June. Lactating females are more vigilant than non-lactating females and males.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139933FF890677FDE3FC18FDC0.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but like other argali, it is probably active throughout the day, with feeding periods alternating with resting periods.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139933FF890677FDE3FC18FDC0.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Detailed studies have not been conducted. Although adult males and females form separate groups during non-mating periods, these two groups occupy the same habitats and segregation is spatio-temporal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139933FF890677FDE3FC18FDC0.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I (as O. ammon hodgsoni). Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List (under O. ammon). Subsistence and commercial hunting has been a major mortality factor in the past, but a policy of firearms confiscation has resulted in reducing hunting by pastoralists. However, lack of enforcement of game laws and lack of personnel to patrol large areas are continuing problems. The long-term threat is displacement of Tibetan Argali populations from preferred grazing areas by domestic livestock. High domestic sheep densities result in unsustainable grazing practices; many former argali habitats are now dominated by livestock. Under these circumstances, Tibetan Argali are relegated to less productive foraging areas in higher, rugged terrain. Competition with livestock for winter ranges and associated human disturbance are factors limiting argali numbers. The small, isolated populations in highly fragmented landscapes make Tibetan Argali more vulnerable to extirpation. In a protected area in Ladakh during winter, they shifted to steeper habitats closer to cliffs and abandoned previously used plant communities with denser cover after the introduction of domestic sheep and goats. Argali also decreased foraging time by 20 % when in the presence oflivestock. The disturbance caused by herders and their guard dogs is probably another factor in displacing argali. The Tibetan Argali population in Ladakh has remained at 300 - 360 animals despite a hunting ban since the 1980 s; the failure of the population to increase is probably because of increased livestock and associated human disturbance. Only about 6500 occur in China.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139932FF8903DCFD0DF692FA85.taxon	materials_examined	Altai Mountains.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139932FF8903DCFD0DF692FA85.taxon	discussion	The taxonomic status of argali in Mongolia remains unresolved. Based on genetic variation at the mitochondrial NDb 5 locus, there was not sufficient genetic differentiation among populations in Mongolia to justify separating Altai and Gobi Argali (O. darwini) into separate evolutionarily significant units. However, based on mtD-NA control region and nuclear microsatellite analyses, there are two wild sheep groups in Mongolia, the Altai Argali from the Altai and the Gobi Argali from the Hangay (west-central Mongolia) and Gobi Desert. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139932FF8903DCFD0DF692FA85.taxon	distribution	Distribution. E Russia, E Kazakhstan, W Mongolia, and NW China.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139932FF8903DCFD0DF692FA85.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 172 - 180 cm (males) and 167 - 174 cm (females), tail 10 - 12 cm (males) and 9.5 - 12 cm (females), shoulder height 115 - 120 cm (males) and 100 - 114 cm (females), ear 12 - 14 cm (males) and 10 - 12 cm (females); weight 101 - 175 kg (males) and 80 - 100 kg (females). Weight of a nine-year-old from the Altai was 142 kg and that of a fourteen-year-old was 171 kg. Horn length 40 - 56 cm (females), horn girth at base 34 - 50. 5 cm (males) and 16 - 19 cm (females), horn mass 18 - 522 kg (males). This is the largest wild sheep. Horns and skull without the lower jaw can weigh 34 kg; horns can attain lengths of 182 cm with basal circumferences of 56 cm. The horns are shorter than those of the Marco Polo Argali (O. polii) but are more massive. Altai Argali females have the longest horns among all argali. Females are 60 % to 70 % the size of rams. In the winter coat, males are pale to dark brown tinged with white hairs. Large saddle-like white spots are present on the back. White underparts and rump patch are usually separated by dark stripes on sides and back. Old males may have almost the same coloration in summer. Females are usually brown or grayish-brown in summer and gray or dark-gray in winter. In the Altai, molt starts at the end of May, and adult males may molt until the end ofJune. Lactating females complete molting by the end ofJuly.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139932FF8903DCFD0DF692FA85.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Altai Argali inhabit undulating terrain with adjoining rough, steep, rocky outcrops and scree that they can use as escape terrain. However, they usually elude predators in open terrain rather than seeking higher, precipitous montane terrain. They occupy higher mountains with greater forage production, which could accountfor their greater size. Altai Argali steppe habitats are arid, with minimal winter precipitation and mean yearly temperatures well below 0 ° C; vegetation consists mainly of sedges, grasses, and forbs. Argali avoid more humid habitats and tall vegetation. Females tend to give birth and stay with newborns in open undulating valleys in upper portions of watersheds, where creeks provide water sources. Small lakes provide water sources in some areas. In winter, animals use the same habitat, but tundra as well. In Sailyugem (Russian Altai), argali usually occupy a narrow elevation range of 2300 - 2800 m above sea level. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) are the main natural predators of Altai Argali, but when livestock is available as an alternate food source, wolf predation on argali populations is not significant. Wolf accounted for 18 % of argali mortality in the 1970 s in one area, and 7 - 8 year-old rams comprised the majority of those killed. Poaching and deaths due to winter starvation are the greatest mortality factors. Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia) related mortalities are rare, and there is an account of a successful Wolverine (Gulo gulo) predation. Golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) and bearded vultures (Gypaetus barbatus) often attack lambs, but successful kills have not been observed.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139932FF8903DCFD0DF692FA85.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. First grazing attempts of newborn lambs occur 12 - 16 days after birth. Grasses, sedges, and some forbs (Artemisia, Astragalus, Oxytropis) dominate the diet throughout the year. In some areas, Altai Argali browse on willows in winter.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139932FF8903DCFD0DF692FA85.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating mainly occurs in November through mid-December. Lambs are born in the end of April and beginning of May after a gestation period of 155 - 165 days. Only single offspring have been recorded. Lambs weigh 3 - 5 — 4 - 5 kg at birth. Females are sexually mature at 2 - 5 years. In Russian Altai, ratios in May and June of different years were 50 - 67 lambs: 100 ewes. In 1985, 12: 5 % of the females had lost their newborns. Only 46 % of lambs survived the first winter. In a reserve in the Altai Mountains, lamb — ewe ratios were 68 - 5: 100 in summer and 16: 100 in winter, indicating a high winter mortality.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139932FF8903DCFD0DF692FA85.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. In summer, there are two peaks of activity, mornings and evenings. However, living in cold habitats, argali are active in broad daylight even in summer, alternating feeding and rest periods. In comparison with Marco Polo and Tianshan Argali (O. karelini), these periods are longer in Altai Argali. In winter, animals are active throughout the day, with a period of rest at midday.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139932FF8903DCFD0DF692FA85.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. In the Sailyugem Mountains (Russian Altai), most females with young spend summer on the northern Russian slope, and at the end of October and early November, they migrate to the southern Mongolian slope. They return to the northern slope in the end of April and early May. Adult males remain in Russia. Herds of females with lambs and yearlings of both sexes consist of up to 27 individuals. Female groups as large as 92 have been observed. Male groupsstart disintegrating in mid-October, when males join mixed herds prior to the mating season.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139932FF8903DCFD0DF692FA85.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Major threats to the Altai Argali are competition with livestock, resulting in displacement into marginal habitats, exposure to diseases that can be transmitted by domestic livestock, and illegal hunting for meat and horns. In Russia, Altai Argali hunting has been banned since 1934, but poaching has persisted. The distribution and numbers occur in Mongolian Altai, with an estimated 8000 - 9000 animals. About 500 - 900 argali inhabit north-central Mongolia near Tuva (Russia). Population numbers in Khangai are unknown. In the Chinese Mongolian Altai, no more than several hundred animals occurred in mid- 1990 s. In the southern Altai of Kazakhstan, no more than 100 argali survive. About 600 animals spend summers in Russian Altai and Tuva, but their winter numbers are significantly lower. In many areas of the Altai, they have undergone population declines and fragmentation.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139932FF8A06D4FACFFC34F9BD.taxon	materials_examined	S Gobi, Mongolia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139932FF8A06D4FACFFC34F9BD.taxon	discussion	Although the Gobi Argali is usually classified as a subspecies of the Altai Argali (O. ammon), a thorough systematics study is needed to resolve the genetic relationships between Altai and Gobi Argali in order to clarify their taxonomic status. However, based on mtDNA control region and nuclear microsatellite analyses, there are two major wild sheep groups in Mongolia, the Altai Argali from the Altai and the Gobi Argali from the Hangay (west-central Mongolia) and Gobi Desert. Distributional boundaries of these two forms are unclear. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139932FF8A06D4FACFFC34F9BD.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S Mongolia and N China.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139932FF8A06D4FACFFC34F9BD.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Measurements and weight of a 6 - 5 year-old male ram were as follows: head-body 134 - 5 cm, tail 18 cm, horn length 113 cm, horn basal girth 44 cm, and weight 146 kg. Those of a 67 year-old male were shoulder height 105 cm, weight 96 kg, horn length 87 - 5 cm, and horn basal girth 37 - 5 cm. Published weights of three rams eight to eleven years old are 116 kg, 143 kg, and 148 kg. Two color phases of males in winter pelage occur: a dark, chocolate brown form with gray-brown muzzle and face, and a paler form with dark-brown pelage and large whitish areas behind the shoulders and on the withers and back. The dark form also has whitish patches on the shoulders, withers, and back, with smaller white areas on the neck.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139932FF8A06D4FACFFC34F9BD.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Gobi Argali occupy desert, semi-desert and steppe habitats, usually in gently sloping to undulating landscapes, hilly regions, and canyon lands adjacent to montane areas at elevations of 2000 - 2800 m. They also live in desert lowlands at 1000 - 1300 m, in mountains, and in areas interspersed with rocky, dry gullies and rock outcrops.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139932FF8A06D4FACFFC34F9BD.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Gobi Argali can be primarily browsers in summer, but their forage preferences probably vary depending on seasonal and site-specific forage availability. Based on mean percentrelative density of plant fragments in fecal samples collected in summer, Gobi Argali diets consisted of 62: 5 % shrubs, 21 - 2 % forbs, and 16 - 2 % grasses.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139932FF8A06D4FACFFC34F9BD.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating occurs in late October-December and lambing occurs 155 - 165 days later in late March — May, with a birth peak in April. Ewes give birth in isolation and lambs remain hidden for several days. Twinning is rare; only one in 74 ewes gave birth to twins. Lambing can shift to later in the season because of changing rainfall patterns; later lambing dates are correlated with higher rainfall during the previous summer. The highest lamb mortality occurs during the first month oflife, but is highly variable. Lamb survival can vary from 19 % for lambs greater than one month old to 75 % mortality during the first month oflife. The mortality rate decreases after the first year: 36 - 5 % survived longer than three months and 22 % survived longer than one year. Precipitation in April of the previous year was the only factor that affected lamb survival. Drought years are correlated with high lamb mortality; in one study of marked lambs during a two-year drought, 81 % and 71 - 4 % of lambs died during each respective year. Predation was the mostsignificant mortality factor, accounting for 44 - 6 % of lamb mortalities. Of those mortalities, 13 % were due to Pallas’s Cats (Otocolobus manul), 20 % was due to Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and dogs, 8 % to Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes), 12 % to unknown felids, 4 % to raptors, and 36 % to unidentified predators. The second highest mortality (21 - 4 %) was starvation, which is especially high during drought years. Other mortality factors included disease and accidents (each 3 - 6 %).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139932FF8A06D4FACFFC34F9BD.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but in most argali there are two peaks of activity, mornings and evenings.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139932FF8A06D4FACFFC34F9BD.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Based on telemetry data of nine lambs, one adult male, and four adult females, mean home range was 57 km? + 3 - 7 km? using the 100 % minimum convex polygon method. Mean home ranges per season were 25 - 81 km? + 4 - 86 km? ® in spring, 29 - 42 km? + 1 - 57 km? in summer, 38 - 73 km * + 6 - 73 km? ® in autumn, and 36 - 29 km? + 7 km? in winter. Seasonal home ranges were not significantly different, and ranges overlapped. Domestic sheep guard dogs appeared to be an important mortality factor in the study area. Population density in a stable Gobi Argali population over a five-year period was 0 - 1 ind / km? * Other Gobi Argali population densities were 0 - 02 - 2 - 1 ind / km?; densities vary regionally depending on seasonal forage production and rangeland conditions, human disturbance, and domestic animal densities.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139932FF8A06D4FACFFC34F9BD.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under O. ammon). Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List (under O. ammon). There are an estimated 20,000 argali in Mongolia, of which about 14,000 (70 %) are Gobi Argali. Status of populations in China are unknown. The threats to the Gobi Argali are illegal hunting and competition for forage with domestic livestock. Human disturbance and guard dogs associated with domestic grazing are additional factors in displacing Gobi Argali from rangelands. Domestic sheep guard dogs are important predators, perhaps causing greater mortalities than Gray Wolves in some areas. During drought periods, livestock can displace argali from preferred rangelands at higher elevations, where forage production is greater, and from springs because of their intensified use by domestic animals. There is a need to implement rangeland management strategies to minimize competition between wild sheep and domestic animals. Strict enforcement of game laws is imperative. Creation of community-based conservation hunting programs that economically benefit the rural populace should be established to encourage incentivedriven wildlife conservation.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139931FF8A0375F907F6E4FDE7.taxon	materials_examined	NE China.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139931FF8A0375F907F6E4FDE7.taxon	discussion	Usually classified as O. ammon jubata. The type specimen was collected north of Beijing in northern Shansi Province, China. It most closely resembles O. darwini, with which it has been confused. The boundary between this species and O. darwini has not been determined. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139931FF8A0375F907F6E4FDE7.taxon	distribution	Distribution. It was restricted to NE China. Most extant museum specimens purported to be jubata were collected in the mountain ranges N of Hohot, Nei Mongol S of the Mongolian border.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139931FF8A0375F907F6E4FDE7.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 133 - 159 cm (males), tail 11 - 13 cm (males), shoulder height 105 - 115 cm (males), horn length 117 - 132 cm (males), basal girth 42 - 48 cm (males). Body color is dark fawn gray. Side of face, upper neck, middle of lower throat, and shoulder are flecked with white, resulting in a pale effect, but there is no white spotting on shoulders; belly is white and segregated fairly sharply with the dark body hair. Lower legs are pale-colored, but there can be distinct stripes down the foreand hindlegs. The distinct, whitish rump patch does not surround the tail; upper part oftail brownish and connects with the brown of the back. A yellow-brown to pale gray neck ruff of hair 9 - 10 cm long, twice as long as body hairs, is restricted to the front of the neck; hair is also elongated on the dorsal line of the neck extending to the shoulder.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139931FF8A0375F907F6E4FDE7.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Rough, steep hills dissected by canyons, ravines, and riparian valleys at elevations of 800 - 2100 m.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139931FF8A0375F907F6E4FDE7.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but nearby Gobi Argali are primarily browsers in summer. Forage preferences probably vary depending on seasonal and site-specific forage availability.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139931FF8A0375F907F6E4FDE7.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but mating probably occurs in late autumn or early winter and lambing would then occur 155 - 165 days later in late spring.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139931FF8A0375F907F6E4FDE7.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but other argali are active in broad daylight even in summer, alternating feeding and rest periods.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139931FF8A0375F907F6E4FDE7.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information for this species because current populations (if extant) are so low that no studies are available.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139931FF8A0375F907F6E4FDE7.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under O. ammon). Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List (under O. ammon). Because of its proximity to a major travel corridor and cities in northern China, it was vulnerable to commercial, subsistence and sport hunting. The population north of Beijing was extirpated by 1900. The Shansi Argali also occurred in an area of intense grazing by domestic animals. It continued to be illegally hunted and its habitat usurped by domestic animals and human agricultural development into the 1900 s. It was a favorite game mammal, excessively hunted by Americans and Europeans residing in Beijing and Tianjin. The Shansi Argali may be extinct. There is no known extant population that can definitely be anatomically relegated to this species. Argali populations in Inner Mongolia (Nei Mongol) along the border with Mongolia are anatomically referable to Gobi Argali (O. darwin).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139931FF8B064BFD29FA6DFD38.taxon	materials_examined	Kamchatka Peninsula.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139931FF8B064BFD29FA6DFD38.taxon	discussion	Snow Sheep are unique in having a diploid chromosome number of 52. Taxonomic difficulties arise as to how many Snow Sheep subspecies should be recognized because of its wide distribution, geographic pelage color variation, and disjunct populations. For example, the “ Putoran Snow Sheep ” (borealis) is separated from the nearest other Snow Sheep population by about 1000 km. The numerous subspecies named and the differing number of subspecies recognized by taxonomists will require a detailed study using anatomical, karyological, and molecular genetic criteria to clarify relationships. The most recent classification recognizes four subspecies.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139931FF8B064BFD29FA6DFD38.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. O. n. nwvicolaEschscholtz, 1829 — KamchatkaPeninsula. O. n. borealisSevertzov, 1873 — NCSiberia, PutoranMtsSofTaymyrPeninsula. O. n. koriakorumChernyavsky, 1962 — NESiberia. O. n. lydekkeri Kowarzik, 1913 — E Siberia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139931FF8B064BFD29FA6DFD38.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 136 - 188 cm (males) and 126 - 156 cm (females), tail 9 - 5 - 13 (males) and 7.5 - 13 cm (females), shoulder height 93 - 107 cm (males) and 90 - 94 cm (females); weight 56 - 105 kg (males) and 33 - 68 kg (females). Horn length 69 - 93 cm (males) and 23 - 27. 5 cm (females), horn basal circumference 25 - 36 cm (males) and 12 - 12. 4 cm (females). Snow Sheep have compact bodies and relatively short legs, which are adaptations for living in rocky, steep terrain. Females are usually uniformly brown in color. In males, the head, neck, chest, front of legs, and general body color usually are pale to dark brown, but body color also can be yellowish-white. Forehead, space between horns, and occiput can be white. There can be a dark transverse band on the nose bridge. A dark line is visible along the spine. White spots can be present behind the axillae. The groin and belly are white. There is a clearly defined rump patch below the base of the tail.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139931FF8B064BFD29FA6DFD38.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Snow Sheep are found in or near precipitous terrain. They occur at elevations from almost sea level to 1800 m in habitats ranging from tundra to marine coastal escarpments at 100 - 300 m to low mountain ranges at 500 - 800 m. They also occur in precipitous terrain in river valleys, but may be found in areas with scattered larch trees (Larix spp.) and tall shrubs. Winter temperatures can reach — - 60 ° C. Their predator is the Gray Wolf (Canis lupus). In the Putoran Mountains, 62 % of wolf scats in summer and 4 - 8 % in winter had Snow Sheep remains. Lamb mortality during the first year oflife is 30 - 50 %. Wolverines (Gulo gulo), Brown Bears (Ursus arctos), Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx), and large raptors are not significant predators.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139931FF8B064BFD29FA6DFD38.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The principal food of Snow Sheep is graminoids, with an increase in browse, including willow shoots, in winter. They also feed on mosses, lichens, and fungi. They can dig with their hooves in deep snow to search for forage. Heavy snows and icy conditions can result in heavy mortalities during winter because they are unable to obtain forage.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139931FF8B064BFD29FA6DFD38.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Females reach sexual maturity at 1 - 5 - 2 - 5 years, and males reach sexual maturity at 1 - 5 years. The mating season occurs in November — - December. Females isolate themselves from the herd before lambing, which occurs in rugged, rocky sites. After a gestation period of 170 - 180 days, ewes usually give birth in May-June to a single offspring; however, twinning has been recorded. The highest recorded incidence of twinning in a population was 5 %. Young males are prevented from mating by older males. Most males do not mate until they are 4 - 5 years old. During the rut, rams may travel up to 15 km / day in search of estrous ewes. The maximum longevity is 18 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139931FF8B064BFD29FA6DFD38.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Snow Sheep are principally diurnal. Detailed studies have not been conducted.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139931FF8B064BFD29FA6DFD38.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Detailed studies of movements and home ranges have not been conducted. In Yakutia, seasonal movements of 50 - 120 km may occur. In some cases, movements are undertaken to locate areas with less snow cover. There are three kinds of herds: those composed of females with newborns and yearlings; those of young males; and groups of adult males. Occasionally single older males are seen. A study in Kamchatka recorded the following herd composition: 12 % were single animals, 39 % were 2 - 3 animals, 26 % were 4 - 6 animals, 18 % were 7 - 10 animals, and 5 % were 11 - 12 animals.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139931FF8B064BFD29FA6DFD38.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. In the 1970 s, about 5000 Snow Sheep were shot for food and pelts. Illegal hunting mortality is currently not usually significant. In the mid- 1980 s there were an estimated 85,000 - 95,000 Snow Sheep. There are presently an estimated 7000 in Kamchatka, of which 150 are legally hunted each year, and there are about 5500 in the Putoran region. There are an estimated 1500 in the Chukotsk area. Population numbers and trends are not available for other populations. There is a need to establish a Snow Sheep monitoring program and to expand the number of protected areas. In areas where Snow Sheep have been extirpated, efforts should be made to reestablish populations.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139930FF8C03C5FC83FB14FA2B.taxon	materials_examined	Alberta, Canada.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139930FF8C03C5FC83FB14FA2B.taxon	discussion	Subspecies boundaries and number of taxa need clarification. Bighorn and Dall’s Sheep (O. dalli) probably hybridized prior to glacial maxima and during late Pleistocene in ice-free refugia. “ Audubon Bighorn ” (auduboni), consisting of extirpated populations from the Badlands of North and South Dakota, north-western Nebraska, eastern Wyoming, and Montana, is a synonym of the nominate subspecies canadensis. Populations of “ California Bighorn ” (californiana) have been synonymized with canadensis or nelsoni and populations formerly assigned to californiana in the central and southern Sierra Nevada of California have been assigned to sierrae. Formerly recognized subspecies cremnobates, occurring in extreme southern California and northern Baja California, is a synonym of nelson. Five subspecies recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139930FF8C03C5FC83FB14FA2B.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. O. c. canadensisShaw, 1804 — SWCanada (SBritishColumbia & SWAlberta), WUSA (Washington, Montana, Wyoming, NIdaho, NorthDakota, SouthDakota, NWNebraska, WColorado & NNewMexico). O. c. mexicanaMerriam, 1901 — SWUSA (SWArizona & SWNewMexico), NWMexico (NWSonora). ReestablishedinCoahuilaandChihuahua, Mexico. O. c. nelsoniMerriam, 1897 — NWUSA (Oregon, SWIdaho, Nevada, NECaliforniatotheGreatBasinDesertinUtah, SCalifornia & SArizona) andNWMexico (NBajaCalifornia). O. c. sierraeGrinnell, 1912 — California (C & SSierraNevada). O. c. weemsi Goldman, 1937 — S Baja California, Mexico.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139930FF8C03C5FC83FB14FA2B.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 109 - 169 cm (males) and 96 - 126 cm (females), tail 10.2 - 15. 2 cm (males) and 10.2 - 12. 7 cm (females), shoulder height 81 - 112 cm (males) and 76 - 91 cm (females), hindfoot 35.5 - 48. 3 cm (males) and 27.9 - 43. 2 cm (females); weight means 79 kg (up to 145 kg) for males and 59 kg (up to 104 kg) for females. Horn length means 90 cm (up to 126 cm) for males and 26 - 2 cm (females), horn circumference means 37 - 3 cm (up to 44 cm) for males and 12 - 8 cm (females). The longer, more massive curling horns of males clearly differentiate males and females; the mass of male skulls with horns minus lower jaw can exceed 20 kg. Males can be up to 70 % larger than females. Body color is pale brown to dark chocolate, including the tail. There is a distinct white rump patch that extends to the side of the rump and above the base of the tail; the muzzle, usually the posterior of the legs, and the belly are white. The white of the hindlegs is continuous with the white rump patch. There usually is a blackish-brown mid-dorsal stripe extending to the tip of the tail. There is no neck ruff. The diploid chromosome numberis 54.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139930FF8C03C5FC83FB14FA2B.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Steep, rugged terrain used for escape or security cover is a major habitat component, especially for ewes with lambs. Habitats include rough to gentle slopes in mountains and foothills, talus cliffs, rock outcrops, mesa tops, and canyons and adjacent river benches. Bighorn Sheep are found at elevations from below sea level in Death Valley, California, to above 3500 m. Daily temperatures can vary from — 40 ° C in northern regions and higher elevations to greater than 40 ° C in desert habitats. These habitats encompass a variety of plant communities, including grasslands, alpine and subalpine meadows, riparian zones, shrub-steppes, desert, clear-cut or burned tall vegetation, and deciduous and conifer forests. Bighorn Sheep usually avoid areas with tall vegetation that obstructs their vision. Northern populations require grazing areas devoid of deep snow, such as wind-blown sites. In desert areas, water availability is an important factor, but sheep can survive without standing water for long periods. Major predators include Coyotes (Canis latrans), Gray Wolves (C. lupus), Pumas (Puma concolor), and occasionally smaller carnivores and golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos). Puma predation by individuals that concentrate on sheep can depress population growth in some Instances.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139930FF8C03C5FC83FB14FA2B.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Diets are highly variable due to the wide geographic landscape and habitat variability, seasonal availability of forage species, and potential age and gender forage preference differences. Forbs and grasses are the component of most sheep diets, but shrubs can dominate diets. In desert areas, shrubs can comprise more than 90 % of summer diets. Water and seasonal precipitation have important effects on forage availability, quality, and palatability, especially in desert environments, and largely determine diet composition. Mineral licks are important sources of sodium, phosphorus, calcium, and probably trace minerals.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139930FF8C03C5FC83FB14FA2B.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Ewes are monestrous; males are serially polygynous. Dominance among rams is established by ritualized head and body displays and by physical interactions, including horn clashes and head butting. Dominant, larger bodied, longer-horned rams guard a single estrous ewe from other rams. Males are sexually mature by 1 - 5 years, but usually they are prevented from participating in the rut by older rams. However, subdominant rams can father offspring and several males can mate with the same female. Ewes usually first mate when 2 - 5 years old and first give birth when three years old. Males older than five years do most of the breeding. In northern populations, mating occurs in late November and early December. After a gestation period of 170 - 180 days, ewes give birth to a single offspring; twins are rare. Social rank in ewes is not correlated with reproductive success, but high-quality females, those in a high nutritional plane, have a consistently higher probability of reproduction. Lamb survival is greater in ewes aged 4 - 12 years than for ewes aged two or three years. In northern populations, parturition coincides with warmer temperatures and the growth of spring vegetation in late May and early June. In desert environments, the mating season is prolonged; births occur from January through June, probably due to unpredictable precipitation patterns, although there is usually a peak period in births. However, the peak birth period coincides with a predictable timing of the winter-spring forage growing season, indicating that most desert sheep births also coincide with the period of nutrient availability. Ewes give birth in rugged, steep terrain in seclusion. Lambs weigh 2: 7.4 - 5 kg at birth. After one to three days, when the lamb is able to follow the mother, theyjoin a ewe herd. Lamb and yearling mortality is highly variable, 20 - 80 % for lambs and 5 - 30 % for yearlings, and can exceed 90 % during disease outbreaks, exceptionally cold, wet weather, or droughts. Coyotes and Bobcats (Lynx rufus) are important predators of lambs. Lactating ewes are more vigilant about predators than non-lactating ewes.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139930FF8C03C5FC83FB14FA2B.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. During warm weather, feeding activities are concentrated at dusk and dawn. During winter, feeding periods increase, probably influenced by the shortened daylight hours and the poorer nutritional quality and availability of forage plants, especially in deserts and northern areas with snow cover. In deserts, feeding activity is curtailed by high summer temperatures during the day. Females, because of their added nutritional demands during pregnancy and after lambing, can spend proportionately more time feeding than males. Smaller rams spend more time foraging than larger rams.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139930FF8C03C5FC83FB14FA2B.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Northern Bighorn Sheep usually migrate seasonally between winter and summer home ranges, which can involve movements of 10 - 20 km. Female herds show high home range fidelity. Elevational migrations are evident in northern populations in relation to plant phenology and to avoid areas of snow accumulation. Desert population movements are related to seasonal water and forage availability. Males tend to make longer movements and have much larger home ranges than females, especially during the mating season. They can move 50 - 60 km and encompass several mountain ranges. In the pre-Columbian period, when human structures were not a hindrance, desert populations were not sedentary, and the sheep crossed lower-elevation intermountain regions to move between mountain ranges. In Utah, the mean home range size for males was 61 km?; for females it was 24 km ®. In arid areas, large female home ranges were correlated with widely scattered water sources; during the rainy season, home ranges and movements can increase because of greater availability of watering sources. However, in western Arizona, home ranges decreased with increasing precipitation indicating that forage quality was related to home range area. Bighorn Sheep aggregate in herds, which increases feeding efficiency and predator avoidance. Herd size, which can vary from two to over 100 individuals, is dependent on population size, habitat availability, season, and gender. During an extended period of the year, males form separate groups from females and occupy separate seasonal home ranges, but there can be spatial and temporal overlap. Female or maternal herds are composed of adult females, subadult females, lambs, and juvenile males. Young males leave female herds when they are old enough to dominate females, as 2 - 3 year-olds. Subadult males tend to rejoin female herds in summer. Young females remain within their maternal herds throughout their life. Females select for areas with higher security cover (steep, rugged terrain) to maximize lamb survival, even though these areas can have lower forage quality; males select for higher forage quality or quantity to maximize body condition, at the risk of higher predation vulnerability. Mature males join ewe herds during the mating season, which increases herd size and probably stimulates sexual behavior and synchronizes estrous among females. Single males may be more evident during the mating period because of their movements in search of estrous ewes. Males form dominance hierarchies, with older, larger males dominant over younger, smaller males. Dominance is correlated with reproductive fitness. Older, physically and socially mature males do most of the mating, but in some populations, subadult rams can sire equal numbers of lambs. Although females can live up to 19 years and males up to 14 years, few females live beyond 15 years and males rarely live beyond twelve years in the wild.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139930FF8C03C5FC83FB14FA2B.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (populations in Mexico). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. By the early 1900 s, many populations had been extirpated. Populations have been reestablished in all states where they had become extinct and even introduced in areas where they did not occur historically; introductions often have been from individuals that were not of the original genetic stock. There are an estimated 15,500 Bighorn Sheep in Canada and 42,700 in the USA. There are about 6700 in Mexico, of which 2500 occur in Baja California and 4200 in Sonora; 2200 of the sheep in Sonora are free-ranging, and 2000 are in enclosures. They were extirpated in the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, and Nuevo Leon, and there are now active reintroduction programs in each of these states. In Coahuila, there are about 450 in enclosures and 150 free-ranging; in Chihuahua there are about 200 in enclosures. Populations have been established on Tiburon Island, owned by the Seri Tribe, and Isla del Carmen, privately owned, in the Sea of Cortez. There are about 600 Bighorn Sheep on Tiburon Island and 400 on Isla del Carmen. Over 350 individuals have been removed from Tiburon Island over the last five years to augment populations in Sonora and reestablish extirpated populations in northern Mexico. The conservation program in Mexico has been the result of high prices paid by hunters. About US $ 4 - 5 million has been generated from sheep hunts on Tiburon Island and an additional US $ 2 - 7 million from the sale of live animals. Conservation measures include establishing populations in their former habitats on private and public lands. Bighorn Sheep occur in habitats that are not uniformly distributed and that are increasingly being fragmented, making it impossible for groups to interact and interbreed. Other problems include habitat loss due to human disturbance, including oil, gas, and mineral exploration and exploitation; introduction and dispersal of exotic ungulates; and urban expansion. Exotic ungulates can compete for forage and space, and exotics and domestic livestock can transmit diseases. Bighorn Sheep are vulnerable to several diseases transmitted by domestic animals, especially domestic sheep and die-offs have occurred following the introduction of domestic sheep. Translocations have been more successful when domestic sheep are not closer than 6 km of known Bighorn used areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139937FF8C0374FA6CF6C8F59E.taxon	materials_examined	Yukon, Alaska.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139937FF8C0374FA6CF6C8F59E.taxon	discussion	Microsatellite data provide some support for recognizing two subspecies.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139937FF8C0374FA6CF6C8F59E.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. O. d. dalliNelson, 1884 — Alaska, Canada (YukonTerritory, extremeWNorthwestTerritoriesandextremeNWBritishColumbia). O. d. stonei] A. Allen, 1897 — Canada (Yukon Territory, N British Columbia).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139937FF8C0374FA6CF6C8F59E.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Hentbods 130 - 178 cm (males) and 132 - 162 cm (females), tail, 8 - 13 cm (males) and 8 - 10 cm (females), shoulder height 91: 6 - 109 cm (males) and 78.7 - 88. 9 cm (females), hindfoot 38 - 46 cm (males) and 28 - 41 cm (females); weight, males average 81 - 7 kg (up to 136 kg) and females 56 - 8 kg. Dall’s Sheep are either entirely off-white, occasionally with a black tail (dalli), or highly variable (stonei), from pale brown to grayish or blackish-brown in body color, with white underparts, white face, grizzled neck, and distinct rump patch or with darker hairs on cheeks, throat, and neck. In the palest individuals, dark hairs are restricted to a saddle-patch down each side and the outer sides of the foreand hindlegs. The subspecies intergrade and color variations occur within the same population. Diploid chromosome number is 54.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139937FF8C0374FA6CF6C8F59E.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Dall’s Sheep habitats consist of steep, rugged terrain adjacent to alpine, subalpine, and at lower elevations even forested areas that in winter have light snowfall and wind-blown sites cleared of snow that allow access to forage. Cold winter temperatures well below 0 ° C and windy conditions prevail. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Coyotes (C. latrans) are the principal predators, but predation is not normally a major mortality factor.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139937FF8C0374FA6CF6C8F59E.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. They are principally grazers; in one study, annual diets consisted of 81 - 5 % grasses and sedges. In other studies, winter diets consisted of 87 - 6 % graminoids, 3 % forbs, and 8: 5 % shrubs and summer diets consisted of 57 % graminoids. Willows can be an important component of winter diets. Mineral licks are intensively used in some areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139937FF8C0374FA6CF6C8F59E.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The mating season is from mid-November to mid-December. Larger, dominant rams guard single, estrous ewes from subdominant and younger rams, who attempt to separate the ewe from the guarding ram. Most of the mating is done by dominant rams. Ewes are in estrus one to three days and will recycle if they do not conceive during the first estrous cycle. In healthy populations, ewes first mate as yearlings and give birth at two years of age; all older ewes can be pregnant. In some populations, reproduction can be delayed until ewes are older. Ewes 13 - 16 years old can continue to lamb. Prior to lambing, ewes leave herds and give birth in isolation. Shrubs may provide newborn lambs with concealment cover and shelter from the wind. Ewes join ewe-lamb groups after one or two days. Ewes give birth to one lamb, which weighs 3 - 2 — 4 - 1 kg, in May to mid-June, after a gestation period of 170 - 180 days. Twins are rare. Ewes join ewe-lamb groups one or two days after parturition but remain separated from barren ewe and yearling herds for several weeks. Lamb mortality during the first two weeks is approximately 28 %, but lamb — ewe ratios vary from 8: 100 to 81: 100 with an average of 37: 100.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139937FF8C0374FA6CF6C8F59E.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Dall’s Sheep are most active during daylight hours. During the shortened winter days in northern latitudes, they forage for only five hours daily when daylight is shortest but for progressively longer periods as daylight hours lengthen. Lactating females forage for longer periods than rams; adult rams foraged 9 - 1 hours daily, whereas lactating ewes foraged 11 - 9 hours and non-lactating ewes foraged 10 - 9 hours daily. The most active feeding period is usually at dusk. Nights are spent close to escape terrain. In the Arctic, where the sun does not rise in mid-winter, sheep feed in darkness.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139937FF8C0374FA6CF6C8F59E.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Winter ranges are smaller in area than summer ranges. Although in some regions ewes and rams use the same winter range, they segregate into separate ewe herds and ram herds. They exhibit a high degree of fidelity to seasonal ranges. Long-distance movements between winter and summer ranges can occur, some of which can involve movements through forested areas. In most instances, movements are between lower elevations to feed on spring vegetation and higher slopes later in the season to feed on the emerging vegetation following the receding snow line. Rams can also move to lower-elevation mountains to feed in brush-covered areas. Occasionally, small groups, especially young rams, move to areas as much as 40 - 50 km from the nearest known population; these movements are important in establishing new home ranges or reoccupying formerly used areas. Ewes associate with each other in ewe-lamb groups or ewe-lamb-yearling groups. Yearlings often begin to associate with ram groups during the lambing period and can join ram groups during the summer. Within ram groups, social interactions center on establishing and maintaining dominance rank.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139937FF8C0374FA6CF6C8F59E.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Most populations occur in undisturbed habitats. There are over 100,000 Dall’s (dall) and 14,500 Stone’s (stoner) Sheep. Die-offs from disease outbreaks have not been recorded, probably because of their isolation from domestic sheep. Mineral, oil, and gas exploration and extraction could have detrimental effects on habitats and populations over widespread areas in the future. Tourist disturbance, including vehicular traffic, has the potential to impede movements and cause sheep to move away from preferred foragingsites.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8E0676FC6CF9B1F4A8.taxon	materials_examined	Abruzzi Apennines, Italy.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8E0676FC6CF9B1F4A8.taxon	discussion	The Abruzzi Chamois has a low level of genetic variability, probably due to population bottlenecks and permanence of low numbers. More closely related to the Pyrenean Chamois (R. pyrenaica) than to the Alpine Chamois (R. rupicapra). Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8E0676FC6CF9B1F4A8.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Endemic to the Abruzzi Apennines in C Italy, in three subpopulations.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8E0676FC6CF9B1F4A8.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 105 - 120 cm, tail ¢. 3 — 4 cm, shoulder height ¢. 76 - 80 cm; weight 23 - 35 kg (males) and 20 - 32 kg (females). Size much like the Pyrenean Chamois. The Abruzzi Chamois differs in coloration from other chamois species; it has a larger white throat patch and extensive white areas on the side and back of neck that extend to the shoulder.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8E0676FC6CF9B1F4A8.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Abruzzi Chamois occursat elevations of 400 - 2800 m. It uses alpine meadows during warm seasons but moves to lower forested areas during winter when snow accumulation limits access to forage in high meadows. Use of wind-protected, steep slopes prevails in winter.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8E0676FC6CF9B1F4A8.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Probably feeds on forbs and grass in the warm season and consumes a higher percentage of browse in the winter.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8E0676FC6CF9B1F4A8.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The Abruzzi Chamois mates in November-December and gives birth in May-June to a single young after gestation of 165 - 175 days.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8E0676FC6CF9B1F4A8.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. During summer, feeding occurs in early morning and afternoon.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8E0676FC6CF9B1F4A8.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Usually moves from a high-elevation summer range to a lower-elevation winter range. Size of home range is variable depending on population density, winter conditions, and forage availability and quality. Older males and females are dominant over younger individuals. Herd size is highly variable, largely dependent on population density.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8E0676FC6CF9B1F4A8.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I (as R. pyrenaica ornata). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as R. p. ornata). The entire population of the Abruzzi Chamois is only about 1100. Numbers are increasing in protected areas. Spatial and forage competition with domestic livestock is the primary limiting factor. High numbers oftourists in national parks can be a major cause of stress to the Abruzzi Chamois because of harassment. Major conservation efforts include reestablishing and restoring populations in protected areas and developing integrated management grazing plans to diminish the negative effects of domestic livestock.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8E0371FE1CF85EFC20.taxon	materials_examined	Pyrenees.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8E0371FE1CF85EFC20.taxon	discussion	The classification of Rupicapra is unsettled. Rupicaprine ancestors probably originated in Asia and spread to Europe during the Middle Pleistocene prior to the Riss Glaciation. Ice sheets during glacial maxima in the Alps and Pyreneesisolated chamois populations, resulting in genetic differentiation, but during climatic oscillations, there were population contractions, expansions, and hybridization. The Pyrenean Chamois is genetically related to the Abruzzi Chamois (R. ornata) and the Cantabrian Chamois (R. parva). Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8E0371FE1CF85EFC20.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Pyrenees Mts in S France, Andorra, and NE Spain.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8E0371FE1CF85EFC20.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 105 - 120 cm, tail 3 - 4 cm, shoulder height 70 - 80 cm; weight 23 - 35 kg (males) and 20 - 32 kg (females). Horn length 17 - 28 cm (males), horn basal girth 6 - 9 cm (males). Horns of males have a greater horn basal girth. The tips of the horns hook sharply backward and downward. General body color of the Pyrenean Chamois is dark brown in winter. A dark mid-dorsal stripe is present. Top of head and throat are paler in color, as are the shoulders, back of the lower neck, and rump. A dark stripe extends from the base of the horns to the eyes and muzzle. Diploid chromosome numberis 58.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8E0371FE1CF85EFC20.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Pyrenean Chamois occurs at elevations of 1000 - 2800 m on or near steep rocky terrain in alpine and subalpine zones, principally ecotones between forested habitats and montane meadows. In summer, they usually seek the highest meadows to avoid domestic livestock and seem to prefer open habitats where availability of forbs and graminoids is greater. In one studysite, chamois entered forested areas to spend the night. They descend to forested habitats in winter. Groups preferred elevations of 2100 - 2300 m in June and of 1700 - 2100 m in November, avoiding elevations higher than 2300 m. Mean groupsize in forested habitats was 2 - 27 and 5 - 88 in open habitats. In the south-western Pyrenees in Spain, chamois occurred principally in mountain pine forests and clearcuts and rarely in beech (Fagus sylvatica) and fir (Abies alba) forests. In summer, upper pastures were occupied by livestock. Predators are golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) and occasionally Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes), but mortality due to predation is not significant because of scarcity of large carnivores. Major mortalities can occur due to infections of keratoconjunctivitis and other pathogens.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8E0371FE1CF85EFC20.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Pyrenean Chamois eats primarily graminoids and forbs in summer and browse in winter. Females tend to favor forbs. Browse in winter can constitute as much as 72 % of diets and graminoids in summer up to 66 - 4 %.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8E0371FE1CF85EFC20.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Males form harems. Mating is in November-December. Parturition occurs in May-June. Gestation lasts 165 - 175 days. Twinning has not been recorded. Females first give birth at age 2 - 3; 77 % of females reproduced at age two; 80 % of three-yearolds reproduced; 96 % between four and eleven years reproduced in any one year. Only 77 % of females older than twelve years of age gave birth in any one year. Prime age of reproduction of females is 4 - 11 years. Summer kid — female ratios can be as high as 72 kids: 100 females. Longevity is about 16 years for females and eleven years for males. During the parturition period in the south-western Pyrenees in Spain, females were concentrated at elevations of 1600 - 2000 m. None were found below 1500 m or above 2000 m. During the mating period, most were located below 1800 m.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8E0371FE1CF85EFC20.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. The Pyrenean Chamois is usually diurnal and most active during mornings and afternoons during summer. In a study area where they occurred with domestic sheep, herds of female chamois with kids primarily foraged in the morning and evening and rested at midday. Domestic sheep foraged mainly during the afternoon and at lower elevation than chamois. Sheep and chamois herds grazed at a mean distance of 250 m, usually resulting in spatial and temporal separation of the two species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8E0371FE1CF85EFC20.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Seasonal movements of Pyrenean Chamois occur from lower-elevation forests in winter to higher in summer, sometimes exceeding 7 km and with an elevation displacement of 600 m. Some populations are sedentary. Densities can exceed 25 ind / km ®. Groups of 20 or more individuals were more common than smaller groups in November at elevations of greater than 2100 m. Mean annual group size was 2: 75 with extremes of 1 - 40. In a dense chamois population (14 ind / km?) in the western Pyrenees in France, over one-half were in groups of 25 and one-third were in groups of more than 50, with a maximum number observed in a single group of 208. The large herds consisted of nursery groups. Mean group size was 11 - 7, in November mean group size was 8 - 2; the largest group observed was 82. There was a high rate of interchange of individuals between herds. Males were seldom alone. In June, the majority of males were found in unisexual groups with a mean size offive.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8E0371FE1CF85EFC20.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as R. p. pyrenaica). Populations are increasing and are strictly protected in several nature reserves, including national parks. About 50,000 occur in Spain and 25,000 in France. Potential competition with domestic livestock is a major concern in some areas. Regulated, sustainable hunting is permitted, with a combined total of about 2000 Pyrenean and Cantabrian Chamois harvested in Spain and about 2600 Pyrenean Chamois, less than 10 % of the censused population, harvested in France. Major concerns include outbreaks of keratoconjunctivitis and recently pestivirus. Management objectives and programs between France and Spain should be coordinated. Population monitoring and research are essential in hunted populations.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8F0675F4F3FAD7F590.taxon	materials_examined	Picos de Europa Mountains, NW Spain.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8F0675F4F3FAD7F590.taxon	discussion	Closely related to the Pyrenean Chamois (R. pyrenaica). Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8F0675F4F3FAD7F590.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Cantabrian Mts in NW Spain.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8F0675F4F3FAD7F590.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 90 - 130 cm, tail 3 - 4 cm, shoulder height 76 - 80 cm; weight 20 - 35 kg. Horn length 15 - 20 cm (males), horn basal girth 6.4 - 9 cm (males). Little sexual dimorphism occurs in body measurements of the Cantabrian Chamois. Body size and horn lengths average less than those of the Pyrenean Chamois. Pelage of the Cantabrian Chamois is redder in summer than the Pyrenean Chamois and tends to be gray in winter.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8F0675F4F3FAD7F590.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Cantabrian Chamois occurs atelevations of 400 - 2400 m in alpine and subalpine habitats with an element of precipitous terrain. Alpine meadows offer excellent feeding sites, but chamois have become equally adapted to forested habitats. The alpine — forested ecotone affords proximity to habitats that meet their foraging and thermal cover requirements. Proximity to steep, rugged, rocky habitats that affords security cover and escape terrain is especially required by females with young. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) are significant predators in some areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8F0675F4F3FAD7F590.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Diets of the Cantabrian Chamois consist primarily of forbs and graminoids with a peak in spring and higher intake of browse in winter. In spring the diet of the Cantabrian Chamois is 85 - 95 % graminoids; in winter it is 70 % browse. Females tend to consume higher percentages of forbs than males throughout the year. Females graze more actively than males except in winter, when no difference in feeding activity between sexesis detected. In alpine habitats, they favor northern exposures in summer and southern and western exposures in winter. Females show less fluctuation in kidney fat index than males.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8F0675F4F3FAD7F590.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The mating season of the Cantabrian Chamois occurs in November-December; births occur in May-June after gestation of 165 - 175 days. Females attain sexual maturity at three years of age. Fertility declines significantly after the age of eleven. Females give birth to a single young in cliffs and steep terrain. They remain segregated until the young are old enough to follow, and then they graze in subalpine meadows, but usually close to steep escape terrain.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8F0675F4F3FAD7F590.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. During early mornings in summer, Cantabrian Chamois move down from steep terrain where they spend the night, to feed in subalpine meadows. When the temperature rises, they seek thermal cover afforded by rocks, ledges and trees. They resume foraging during the cooler, late afternoon. When disturbed by humans, they may remain in rocky, precipitous terrain and avoid grazing in areas that afford more nutritive and abundant forage. In undisturbed areas such as national parks, they become accustomed to humans and forage close to campers and human habitations.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8F0675F4F3FAD7F590.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. During warm seasons, mixed groups use alpine meadows; they use the same areas in winter as long as grass patches are available. When snow cover prevents grazing, they move to forested lower slopes. They typically remain in an area most of the year due to the abrupt altitudinal changes and lesser snow fall in the Cantabrian Mountains. Group size is variable and changes seasonally in relation to escape terrain, forage availability, and especially during the mating season, when malesjoin female herds. Mean group size of females without kids is 5 - 59, that of males is 1 - 73, and of mixed groupsis 8 - 9 individuals. The most densely populated areas have 6 - 15 ind / km?.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139935FF8F0675F4F3FAD7F590.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as R. pyrenaica parva). A virulent scabies outbreak in the 1990 s caused a major population decline of the Cantabrian Chamois in the eastern part of its range. Populations are increasing in several nature reserves, including national parks, and spreading to areas where the chamois were extirpated. In 2007 - 2008, an estimated 17,430 occurred in the wild in Spain. Hunting is permitted, with a combined total of 2000 Cantabrian Chamois and Pyrenean Chamois harvested annually. Potential competition with domestic livestock is a major concern.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139934FF7003DDF5D8FBCAFB35.taxon	materials_examined	Switzerland.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139934FF7003DDF5D8FBCAFB35.taxon	discussion	The classification of Rupicapra is unsettled. Rupicaprine ancestors probably originated in Asia and spread to Europe during the Middle Pleistocene. Ice sheets during glacial maxima in the Alps and Pyrenees isolated chamois populations, resulting in genetic differentiation, but during climatic oscillations, there were population contractions, expansions, and hybridization. Four subspecies recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139934FF7003DDF5D8FBCAFB35.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. R. r. rupicapraLinnaeus, 1758 — Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, France, [taly, Slovenia, andNWCroatia. R. r. balcanicaBolkay, 1925 — BosniaandHerzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, Kosovo, Macedonia, Bulgaria, andGreece. R. r. cartusianaCouturier, 1938 — EFranceonWedgeofFrenchAlps. R. r. tatrica Blahout, 1972 — Tatras Mts in S Poland and N Slovakia. Subspecies rupicapra introduced into Czech Republic, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Argentina, and New Zealand.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139934FF7003DDF5D8FBCAFB35.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 110 - 130 cm, tail 8 - 10 cm, shoulder height 70 - 85 cm; weight 25 - 60 kg. Horn length 17 - 28 cm (males), horn basal girth 6 - 10 cm (males). Horns of males are larger in girth than those of females. Tips of horns curve sharply backward and downward. Body pelage of the Alpine Chamois is dark brown in winter and reddish-brown in summer. A dark mid-dorsal stripe extends from the neck to the dark tail. Upper part of head is white from nose to base of horns. Jaw, chin, and throat are white; a white patch extends to the base of the ear. A dark lateral stripe extends from the base of the horns to the eyes and muzzle. Diploid chromosome numberis 58.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139934FF7003DDF5D8FBCAFB35.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Alpine Chamois occurs at elevations up to 3000 m. It typically uses the timberline and the alpine grassland ecotone, but also lower montane forests and alpine foothills as low as 120 m. However, its habitats are variable and include natural or cut clearings, shrub-dominated habitats, and hilly, forested areas. Nearby steep, rocky, precipitous terrain is especially important. During winter, Alpine Chamois favor steep slopes and cliffs, which tend to have less snow cover. During inclement weather, they retreat to forested habitats for thermal cover. In Austria, females occurred at elevations of 1300 - 1800 m. After parturition, they occurred at higher elevations for several weeks during summer, then moved to lower elevations in August-September and to high elevations again during the mating season. During winter, females mainly occurred on south-facing and steep grassy slopes at 950 - 1500 m with open or semi-open tree cover. Female chamois were in groups of 2 - 7. They shared winter home ranges with females belonging to different summer herds, which occasionally included males. Major predators include Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx). In a study area in the Swiss Jura Mountains, lynxes killed 87 - 100 chamois annually, and killed more male chamois than females or young.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139934FF7003DDF5D8FBCAFB35.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Alpine Chamois basically consumes graminoids and forbs during warm season and browse in winter. In some areas, trees are an important food component, especially during periods of deep snow. Open shrubby heaths, clearings, alpine meadows bordering forests, and rocky areas that provide security cover, are preferred foraging sites. There is significant overlap in summer diets of Alpine Chamois and domestic sheep and where they occur together, chamois tend to select meadow areas that are hard for sheep to reach, but these tend to be of inferior quality.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139934FF7003DDF5D8FBCAFB35.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating of the Alpine Chamois occurs principally in November-December and most births are in May and early June; gestation is 165 - 175 days. Most females first give birth at age three and have a single offpring; twins are rare. During the nonmating season, males tend to be solitary and females form separate herds. Females can be highly protective of their young. During a predation attempt by a golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) on a chamois kid, females surrounded their kids and tried to fend off the eagle with their horns and bodies butfailed. Longevity can be up to 22 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139934FF7003DDF5D8FBCAFB35.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. In warm weather, Alpine Chamois usually graze early in the morning, seek shade during the warmest period of the day, and resume grazing in late afternoon when temperatures are cooler. Males spent significantly less time feeding during rut, but time spent lying down remained relatively unchanged during the pre-rut, rut, and post-rut.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139934FF7003DDF5D8FBCAFB35.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Seasonal movements involve migrations between low-elevation forests in winter and subalpine grasslands in spring as the snow recedes. Alpine Chamois occupy higher elevations in July-August and descend to forested habitats in October-November, when snow cover impedes movements and foraging. Females with young had larger home ranges and were in larger herds during the summer than females without young. Males have a greater tendency to disperse than females, although females can undertake more exploratory movements. Females are highly philopatric. In New Zealand, introduced Alpine Chamois have been highly successful in dispersing to unoccupied areas. In Austria, 3 - 5 year-old males had home ranges of 1 km * during winter and summer and undertook relatively short vertical movements between home ranges; 6 - 10 year-old males migrated vertically and horizontally over larger areas during summer and autumn. Males older than ten had home ranges of about 0 - 5 km * below the tree line during summer and autumn and tended to remain solitary. In winter, males were in exclusive male areas within home ranges equal in size to those in summer. The mean home range size of females was 0 - 74 km? in summer — autumn and 0 - 6 km? in winter. Female herds consisted of 25 - 65 females of all ages, and kids and yearlings of both sexes. Females moved to lower elevations from mid-December to early January, depending on snow depth. In the north-western Italian Alps, chamois males occupied clustered mating territories. These territories were attractive to females during rut, probably because they were in areas of reduced snow cover. Territorial behavior has been speculated to be an important aspect in the natural regulation of chamois populations. Densities of up to 30 ind / km * have been recorded. In the French Alps, mortality did not differ between sexes; survival rates were age-dependent. Maximum age at death of both sexes was 16 years. Winter severity and local density affected survival. Annual survival rates were 0 - 96 for adults, 0 - 58 for juveniles, and 0 - 91 for 1 - 5 - 3 - 5 years-olds. Survival rates of older age classes did not significantly decline. Disease outbreaks, including sarcoptive mange, have been a significant mortality factor.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F507139934FF7003DDF5D8FBCAFB35.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The “ Tatra Chamois ” subspecies (tatrica) is classified as Critically Endangered, and the “ Chartreuse Chamois ” subspecies (cartusiana) is classified as Vulnerable. There are about 435 Tatra Chamois in Slovakia and 80 in Poland, and about 2000 Chartreuse Chamois. There are a total of about 485,000 Alpine Chamois in Europe, with the largest populations occurring in Austria (150,000), Italy (137,000), Switzerland (90,000), France (62,500), and Germany (20,000) as of 2005. There are probably fewer than 4500 “ Balkan Chamois ” (balcanica). Hunting is allowed in most European countries, with about 70,000 Alpine Chamois harvested annually. Major threats include habitat fragmentation, resulting in small, isolated populations in some areas; poaching; human population pressure, resulting in disturbance due to increased road accessibility, tourism, and outdoor recreational activities; harassment by shepherds and their dogs; competition with livestock and exotic ungulates; and the potential of hybridizing among chamois species and subspecies. Additional concerns include inadequacy of monitoring ungulate populations and lack of information needed to manage populations, especially when determining hunting quotas, in the absence of data on population densities and dynamics.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF70037DF38DF882F95B.taxon	materials_examined	Trebizond, Asia Minor (Turkey).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF70037DF38DF882F95B.taxon	discussion	Rupicapra probably spread from Asia to Europe during the Middle Pleistocene. Two subspecies recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF70037DF38DF882F95B.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. R. a. asiaticaLydekker, 1908 — NE & ETurkey. R. a. caucasica Lydekker, 1910 — Caucasus in S Russia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF70037DF38DF882F95B.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 125 - 135 cm (males) and ¢ c. 96 cm (females), tail c. 8 — 10 cm, shoulder height 78 - 86 cm; weight 30 - 50 kg (males) and 25 - 42 kg (females). Horn length 14 - 25 cm (males), horn basal girth 6 - 10 cm (males). The Asia Minor Chamois is similar in body coloration to Alpine Chamois (R. rupicapra), but smaller in size. Diploid chromosome numberis 58.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF70037DF38DF882F95B.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Asia Minor Chamois occur at elevations of 200 - 2850 m. In the Caucasus, they occur in the alpine zone in September — - November and lowest elevations during December-May. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) are predators. Chamois remains were found in 12 % of wolf droppings and 18 % of lynx scats. Domestic dogs can be predators in some areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF70037DF38DF882F95B.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Feed principally on forbs and graminoids during summer and on browse during winter.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF70037DF38DF882F95B.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating season of the Asia Minor Chamois is from late October to early December, and kids are born from late April to mid-June after gestation of 165 - 175 days. Most kids are born in May — earlyJune. A single offsping is usually born; twinning is rare.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF70037DF38DF882F95B.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Probably similar to Alpine Chamois. The Asia Minor Chamois is mostly diurnal but known to forage at night. In the Caucasus, they feed between 05: 00 h and 11: 00 h followed by a midday rest period. Foraging resumes at about 17: 00 h.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF70037DF38DF882F95B.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Seasonal migrations occur between alpine areas occupied in summer and lower-elevation forested areas in winter. Summer and winter areas can be up to 2500 m apart. In the Caucasus, age composition of populations consisted of 44 - 85 % adults, 13 - 29 % kids and 7 - 14 % yearlings.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF70037DF38DF882F95B.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as R. rupicapra asiatica and R. rv. caucasica). Populations of the Asia Minor Chamois continue to decline, and in the Caucasus they occur only in fragmented protected areas. Populations are largely unmonitored and unprotected, and status is unknown. Major concerns include poaching, even in protected areas, and competition with domestic sheep and goats for forage and space. Some populations in Turkey are probably stable because of protection afforded in hunting reserves.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF70037FFA80FC9FF447.taxon	materials_examined	Romania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF70037FFA80FC9FF447.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered a subspecies of R. rupicapra. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF70037FFA80FC9FF447.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Carpathian Mts in Romania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF70037FFA80FC9FF447.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Few measurements available. Head-body 115 - 125 cm, tail ¢. 3 — 4 cm, shoulder height ¢. 75 - 90 cm; weight 50 - 60 kg; horn length 23 - 30 cm (males), horn basal circumference 7 - 10 cm. The Carpathian Chamois is characterized by a larger body, longer horns and darker winter coat than other chamois taxa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF70037FFA80FC9FF447.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Carpathian Chamois occupies alpine habitats in summer and lower ectotone areas of grasslands and forests in winter. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) are the mammalian predators. Domestic dogs also can be significant predators.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF70037FFA80FC9FF447.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The diet of the Carpathian Chamois is similar to that of the Alpine Chamois (R. rupicapra). Carpathian Chamois consume higher percentages of graminoids during spring and browse in winter.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF70037FFA80FC9FF447.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The mating season of the Carpathian Chamois is probably in November-December, and births occur in May-June after gestation of 165 - 175 days.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF70037FFA80FC9FF447.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Similar to Alpine Chamois. In warm season, graze early in morning and seek shade during warmest period of the day. Resume grazing in late afternoon when day temperatures are cooler.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF70037FFA80FC9FF447.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Probably similar to Alpine Chamois. Seasonal migrations occur between lower-elevation forests in winter and subalpine grasslands in the spring. Detailed studies of home ranges and social organization have not been conducted.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF70037FFA80FC9FF447.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under R. rupicapra). There were about 6800 Carpathian Chamois in 2006 and about 203 were harvested annually by sport hunters. Major concerns are small, fragmented populations that could be extirpated, disturbance by shepherds and dogs, and competition with domestic livestock. In some areas, poaching is a major concern. Current monitoring protocols do not accurately estimate populations. The number of protected areas should be increased and the existing ones enlarged; habitat improvement projects should be initiated and game laws strictly enforced. Reestablishment of populations in areas where they had been extirpated should be continued and populations established in newly created protected areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF710675F865FE5BFB5B.taxon	materials_examined	Nepal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF710675F865FE5BFB5B.taxon	discussion	The generic name was originally spelled Naemorhedus, but the spelling Nemorhaedus, despite being an unjustified emendation, is “ in prevailing ” usage and is used here. Sutlej River is the probable distributional boundary between the Himalayan Brown Goral and the Himalayan Gray Goral (NN. bedfordi). Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF710675F865FE5BFB5B.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Nepal, N India (Kumaon, Garwhal), NE India (including Sikkim), Bhutan, and marginally extreme S Xizang, China.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF710675F865FE5BFB5B.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 82 - 120 cm, tail 7.5 - 20. 3 cm, shoulder height 60 - 71 cm, ear 10 - 14 cm; weight 35 - 42 kg. Both sexes have short, backward-curving horns with small irregular ridges. Male horn length is 15 - 23. 5 cm, and basal horn girth is 9 - 11. 5 cm. Females have noticeably more slender horns than males. Color of the Himalayan Brown Goral is medium brown with black-tipped hairs, or gray-brown to pale or dark fawn. The pelage is shaggy in winter. Slender legs are light brown, with very bright tan or white on forelegs only. The chest and belly are paler. Older males develop a semi-erect crest of longer black and gray hairs along the back of the neck and shoulder. The back is slightly arched. The Himalayan Brown Goral has a white patch on the upper throat and white spots on lower muzzle and cheeks. The facial profile is concave. Diploid chromosome number is 56.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF710675F865FE5BFB5B.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Himalayan Brown Goral occurs in wooded mountains at elevations of about 400 - 4000 m, using precipitous cliffs and rough rocky terrain with 30 - 40 ° slopes. Their preferred habitats have a fairly dense cover of thorny shrubs and trees.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF710675F865FE5BFB5B.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Crepuscular and partly nocturnal in feeding activity. Over 90 % of winter and summer diet is grass, but seasonally also browse including fruits and nuts. The Himalayan Brown Goral never feeds far from escape cover. They drink water daily, particularly after morning feeding.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF710675F865FE5BFB5B.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating occurs in October-December. Males are territorial. Gestation is about 180 days. Single offspring are the norm, rarely twins. Young are born in April-May. Offspring are weaned at 7 - 8 months of age. The Himalayan Brown Gorallives up to 17 - 6 years in captivity, likely less in the wild.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF710675F865FE5BFB5B.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. The Himalayan Brown Goral is active in early morning on northwesterly slopes and in evening on north-easterly facing slopes. It tends to avoid open habitats when temperature exceeds 20 ° C and becomes nocturnal when confronted with persistent human disturbance.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF710675F865FE5BFB5B.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Himalayan Brown Gorals are very nimble and move with ease through rugged topography. They are well camouflaged, making them difficult to observe. Although they can move with great speed, they often remain motionless in the face of danger. Two or three Himalayan Brown Gorals will feed in proximity, but adult males are usually solitary. Only 27 % of females observed were solitary; 73 % were in groups, whereas 69 % of males were solitary and 31 % were in groups. Female groups consisted of 2 - 3 individuals. Mixed groups (females plus at least one male) had 2 - 5 individuals, and neither sex predominated. They are rarely seen in groups larger than ten. A hissing or sneezing alarm call is used to alert conspecifics of danger.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CBFF710675F865FE5BFB5B.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red Lust. Illegal subsistence hunting and habitat destruction and fragmentation are threats to the Himalayan Brown Goral. Status of populations is unknown due to lack of monitoring.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7103DAFA9DF779FE73.taxon	materials_examined	Tibet.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7103DAFA9DF779FE73.taxon	discussion	Formerly classified as a subspecies of N. goral. The generic name was originally spelled Naemorhedus, but the spelling Nemorhaedus, despite being an unjustified emendation, is “ in prevailing ” usage and is used here. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7103DAFA9DF779FE73.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Pakistan (Kashmir) and NW India (Chamba, Kulu). Sutlej River is the probable distributional boundary between the Himalayan Brown Goral (N. goral) and the Himalayan Gray Goral.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7103DAFA9DF779FE73.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. No specific data available for this species but body and horn measurements are similar to the Himalayan Brown Goral. Body color of the Himalayan Gray Goral is gray, ranging from gray-brown to yellowish-gray. A dorsalstripe is barely visible. Legs are paler than the body, and have a dark brown line on the front. The underside of the Himalayan Gray Goralis whitish, and a creamy chin color continues down onto throat.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7103DAFA9DF779FE73.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Himalayan Gray Goral reportedly occurs at elevations of 350 - 3000 m in similar habitat types as the Himalayan Brown Goral. In Pakistan, the Himalayan Gray Goral occurs in Himalayan foothills in diverse plant communities, including scattered pine and thorny shrub habitats. In north-western India, they occur at 350 - 700 m in one area and above 1600 m in another area, on slopes with a median gradient of greater than 30 — 40 °. They seek security cover in dense, tall vegetation in steep, rocky terrain.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7103DAFA9DF779FE73.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Annual diet of Himalayan Gray Goral consists of 63 % grass, 36 % shrubs, and 1 % tree leaves.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7103DAFA9DF779FE73.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating occurs in November — - December, and young are born in April-May. Gestation is about 180 days, and twinning is rare. Males and females reach sexual maturity at 2 - 3 years. Males join female herds only during the mating season. Matingseason mixed herds consist of a single adult male, adult females and their young, and subadult females. Adult males chase adult females during rut. Male Himalayan Gray Gorals are no doubtterritorial like the Himalayan Brown Gorals.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7103DAFA9DF779FE73.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Himalayan Gray Gorals are primarily diurnal. They avoid open areas when temperature exceeds 20 ° C. Temperature is probably a major factor determining daily and seasonal activity and habitat use.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7103DAFA9DF779FE73.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Detailed ecological studies have not been conducted. Older males are primarily solitary; 60 % of sightings in winter and 61 % in summer were of solitary adult and subadult males. In north-western India, 69 % of males were solitary; fewer than 30 % of females were solitary. Mean group size was 1 - 8 in winter and 1 - 6 in summer, with herds of up to eleven. In another area, mean mixed group size was 2 - 9. Population density was 4 - 6 — 10 - 5 ind / km? ®. Gorals have a matriarchal society, consisting of a basic family group of an adult female with one or two young of the year and other offspring 1 - 3 years old. Larger groups were observed in disturbed areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7103DAFA9DF779FE73.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I (under N. goral). Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List (as N. g. bedfordi). Many populations are small and fragmented. Widespread habitat alteration and disturbance, primarily illegal hunting and livestock grazing, are threats. Like most goral species, there is limited information on habitat use and specific human effects on populations. Strict enforcement of game laws and creation of additional protected areas are a priority. Communitybased conservation programs that emphasize integrated natural resource management, in some instances prioritizing economically viable alternative uses such as trophy hunting, would be beneficial to wildlife and human communities.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7106D2F798F7E3F2F4.taxon	materials_examined	Burma (Myanmar).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7106D2F798F7E3F2F4.taxon	discussion	Previously classified as a subspecies of N. griseus. The generic name was originally spelled Naemorhedus, but the spelling Nemorhaedus, despite being an unjustified emendation, is “ in prevailing ” usage and is used here. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7106D2F798F7E3F2F4.taxon	distribution	Distribution. C & S Myanmar and Thailand, E to the Chiengmai district and S to Raheng, N into Yunnan, China to about 25 ° N.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7106D2F798F7E3F2F4.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 50 - 70 cm, tail 12 - 18 cm, shoulder height 50 - 70 cm; weight 20 - 30 kg. Horn length 15 - 18 cm. The Burmese Goral has a pale brown body; the underside is pale gray-fawn; legs are golden to creamy gold or browner, with black line on front. A dorsalstripe is somewhat prominent.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7106D2F798F7E3F2F4.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Burmese Goral occurs in rocky, steep terrain with tall vegetation cover, often on slopes over 60 °. In one area, they were found at elevations of 1600 - 1970 m.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7106D2F798F7E3F2F4.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Probably primarily a diet of grasses.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7106D2F798F7E3F2F4.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The gestation of the Burmese Goral is probably 180 days; twinning is rare.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7106D2F798F7E3F2F4.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for the Burmese Goral, but likely crepuscular as in other gorals.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7106D2F798F7E3F2F4.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Male Burmese Gorals are solitary and likely territorial like other gorals. Mean group size is 1 - 6 individuals with a population density of about 5 ind / km? ®.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7106D2F798F7E3F2F4.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I (under N. griseus). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as N. g. evansi). Poaching, deforestation, and agricultural development are causes of declines and fragmentation of Burmese Goral populations. Status of most populations is unclear because of lack of monitoring. Lack of enforcement of game and forest extraction laws is a major concern.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7106D0FDB9F736F849.taxon	materials_examined	China (Sichuan).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7106D0FDB9F736F849.taxon	discussion	Previously classified as a subspecies of N. goral. The generic name was originally spelled Naemorhedus, but the spelling Nemorhaedus, despite being an unjustified emendation, is “ in prevailing ” usage and is used here. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7106D0FDB9F736F849.taxon	distribution	Distribution. C & SE China (Sichuan NE to Shanxi, Henan, Hubei, and E to Fujian, and in the mountainous S of China, as far as W Xizang and Yunnan (Lijiang).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7106D0FDB9F736F849.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 80 - 120 cm, tail 8 - 20 cm, shoulder height 50 - 70 cm; weight 20 - 30 kg. The Chinese Goral is pale grayish-brown to brown, with a varying black overlay, a dark dorsal stripe, and dark brown forehead. The throat of the Chinese Goral is white, but the chin is dark. Its tail is dark and bushy. Diploid chromosome numbers are 55 and 56.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7106D0FDB9F736F849.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Chinese Goral occursat elevations of 1000 - 4000 m in steep, rocky terrain.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7106D0FDB9F736F849.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Chinese Gorals probably feed primarily on grasses.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7106D0FDB9F736F849.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Sexual maturity is reached at 1 - 5 years. In captivity, Chinese Gorals can live up to 22 years. Gestation is 180 days. Normally only a single young is born; twinning is rare.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7106D0FDB9F736F849.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely crepuscular based on what is known about other gorals.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7106D0FDB9F736F849.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Chinese Goralis seen in small groups, rarely of more than ten individuals. Older males are probably solitary. Most information is based on casual observations.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CAFF7106D0FDB9F736F849.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Population numbers unknown dueto lack of monitoring. In China, they are hunted for illegal commercial markets. Habitat loss due to forest destruction and unsustainable livestock grazing continue to fragment and deleteriously impact goral populations.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C9FF720371F5DFF854F4D5.taxon	materials_examined	Tibet.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C9FF720371F5DFF854F4D5.taxon	discussion	The generic name was originally spelled Naemorhedus, but the spelling Nemorhaedus, despite being an unjustified emendation, is “ in prevailing ” usage and is used here. The range of the Red Goral separates the range of the Himalayan Brown Goral (N. goral) in the Himalayas from those of the Long-tailed Goral (N. caudatus) and the Chinese goral (N. griseus) in eastern China. The Red Goral has been previously classified as N. goral baileyi or N. g. cranbrooki, but the distinction appears to be only geographic. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C9FF720371F5DFF854F4D5.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S China (SE Xizang and the Gongshan County in Yunnan) to the high Mts of N Myanmar, perhaps as far S as 19 ° 30 ’ N, and NE India (Arunachal Pradesh) where restricted to areas close to Chinese and Myanmar borders.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C9FF720371F5DFF854F4D5.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 90 - 110 cm, tail 7 - 10 cm, shoulder height 55 - 60 cm, ear 9 - 5 — - 11 cm; weight 20 - 30 kg. Horn length 9 - 15 cm (males) and 7.5 - 13 cm (females), horn basal girth 5.5 - 9. 5 cm (males) and 4.3 - 7. 8 cm (females). The Red Goralis one of the smallest goral species. As the name implies, its overall body color, includingits legs, is reddish-brown to a rather bright fox-like red (although the type specimen was described by R. I. Pocock in 1914 as uniform dark brown). The pelage is long, soft, and rather shaggy, with each hair pale brown at the base and tipped with red. The head is a slightly more tawny color than the rest of the body; long blackbased hairs occur on the forehead, which is particularly dark between the horns. In young individuals, a small white spot often occurs between the horns, fading with age. Margins of the upper and lower lips are white. Ears of the Red Goral are smaller than in other goral species, whitish on the inside and fawn on the backside. The back and sides are typically darker in color than the pale-buff undersides. The chest and throat are often a rich chestnut and some individuals have a black patch on their chest that may extend as a dark stripe onto the belly. A black mid-dorsal stripe runs from the top of the head to the tip of the tufted tail, which is shorter and longer-haired than in other goral species. The scrotum is white. Horns of both sexes are black and curve backward to a greater degree than those of the Himalayan Brown Goral. Diploid chromosome number is 55.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C9FF720371F5DFF854F4D5.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Red Goral occurs at elevations of 2000 - 4500 m, generally higher than other goral species. Preferred habitats are steep, rocky coniferous woodland, scrub, and meadows, where rainfall is abundant, particularly in May-August.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C9FF720371F5DFF854F4D5.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Although detailed studies are lacking, lichens, particularly species of Usnea, are a main food source of the Red Goral. Grasses, herbaceous plants, and browse also are eaten. In captivity, they will drink daily.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C9FF720371F5DFF854F4D5.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The Red Goral typically mates in December, but mating may be earlier and extended in some locations (September-December). Captive females are sexually mature at 1 - 5 years, and the estrous cycle is 17 - 23 days. Estrus lasts 6 - 72 hours, and males repeteadly copulate with females (10 - 20 times). During rut, males are said to hold territories of 22 - 25 ha and vocalize with a “ ze-ze-ze ” call to attract females. Females also use a loud whistling call when a male approaches, audible to humans up to 500 m. A mature male follows a female closely, frequently checking her genital area and displaying lip curls. If a female is not ready to breed, she will flee or head-butt the male. When she is ready to breed, she will stand still with hertail raised. A single offspring is typical, and most are born in June-July after a gestation of 180 days. In captivity, weaning occurs at 3 - 5 months, and longevity is about 15 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C9FF720371F5DFF854F4D5.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. The Red Goral is primarily diurnal. Sunny slopes are sought out for foraging.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C9FF720371F5DFF854F4D5.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. In summer, Red Gorals move up in elevation, often above timberline to alpine meadows and thickets. From November through March, they move down slope to avoid snow, returning to higher elevations in April. Home ranges of the Red Goral are small, about 40 ha. Mature males are primarily solitary. Females live in small groups of 2 - 3 composed of her offspring of the current year and a male, orjust her offspring from the current and / or the previous year.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C9FF720371F5DFF854F4D5.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The total number of Red Gorals is estimated at 10,000, but that number is probably high. In Xizang, China, the estimate in the 1980 s was 810 individuals. Illegal hunting is the threat, but increasing human populations and habitat loss from the conversion of forested habitats to agriculture in formerly undisturbed areas are other causes of concern. Enforcement of existing game lawsis essential.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C9FF72037AFE80FDD3F599.taxon	materials_examined	Russia (Amurland).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C9FF72037AFE80FDD3F599.taxon	discussion	Previously classified as a subspecies of N. goral. N. c. raddeanus is a synonym. Analysis of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene indicates that Long-tailed Goral populations in Korea may be genetically distinct from populations in China. The generic name was originally spelled Naemorhedus, but the spelling Nemorhaedus, despite being an unjustified emendation, is “ in prevailing ” usage and is used here. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C9FF72037AFE80FDD3F599.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Russian Far East, NE China (Nei Mongol and Hebei E to Heilongjiang), and Korean Peninsula; apparently W to extreme SE Mongolia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C9FF72037AFE80FDD3F599.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 109 - 132 cm (males) and 106 - 135 cm (females), tail 14 — 18 cm (males) and 13 - 17 cm (females) but 37 - 48 cm to tip oftail hairs, shoulder height 69 - 75 cm, ear 11.5 - 15 cm; weight 26 - 47 kg (males) and 24 - 45 kg (females). Horn length ¢. 15 - 18 cm, up to 23 - 5 cm (males), horn basal girth ¢. 7 - 10 cm (males). Body color of the Long-tailed Goral is brown; legs are creamy to yellow-gray, with dark line on front of foreleg; and the dorsal stripe is usually inconspicuous. Underside pale, groin and axillae white, throat white extending forward to chin, and tail usually black and appears long and bushy due to length oftail hairs. Diploid chromosome numberis 56.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C9FF72037AFE80FDD3F599.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Long-tailed Goral occupies precipitous terrain with cliff component at elevations of 80 - 2000 m. In Russia, they occur in seashore cliffs, usually at 100 - 300 m, and in inland montane areas of mixed pine forests and oak woodlands at 300 - 800 m. They use slopes of 45 - 90 ° and can tolerate snow cover up to 35 cm. Major predators are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C9FF72037AFE80FDD3F599.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. In Russia, diet of the Long-tailed Goral varies seasonally, butis primarily graminoids (77 - 82 % seasonally). Browse dominates the diet only in summer but can constitute up to 40 % in winter. Gorals dig through snow to feed and spend 72 - 82 % oftheir total active time feeding.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C9FF72037AFE80FDD3F599.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Both sexes attain sexual maturity at 1 - 5 years, but males first participate in the rut at 2.5 years. Estrus lasts 15 - 30 hours. After a gestation of 210 days, a single offspring, rarely twins, is born. Kids are able to follow mother at 3 — 4 days. Longevity in captivity 1 s up to 18 years but in the wild they rarely live more than twelve years. Only young males disperse.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C9FF72037AFE80FDD3F599.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. The Long-tailed Goral is diurnal or nocturnal, usually feeding at night. They have 4 - 5 feeding periods from 05: 00 h to 21: 00 h.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C9FF72037AFE80FDD3F599.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Movements have not been studied in detail. Males occupy 22 - 55 ha and mark vegetation in home ranges with the postcornual gland, a gland behind the base of the horn. Groups consisted of two females with young; 2 - 5 animals less than three years old; an adult male and 1 - 3 subadult males; or mixed groups (at least one adult male and female and various individuals of both sexes) of up to 16 animals.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C9FF72037AFE80FDD3F599.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Long-tailed Gorals occur in fragmented populations. In the early 1900 s, the estimated population of the Long-tailed Goral was 2000 individuals in Russia. By 1980, it was reduced to no more than 550. In South Korea, fewer than 300 remain. Illegal hunting can be a major cause of adult mortality. Enforcement of game laws is a priority. There is need to expand and increase protected areas, prevent range deterioration by livestock, and limit human intrusions in goral habitats.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740649FCD6F8BCF6AE.taxon	materials_examined	China.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740649FCD6F8BCF6AE.taxon	discussion	Previously classified as a subspecies of C. sumatraensis. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740649FCD6F8BCF6AE.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S China (S Gansu, S Shaanxi, W Hubei, Sichuan, W Xizang, Yunnan, and hilly areas E to Fujian and Zhejiang); possibly S into extreme N Myanmar.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740649FCD6F8BCF6AE.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 140 - 165 cm, tail 11 - 16 cm, shoulder height 85 - 94 cm, ear 17 - 21 cm; weight 100 - 160 kg. Body of the White-maned Serow is covered with long hair; pelage is generally black, grading to reddish on flanks, rump, and tail; the head is browner. There is a mid-dorsal stripe. Long, shaggy mane mainly silvery, mixed with black. The tail is bushy, and the undersides are often paler. The White-maned Serow has a prominent preorbital gland.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740649FCD6F8BCF6AE.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The White-maned Serow usually occurs in rugged, steep terrain, but it also occurs in lowland forest. Ecological specifics are unknown. In Sichuan, China, the White-maned Serow occurred at elevations of 1500 - 2200 m and did not use habitats far from tall shrubs, which probably afforded security cover.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740649FCD6F8BCF6AE.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Primarily a browser.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740649FCD6F8BCF6AE.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but other serows give birth to a single young after a gestation period of about 210 days.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740649FCD6F8BCF6AE.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Probably principally diurnal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740649FCD6F8BCF6AE.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Older males are considered solitary, but detailed studies are lacking.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740649FCD6F8BCF6AE.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Populations of the White-maned Serow are not monitored, and status and population numbers are unknown. It is considered to be decreasing in numbers but probably stable in isolated areas. Greatest threats are habitat degradation resulting in fragmented populations, and illegal commercial hunting because of economic value of meat, body parts, and live animals.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740371FE21FB0DF8D6.taxon	materials_examined	Sumatra.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740371FE21FB0DF8D6.taxon	discussion	This species is monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740371FE21FB0DF8D6.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Hilly areas of W & N Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, probably as far N as the Kra Isthmus.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740371FE21FB0DF8D6.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 140 - 155 cm, tail 11 - 16 cm, shoulder height c. 85 - 94 cm, ear 17 - 21 cm; weight 85 - 140 kg. Male horns up to 28 cm. Sumatran Serows have a large preorbital gland. The legs and body are dark black withrion’ black to whitish or reddish mane and creamy white tips. The diploid chromosome numberis 46 in Sumatran specimens.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740371FE21FB0DF8D6.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Sumatran Serows are found from sea level to 600 m in steep, rugged terrain, including rainforests. In Indonesia, they occur at elevations of 200 - 3000 m. In Thailand, they are found in precipitous limestone mountains and cliffs where trees and dense undergrowth remain, in locations inaccessible to humans.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740371FE21FB0DF8D6.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Sumatran Serows are primarily browsers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740371FE21FB0DF8D6.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Sumatran Serows mate in October-November; a single offspring, or rarely twins, are born 210 days later. Longevity in captivity is ten years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740371FE21FB0DF8D6.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. The Sumatran Serow is usually active in the early morning and late evening. They seek shelter in overhanging rocks and steep terrain in dense vegetation.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740371FE21FB0DF8D6.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Older males are considered solitary but detailed studies have not been conducted. In an area where populations were small and disjunct, density was 0 - 4 ind / km? ®.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740371FE21FB0DF8D6.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. No reliable current information is available. In Malaysia, the population was estimated at 500 - 750. Historically, habitats have been and continue to be degraded due to mining, deforestation for logging and agricultural development, resulting in removal and burning of vegetation, and illegal hunting and capture with snares. Populations have been relegated to small, isolated patches of suitable habitat in many areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740373F81EFA0EFC8B.taxon	materials_examined	Nepal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740373F81EFA0EFC8B.taxon	discussion	Previously classified as a subspecies of C. sumatraensis. There 1 s a very enigmatic, strongly red-colored serow, perhaps a new species, in the Garo, Mishmi, and Naga Hills (Assam, India), which has been mistaken for C. rubidus but is actually much closer to C. thar. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740373F81EFA0EFC8B.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S slopes of the Himalayas, from Kashmir (N India) in the W to Assam (NE India) in the E; possibly also in the Hill States of NE India.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740373F81EFA0EFC8B.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 140 - 170 cm, tail 11.5 - 16 cm, shoulder height 90 - 100 cm; weight 85 - 140 kg. Male horn length 16 - 34 cm, male horn girth 10 - 15 cm. Prominent long ears and preorbital gland. Female horns have thinner horn girth. General body color dark black; paler underparts; creamy white legs below the knee. Coarse hair, a long mane mixed with black and white hairs, mid-dorsal stripe sometimesvisible.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740373F81EFA0EFC8B.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Himalayan Serows occur in precipitous areas where crevices and boulders afford security cover. Usually found in densely vegetated habitats including temperate broadleaf, coniferous, and subalpine forests, bamboo thickets, and thickly forested gorges. The Himalayan Serow occurs in Bhutan at elevations of 150 - 3500 m in subtropical broadleaf forest, and in Nepal at 2500 - 3500 m on slopes with a 20 - 40 % gradient; it is not observed above 4000 m. Tall vegetation provides forage and thermal and security cover. Populations are disjunct.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740373F81EFA0EFC8B.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Principally a browser.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740373F81EFA0EFC8B.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating is in October-November; typically, single young are born in May-June. Gestation is about 210 days.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740373F81EFA0EFC8B.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Usually diurnal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740373F81EFA0EFC8B.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Usually observed in small groups of less than ten. In Nepal, density is 1 - 2 ind / km? *. Maximum density is 2 ind / km?.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF740373F81EFA0EFC8B.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Surveys to determine population status and distribution are needed. In some areas probably locally common, but rugged terrain and tall vegetation make sighting animals difficult, which precludes assessing populations. Illegal hunting is probably mortality factor in areas adjacent to human settlements. Encroaching and existing agricultural development, uncontrolled tree cutting resulting in land degradation and fragmentation, and livestock competition are causes of declining populations. Domestic goats feed in rugged terrain, degrading habitats in areas not accessible to other livestock.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF750648F6FBFC95FCDB.taxon	materials_examined	Tonkin (Vietnam).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF750648F6FBFC95FCDB.taxon	discussion	Previously classified as C. sumatraensis maritimus or C. milneedwardsi maritimus. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF750648F6FBFC95FCDB.taxon	distribution	Distribution. From about 26 ° N in N Myanmar and Ha Long Bay in Vietnam through Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam to Kra Isthmus.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF750648F6FBFC95FCDB.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 140 - 155 cm, tail 11 - 16 cm, shoulder height 85 - 94 cm; weight 85 - 140 kg. The Indochinese Serow is black or dark brown, but it appears gray or brindled because of white hair bases. It has a dark mid-dorsal stripe and a mane that is often predominantly white because of mixed black and white or pale yellow-buff hairs. Throat white or golden brown, sometimes forming a large patch, and with white lips and a white moustache mark. The upper half of the legs arejet black and the lower half are reddish tan or creamy.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF750648F6FBFC95FCDB.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Indochinese Serow occurs in rugged limestone mountains and cliffs. In Vietnam, it is usually found above 1500 m in steep montane scrub, evergreen hill forests, and grassland slopes, but it also occurs in lowland forest.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF750648F6FBFC95FCDB.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but in general, serows are browsers that consume shoots, leaves, and perhaps some grass on occasion.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF750648F6FBFC95FCDB.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Gestation period probably 210 days; twins are rare.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF750648F6FBFC95FCDB.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but usually serows are crepuscular, with most activity at dawn and at dusk.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF750648F6FBFC95FCDB.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, but other serows can be found living alone or in small groups.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CFFF750648F6FBFC95FCDB.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I (under C. milneedwardsii). Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List (under C. milneedwardsii). Status of populations is unknown but declining. The Indochinese Serow is extensively hunted for meat, bones, and live specimens and is relegated to small, fragmented populations.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7503C7F66EF868F627.taxon	materials_examined	Japan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7503C7F66EF868F627.taxon	discussion	Sometimes considered conspecific with the Formosan Serow (C. swinhoei) but mtDNA data support classifying C. crispus and C. swinhoe: as separate species. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7503C7F66EF868F627.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Japan on Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu Is.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7503C7F66EF868F627.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Few measurements available. Tail c. 6 - 8 cm, shoulder height 68 - 78 cm (males) and 68 - 80 cm (females); weight 31 - 48 kg (males) and 33 - 44 kg (females). Horn length 12 - 16 cm (males), 12 - 15 cm (females). Sexual dimorphism is minimal. Body coloris whitish, grayish, black, or black with a white dorsal spot and dark dorsal stripe. Long hair covers the tail and body; there is a whitish upper neck ruff of long and fluffy hair; belly whitish, cheeks and lips white, area around eye and preorbital gland and crown of head also white, and legs blackish-brown. Diploid chromosome numberis 50.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7503C7F66EF868F627.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Cool forest zone, principally in temperate deciduous forest with more than 80 % forest cover; terrain rugged, mountainous; occurs from sea level to about 2700 m above sea level. The Japanese Serow also occurs in broad-leaved evergreen forest, subalpine coniferous forest, alpine meadow, mixed deciduous and conifer forest, and coniferous plantations. Its distribution can be patchy because ofits proclivity for endemic primary forest. Mature forests are also important movement corridors. Number and size of territories and vegetation cover in relation to forage quality, variety, and quantity have the greatest influence on population density.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7503C7F66EF868F627.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Japanese Serow is basically a browser, feeding on a variety of deciduous and coniferous trees and shrubs and bamboo, but forbs and grasses can be seasonally important. Diet in one area was 42 - 5 % green broad leaves; it was 65 - 2 % total browse during winter. Weight loss in November — March was greater for older females (about 20 %) than males (5 %) and greater in non-pregant females (23 %) than in pregnant females (15 %).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7503C7F66EF868F627.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Most females reach sexual maturity at 2 - 5 - 4 - 5 years of age. Considered monogamous; during a 24 year study, 71: 3 % of mating units were monogamous, 25 % consisted of one male and two females, and 3 -: 8 % were one male and three females. The mean sex ratio was 70 males: 100 females and the mean ratio of offspring to adult females was 83 offspring: 100 females. Mating occurs in September — January. Gestation is 210 - 220 days, and parturition peaks in May-June. Twinning is rare; only two of 259 pregnant females had twins. Newborns weigh 3.3 - 3.7 kg. Estimated life expectancy at birth is 4 - 8 - 6 - 5 years and longevity is up to 25 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7503C7F66EF868F627.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Primarily diurnal, but with both diurnal and nocturnal feeding periods.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7503C7F66EF868F627.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Japanese Serow is basically solitary, but it occurs in groups of up to four. Sixty-two percent of groups consisted of one adult female and her offspring (up to two years old) and 74 % of groups were of 2 — 4. Other groupings included mother — offspring — adult male (27 %) and adult male-adult female (18 %). Average population density was 1: 7 - 1 - 9 ind / km? for 71 study sites. In anotherstudy site, densities were 10 - 2 - 15 - 6 ind / km * based on seasonal estimates. Density seldom is greater than 20 ind / km? Higher densities occur in primary forest, but after logging and reforestation, densities can greatly increase due to increase in forage availability. Serow densities decrease when trees in the afforested area mature. In an area where clear cuttings were patchily distributed, mean annual home ranges were 13 - 8 ha (1: 6 - 33 - 5 ha) for males and 9 - 3 ha (1 - 2 - 33 - 5 ha) for females. Male and female adults maintain intrasexual territories. Behaviors related to territoriality include scent marking with preorbital glands, object aggression, optical marking by standing still, sometimes on stumps and large rocks to emphasize their presence, and defecating on dung piles. Yearlings remain within their mother’s territory. Offspring leave the natal territories to establish their own territories when they near sexual maturity. Adult males were aggressive to male offspring that were one year old or older but tolerant of female offspring. Three percent of offspring remained within their natal home range and 91 % dispersed. Age at dispersal was 2 — 4 - 5 years for males and 2 - 4 - 3 years for females. Territories within an area can be established by serows born in the area, immigrants from outside the area, and by former territory holders. During a 24 year study, the mean duration ofterritory retention was 11 - 7 years for females and 12 - 4 years for males. Males had larger territories (20 - 4 - 22 - 8 ha) than females (6 - 9 - 14 - 1 ha). Adult mortality from native predators and feral dogs is negligible, as is potential competition with exotic deer.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7503C7F66EF868F627.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Total population is 100,000. Populations in general are stable or increasing. Limited hunting outside of protected areas is allowed to limit damage to tree plantations by Japanese Serows. Monitoring and management programs should be implemented and an expanded number of protected areas that provide mature native forests and movement corridors need to be established.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7503D9FC1CFA89F627.taxon	materials_examined	Burma.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7503D9FC1CFA89F627.taxon	discussion	Previously classified as a subspecies of C. sumatraensis. There is a very enigmatic, strongly red-colored serow, perhaps a new species, in the Garo, Mishmi, and Naga Hills (Assam in India), which has been mistaken for C. rubidus but is actually much closer to C. thar. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7503D9FC1CFA89F627.taxon	distribution	Distribution. N Myanmar, from the Adung Valley about 28 ° N, S to the Arakan Hill Tracts and the limestone hills in the Salween Valley. Its distribution may overlap that of the Indochinese Serow (C. maritimus) in the SE parts of this region, and with that of the White-maned Serow (C. milneedwardsi) in the NE (N Shan States).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7503D9FC1CFA89F627.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 140 - 155 cm, shoulder height 85 - 95 cm; other measurements probably similar to larger serow species. The Burmese Red Serow has reddishbrown short hairs with black hair bases and a mid-dorsal stripe. Its mane is dark red, legs reddish, belly white, and throat and interramal region white or creamy red.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7503D9FC1CFA89F627.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Hilly habitats in tropical and subtropical forest.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7503D9FC1CFA89F627.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably browse is component of diet.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7503D9FC1CFA89F627.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably similar to other serows, with a gestation of about 210 days, followed by birth of a single young, or rarely twins.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7503D9FC1CFA89F627.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but other serows are most active at dawn and dusk, and spend the rest of the day in thick vegetation.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7503D9FC1CFA89F627.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, but related serows are territorial, typically moving along beaten paths that they create through their territories.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7503D9FC1CFA89F627.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Population status and numbers are not available. Habitat destruction and fragmentation and illegal hunting for commercial trade are threats.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7606DFF668FDB2FC8B.taxon	materials_examined	Formosa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7606DFF668FDB2FC8B.taxon	discussion	Closely related to the Japanese Serow (C. crispus) but molecular genetic data indicate C. swinhoei 1 s a separate species. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7606DFF668FDB2FC8B.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Taiwan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7606DFF668FDB2FC8B.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 80 - 114 cm, tail 7 - 12 cm, shoulder height 50 - 65 cm; weight 18 - 30 kg. Horn length 15 - 26 cm. Body color of the Formosan Serow is brown to dark brown, and legs are noticeably darker than body; it lacks a mane. Chin, throat, and posterior jaw pale yellowish to reddish brown. Diploid chromosome numberis 50.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7606DFF668FDB2FC8B.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Occurs at elevations of 200 - 3870 m, with most populations higher than 1000 m because of human encroachment. The Formosan Serow is principally found in steep, mountainous terrain in coniferous and mixed deciduous forests, but also in disturbed and early succession forests.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7606DFF668FDB2FC8B.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Formosan Serow is principally a browser, but grasses and forbs are important seasonally.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7606DFF668FDB2FC8B.taxon	breeding	Breeding. In captivity, mating occurs in September-December and births occur in March — July. Gestation is about 210 days. Weight of a neonate was about 1 - 3 kg.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7606DFF668FDB2FC8B.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Diurnal and nocturnal, but principally diurnal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7606DFF668FDB2FC8B.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The social system of the Formosan Serow is probably similar to those of the Japanese Serow, which is basically solitary or found in small groups of up to four individuals. It scent-marks with preorbital glands. Other aspects are unknown.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CEFF7606DFF668FDB2FC8B.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Ecological and human impact studies are needed. Regional population status is unknown. Greatest concern is the continued degradation and fragmentation of native forests, and agricultural encroachment and related human activities.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CDFF76037FFB9EF8E3F3E9.taxon	materials_examined	Canada (Manitoba, between Seal and Churchill rivers).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CDFF76037FFB9EF8E3F3E9.taxon	discussion	The Muskox originated in Asia and spread to North America ¢. 90,000 years ago. Ouvibos and Budorcas were formerly considered closely related and classified in the tribe Ovibovini, but Ovibos, based on mtDNA analysis, has a closer genetic relationship to Nemorhaedus and Capricornis than to other genera of the tribe Caprini. Control-region sequences of mtDNA comparisons between Muskox populations reveal small differences and do not support recognition of subspecies. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CDFF76037FFB9EF8E3F3E9.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Arctic areas of Alaska, Canada, and NE & N Greenland. Successfully introduced into W & SW Greenland, Norway, Russia, and several areas of Alaska outside their natural range.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CDFF76037FFB9EF8E3F3E9.taxon	description	Descriptive notes Head-body 190 - 230 cm, tail 9 - 10 cm, shoulder height 120 - 151 cm; weight 200 - 410 kg. Adult males are 25 % larger than females. Amber-colored horns emanate from a boss (knob-like protuberance) and grow down below the eye and outward, with sharp, upturned tips. General body color is dark brown, the legs and middle back are white, and the muzzle is pale. The blocky body, broad head, short and stout legs, short neck, humped shoulder, and voluminous, long shaggy hair that extends beyond the knees and in some individuals to the ground combine to distinguish Muskoxen from other caprines. So does their tendency to stand with the head held low, and the slight slope of the body from the shoulder to the hindquarters. The Muskox is the largest herbivore in the circumpolar Arctic. An exceptionally thick coat of underwool and large stores of body fat that provide energy and insulation in adults and calves are adaptations to extreme cold conditions. Muskoxen do not exhibit a latitudinal or climatic trend in body size. Diploid chromosome number is 52.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CDFF76037FFB9EF8E3F3E9.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Most populations occur on tundra in areas of shallow snow or in wind-swept foraging sites with lower snow accumulation, in subarctic maritime, continental arctic, and High Arctic habitats. Their habitats include seashore sand dunes, riparian areas, and coastal plains. On Banks Island, Canada, situated in the high Arctic, the four habitats are characterized as wet sedge meadow, upland barren, hummock tundra, and stony barren. Muskoxen are physiologically and anatomically adapted to long, harsh, cold winters at temperatures that can be as low as — 80 ° C with wind chill. On the Taymyr Peninsula, they experience temperatures ranging from - 52 ° C to 25 ° C. On Banks Island, mean minimum daily temperatures from December to March range from - 30 ° C to — - 40 ° C; mean maximum daily temperatures from June through August range from 5 ° C to 10 ° C. Mean annual precipitation is 9 cm and over 95 % of the island is below 500 m. Muskoxen can scrape for forage at snow depths of 20 - 40 cm, depending on snow hardness and density. In a southernmost and Low Arctic area in Greenland, where winter forage availability was higher and vegetation growth more vigorous, the animals grew faster, matured earlier, reproduced earlier, reached larger adult sizes, and had a higher rate of reproduction than Muskoxen in more northern, high Arctic areas where climatic conditions were less favorable. Few Muskox populations occur along the tree line ecotone or below the tree line. Competitive exclusion has been proposed as a causal relationship where Muskoxen have increased and Reindeer / Caribou have declined, but conclusive ecological evidence is lacking. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) are the principal predators. Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) can also be a threat; individual bears can become proficient predators. When approached by predators, Muskoxen face them as a group, with young animals behind the group or within a circle of adults.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CDFF76037FFB9EF8E3F3E9.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Muskoxen are primarily grazers, principally feeding on sedges and grasses, but willows and forbs are an important diet component in North America and Russia, especially during the summer. Diet varies regionally depending on season and plant species availability and nutritional quality. On Banks Island, the Muskox diet is dominated by sedge and willow; willow is an important dietary component during September, October, and January. Willow has a high nitrogen concentration and may complement and supplement the consumption of graminoids, although Muskoxen probably have a low requirement of nitrogen for growth. Annual diet in Taymyr Peninsula, Russia, is 47 - 86 % grasses, 10 - 52 % shrub leaves and twigs, 2 - 7 % lichens and 0 - 2 - 12 % mosses, which are poorly digestible. Muskoxen have a slow metabolism and low forage requirements, are able to digest low-quality forage, and have the ability to accumulate large fat reserves.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CDFF76037FFB9EF8E3F3E9.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Muskoxen have a polygynous mating system. Mating occurs in August-September and most calving is from mid-April to early June, after a gestation period of 235 - 245 days. The female reproductive threshold is when body weightis ¢. 160 kg. In captive animals, the onset of estrus and mating occur most often during the night. Most cows first calve as three-year-olds and have been recorded to calve up to 18 years of age. Twinning is rare. Calving takes place within the herd and young are born at temperatures as low as — 30 ° C. At birth, calves weigh about 10 kg. Young males do not participate in mating until they are physically mature enough to challenge older males, probably at 5 - 8 years of age. In the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge in Alaska, calf-female ratios in June 2000 and 2001 declined to fewer than 5 calves: 100 females greater than two years of age, compared to an average of 48 calves: 100 females in 1990 - 1994 and 29 calves: 100 females in 1995 - 1999. Increased Brown Bear predation was implicated as a major cause of the calf decline. A female in the wild lived for more than thirty years, but most probably do not live beyond twenty years of age.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CDFF76037FFB9EF8E3F3E9.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Muskoxen alternate resting and feeding. Feeding is the dominant activity during winter. Calves tend to spend more time lying and standing and less time feeding than other age classes. Males in bachelor herds spend a greater proportion of time foraging and less time resting than they do when in mixed herds.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CDFF76037FFB9EF8E3F3E9.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Muskoxen can move over large areas; tagged animals have been recorded to move 120 - 130 km. However, most populations have regular patterns of local movements and seasonal migrations. Herd size is usually 5 - 12 animals in summer and 12 - 30 in winter. Groups may exhibit loose cohesion; shifting of individuals between groups is characteristic. Adult males occur as harem bulls in mixed herds, in bachelor groups, or alone. Large populations can have densities of 1 - 5 - 2 ind / km?. In the Taymyr Peninsula, Russia, herd size consisted of 17 - 23 animals at high population densities. Young males tend to remain in herds with their mothers until the age of two. Some remain with female herds until they are subadults, depending on the aggressiveness of dominant males.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399CDFF76037FFB9EF8E3F3E9.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Muskoxen were historically present from Point Barrow in Alaska, and extended across the circumpolar Arctic through Canada into north-eastern Greenland, and south as far as north-east Manitoba. In the 19 " century the species became extinct in Alaska, but was reestablished from Greenland stock, initially on Nunivak Island, in 1936. Nunivak Island Muskoxen were introduced on Nelson Island and into north-eastern and north-western Alaska and the Seward Peninsula between 1967 and 1981. The introduced populations in north-eastern and north-western Alaska are the only ones living within the historical distribution of the species. From north-eastern Alaska, Muskoxen spread to north-western Yukon, in Canada. They were never extirpated in Canada or Greenland, although their distribution became reduced in the former. Now Muskoxen naturally occur on the tundra west of Hudson Bay in Nunavat, Canada, and extend westward through the Northwest Territories, reaching almost to the Mackenzie River. They are also present on most of the larger islands of the Arctic Archipelago, with the exception of Baffin Island, and have been introduced into northern Quebec. Extinct in Russia for 2000 - 3000 years, they were successfully reintroduced on the Taymyr Peninsula and also on Wrangel Island and Yakutia (Anabar River, Ust-Lensky Nature Reserve, Indigirka River) in Siberia. An estimated 121,000 Muskoxen occur in Canada, of which 75,400 are in the Northwest Territories and 45,300 in Nunavat. The total population in Alaska is ¢. 3700. There are 9500 - 12,500 in Greenland and ¢. 2000 in Russia. Unregulated commercial hunting was the cause for the extirpation and decline of populations. Muskox numbers have increased; they have reoccupied historical ranges, and have been introduced in areas outside their historical distribution. Strictly controlled sport and subsistence hunting is permitted in Alaska, Canada, and Greenland, as is the commercial harvest for meat and hides, including the extremely fine underwool “ qiviut. ” Many ecological aspects of Muskox habitat and interspecific relationships remain unknown. Climate warming is likely to have a negative impact.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C3FF79037EFE72FD6FFDC9.taxon	materials_examined	Cape Colony.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C3FF79037EFE72FD6FFDC9.taxon	discussion	There is considerable geographic variation in this wide-ranging species, and overforty subspecies have been described. Many of these are considered not well founded, butthis speciesis in need of taxonomic revision. Intermediate variations are often seen where the ranges of two subspecies meet. Eleven subspecies are recognized here; a twelfth subspecies (currently undescribed) may inhabit the higher elevations of Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C3FF79037EFE72FD6FFDC9.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. S. g. grimmia Linnaeus, 1758 — S South Africa (Cape Province). S. g. altwallis Heller, 1912 — C Kenya (Aberdare Mts and Mt Kenya). S. g. caffra Fitzinger, 1869 — S Mozambique, E Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Lesotho, NE South Africa. S. g. campbelliae Gray, 1843 — E Guinea, S Mali, N Ivory Coast, S Burkina Faso, N Ghana, Togo, Benin, S Niger, Nigeria, N Cameroon, S Chad, Central African Republic, SW Sudan, W Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi. S. g. hindei Wroughton, 1910 — SE Kenya and N Tanzania. S. g. lobeliarum Lönnberg, 1919 — E Uganda, W Kenya (restricted to Mt Elgon). S. g. madoqua Ruppell, 1835 — W Ethiopia (highlands), W Eritrea. S. g nyansae Neumann, 1905 — SE Sudan, W Ethiopia, E Uganda, and W Kenya. S. g. orbicularis Peters, 1852 — S Somalia, E Kenya, Tanzania, E Zambia, Malawi, N Mozambique. S. g. splendidula Gray, 1871 — SE Gabon, S Republic of the Congo, S DR Congo, N Angola, E Botswana, W Zambia, W Zimbabwe. S. g. steinhardti Zukowsky, 1924 — S Angola, Namibia, W Botswana, NW South Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C3FF79037EFE72FD6FFDC9.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 70 - 105 cm (males) and 90 - 115 cm (females), tail 10 - 20 cm, shoulder height 39 - 68 cm; weight 9.7 - 22. 4 kg (males) and 10.3 - 26. 3 kg (females). Weights vary regionally; animals from the northern parts of the species’ distribution (including West Africa) tend to be smaller than those from the south. Females are typically 2 - 4 kg heavier than males. In form, the Bush Duiker generally resembles other savanna-dwelling small antelopes more than other duikers: the back is relatively straight (not arched), the legs are long and slender, the neck is longer, and the head is often held above the line of the back. Pelage characteristics vary widely between locations. Coat length is longest in montane forms from East Africa (notably in the subspecies altivallis and lobeliarum), but is often short and glossy in lowland forms. Overall color is grayish-yellow or sandy brown, but may be very red or pale. Each hair is banded, creating a speckled or grizzled appearance. The underparts and inside of legs are white or pale gray. The legs are generally colored as the body, with a black patch above the hooves and a variable dark stripe on the front of the forelegs. A similar stripe is present on the hindlegs in some specimens. The tail has a variable extent of black on the upper surface (ranging from totally black to just the tip); the underside of the tail is bushy and white. The head is generally more rufous than the body, especially the forehead. The rhinarium is black, and the underside of the jaw is whitish. A black or dark brown blaze runs up the bridge of the nose from the muzzle and is highly variable in length. In some individuals it fades away below the eyes (typical of the subspecies orbicularis, splendidula, and steinhardti), whereas in others it continues clearly to the top of the head (usually seen in subspecies altivallis, campbelliae, and hinder). A whitish ring may be present around the eyes (especially in subspecies orbicularis). The slit-like openings of the preorbital glands are large and conspicuous. The ears are large and pointed; the outer surfaces are gray, the inner surfaces fringed with white hair. The size of the ears appears closely linked to climate and habitat: they are largest in hot, arid regions. The coronal tuft is generally long, narrow, and wispy; its color varies from rufous to black. Horns are generally present in males only; they are slender, straight, and pointed, rising almost vertically from the forehead. Average horn length is 9 - 9 cm (typical range 7.5 - 12. 5 cm); horns up to 18 cm long have been recorded. Short, stunted horns are occasionally seen in females; nearly 13 % of subspecies steinhardti females in eastern Botswana are horned. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 232	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C3FF79037EFE72FD6FFDC9.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. A wide range of mixed woodland and savanna habitat types are used. Bush Duikers may be found from sea level to over 4300 m on Mount Kenya (where the species may be found at the snow line). Cover (shrubbery, thickets, or woodland) is needed for shelter; short open grasslands and woodlands without underbrush are avoided. Rainforests and deserts are also avoided, although forest edges may be used for shelter. Bush Duikers are found in a diverse array of woodlands, including those dominated by Brachystegia — fulbernardia (miombo), Colophospermum mopane and Isoberlinia (mopane), Terminalia, or Acacia. Population densities in Zimbabwe average 1 - 9 - 9 ind / km?, and are highest in Baikiaea woodland. Typical population density across the species’ range is 2 - 3 ind / km *. Bush Duikers frequent seasonally burned savannas; the flush of new growth 1 - 2 months after the burn may cause duiker population densities to double. Baboons (Papio sp.) will occasionally prey on young duikers; other predators include Leopards (Panthera pardus), Servals (Leptailurus serval), African Wild Dogs (Lycaon pictus), martial eagles (Polemaetus bellicosus), and African rock pythons (Python sebae). If pressed, Bush Duikers will readily take to water; they are strong swimmers and may swim for more than 1 km. They are able to jump over 1 - 8 m, but usually run beneath obstacles when avoiding predators.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C3FF79037EFE72FD6FFDC9.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. A browser. Small, ground-level herbs constitute the main part of the diet, accounting for 65 % of feeding time. Leaves, stems, and sometimes the roots of such herbs are all eaten. Fallen, often partially dry leaves and fruits are also consumed. Grass is eaten only very rarely, and then only as very young shoots. Stomach content analysis in eastern Zambia revealed a preference for the leaves of Bauhinia petersiana, Brachystegia spp., Combretum molle, Diospyros kirkii, Julbernardia sp., Securidaca longipedunculata, Strychnos sp., Syzygium sp., Tricalysis sp., and Xeromphis obovata. Fruits from Brachystegia spp., Dichrostachys cinerea, Gardenia subacaulis, Julbernardia sp., Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia, Ximenia caffra, and Ziziphus abyssinica are preferentially eaten, as are the flowers from Brachystegia spp., Dolichos spp. or Vigna sp., Julbernardia sp., and Protea angolensis. Observations of foraging Bush Duikers in Zimbabwe revealed a very high preference for leaves of Albizzia amara, Commelina welwitschii and C. bengalensis, Grewia flavescens, Pterocarpus angolensis, and Securinega virosa, and the fruits of Acacia robusta, Flacourtia indica, Grewiaflavescens, and Ziziphus mucronata. Resin from Acacia trees may be chewed or licked from tree trunks. Animal matter is occasionally eaten, including termites, eggs, reptiles, and birds; there are several records of Bush Duikers actively hunting and killing ground-dwelling birds. This species is generally independent of free water, but tends to drink daily ifit is available. In the Kalahari Desert, this species feeds on moisture-rich melons (Citrullus lanatus), berries, and tubers that are dug up using the hooves. Hanging fruits may be reached by standing upright on the hindlegs.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C3FF79037EFE72FD6FFDC9.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Reproduction occurs throughout the year across most of the species’ distribution. There is a peak in births during the rainy season (November-March) in southwestern Zimbabwe. Estrus lasts 1 - 5 - 3 days, but is difficult to detect. Courtship behavior involves frequent chases of the female by the male. Males frequently vocalize with a low-pitched bleat during courtship; females may bleat while running away during preliminary chases. Pursuing males will frequently lick or bite at the hindquarters of the female. As estrus peaks, the female slows her pace and will urinate, allowing the male to perform flehming to determine receptivity. “ Laufschlag ” (a ritualized foreleg kick) precedes copulation, which is very short (2 - 5 seconds). Gestation is approximately 200 days (a range of 186 - 216 days has been accurately recorded in captivity). Births typically occur in early morning, and occasionally in the late afternoon or evening. Litter size is one; weight at birth is approximately 1 - 7 kg. Infants are darker in color and have woollier coats than adults; they are precocial, but are cached for several days. The initial hiding spotis typically less than 100 m from the birth site. The mother will return to the infant 4 - 6 times during the day to nurse (such behavior at night has not been studied). Infants begin testing solid food at two weeks. Weaning occurs at three months, although older animals up to 4 - 5 months may attempt to suckle; the association between mother and infant does not last past six months. There is a postpartum estrus. The average interbirth interval in captive Bush Duikers is 234 - 259 days. Females experience their first estrus between eight and twelve months of age; males become sexually interested at approximately 16 months. Maximum longevity in captivity is 14 - 15 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C3FF79037EFE72FD6FFDC9.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Diurnal, trending towards crespuscular. Activity commences at 05: 00 h or slightly thereafter and continues until around 08: 00 h, when resting places are returned to. Active foraging commences again in the late afternoon, typically at 16: 30 - 17: 30 h, and may continue well into the evening. Night-time resting places in dense cover or against boulders are typically retired to by 23: 30 h. Foraging accounts for 7 - 8 hours of the day, split between morning and evening. Midday activity is most frequent on cool or cloudy days, or during light rain. Activity levels during the day tend to be higher in more open habitats where visibility, and therefore the ability to detect predators, is greater.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C3FF79037EFE72FD6FFDC9.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Primarily solitary. Associations between males and females only occur during estrus, and may last for several days. Observed groups of three are usually an adult male accompanying an estrous female and her most recent offspring. Males and females occupy individual home ranges. Ranges of females may overlap with those of other females as well as males, but males appear to exclude other males from their home ranges. Preorbital gland secretions are used by males to mark their territories; the boundaries are defended through combat. Dung middens are not used, although areas with relatively high fecal density often occur around fruiting trees (a function of increased time spent in the area). Home ranges typically have areas of dense vegetation at their core, containing several resting places that are frequently used. There is little variation in home range size between the sexes. In South Africa, territories are 0 - 21 - 0 - 27 km?; in Zimbabwe, the territories of males average 0 - 14 km? and female home ranges 0 - 13 km?. When two duikers meet, such as when both are foraging around fruiting trees, they may mutually groom each other and remain together for up to several hours before parting. Bush Duikers may associate with baboons (Papiosp.), foraging on leaves and fruit dropped from the treetops by the primates.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C3FF79037EFE72FD6FFDC9.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Bush Duiker is one of the most common and widespread African antelopes. The total population has been estimated at 1,660,000 animals, although it has been suggested that the actual number could be twice this figure. The population trend appearsto be stable, in part due to this species’ ability to colonize a wide variety of habitat types and its relative resiliency to hunting.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7903C4F595F6A4FAFC.taxon	materials_examined	Western Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7903C4F595F6A4FAFC.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered a subspecies of S. grimmia, S. coronata is herein considered to be a separate species. The Bush Duiker subspecies S. grimmia campbelliae and the Sahel Duiker (S. pallidior) are sometimes attributed to S. coronata in literature reports, although this species, strictly speaking, is restricted to coastal West Africa. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7903C4F595F6A4FAFC.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, and Guinea.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7903C4F595F6A4FAFC.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Savanna woodland and forest-savanna mosaics, typically dominated by / Isoberlinia trees. Areas with secondary grass growth are preferred, and the color of the coat provides excellent camouflage in dry grass. Sufficient cover is a necessary habitat component. Crowned Duikers are generally present in low densities across their distribution; an estimate of 0 - 2 ind / km? was obtained from Niokolo Koba National Park in Senegal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7903C4F595F6A4FAFC.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely a browser.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7903C4F595F6A4FAFC.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but records from captivity indicate a life span of at leastsix years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7903C4F595F6A4FAFC.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but presumably diurnal or crespuscular like the Bush Duiker.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7903C4F595F6A4FAFC.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely similar to the Bush Duiker.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7903C4F595F6A4FAFC.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under S. grimmia). Widespread acrossits limited range, Crowned Duikers occupy most of their historical distribution, although the population density is much lower than it once was. The species has been assessed as uncommon in Gambia and Guinea-Bissau, and common in Guinea. The Senegal population is thought to number at least 2000 animals. This species is still locally common, especially in protected areas like Niokolo Koba National Park. Principal threats include hunting and habitat loss, but the population appears to be stable.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7903DBFD0EFD25F64E.taxon	materials_examined	Mani, Lower Shari River.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7903DBFD0EFD25F64E.taxon	discussion	Formerly included as a subspecies of S. grimmia, but is considered to be a separate species here. Scientific literature often combines reports of S. pallidior with the neighboring S. grimmia campbelliae to the immediate south. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7903DBFD0EFD25F64E.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S Chad, N Central African Republic, C Sudan, and W Ethiopia. Further research may indicate a range extension west of Lake Chad.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7903DBFD0EFD25F64E.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. No specific measurements available. Size is similar to small subspecies of the Bush Duiker (S. grimmia). Western individuals tend to be larger than those from eastern parts of the species’ distribution. The overall coloration is a pale sandy brown or buff, significantly paler than the Bush Duiker. The mid-dorsal region is darker than the sides. Banding of hairs is reduced, creating a weakly speckled appearance. The undersides and inner surfaces of the legs are white, and this coloration always extends down to the hooves. The forelegs have a diffuse dark stripe on their front surface for most of their length. The distal half of the tail is dark; the underside is white. The face is the same buffy color as the body, with a dark facial blaze extending from the muzzle to the top of the head. The blaze is more diffuse and the ears are longer than in neighboring the Bush Duiker subspecies campbelliae. There is a crest of long hair at the top of the head. Horns, similar in form to Bush Duikers, are only present in males. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7903DBFD0EFD25F64E.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Sahelo-Sudanian savannas with interspersed woodland. Characteristic woodland tree species (recorded in northern Central African Republic) are predominantly Acacia sp., with Vitellaria paradoxa, Isoberlinia doka, Combretum hypopilinum, Anogeissus leiocarpus, Afzelia africana, Terminalia sp., and Burkea africana. Population densities of 0 - 02 - 0 - 1 ind / km? have been estimated in this habitat.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7903DBFD0EFD25F64E.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but presumably a browser like the Bush Duiker.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7903DBFD0EFD25F64E.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, butlikely similar to the Bush Duiker. A captive individual identified as S. pallidior lived at least 6 - 5 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7903DBFD0EFD25F64E.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably diurnal / crepuscular like the Bush Duiker.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7903DBFD0EFD25F64E.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably solitary like the Bush Duiker.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7903DBFD0EFD25F64E.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under S. grimmia). Population estimates are unreliable due to confusion with S. grimmia campbelliae, which may occur in close proximity to the Sahel Duiker.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7C06DEF90DF75AFBE1.taxon	materials_examined	Sierra Leone.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7C06DEF90DF75AFBE1.taxon	discussion	Maxwell's Duiker is sometimes included in P. monticola (particularly in historical reports), although it is now well recognized as a separate species. Reports prior to 2010 listed Maxwell’s Duiker as present from Gambia to Nigeria, but populations from Togo eastwards have been determined to be specifically distinct and are listed under Verheyen’s Duiker (FP. wal teri). Two subspecies recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7C06DEF90DF75AFBE1.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. P. m. maxwelli C. H. Smith, 1827 — Senegal and Gambia to E Ghana (likely limited to the E by the Volta River). P. m. danei Hinton, 1920 — Yatward and Sherbro Is, Sierra Leone.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7C06DEF90DF75AFBE1.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 55 - 75 cm, tail 8 - 16 cm, shoulder height 32 - 42 cm; weight 7 - 5 kg (6: 5 — 11 - 2 kg) in males and 8 - 6 kg (6.5 - 12. 6 kg) in females. Maxwells Duiker is the largest member of the genus Philantomba, although subspecies danei is notably smaller than the mainland form. Females may be up to 15 % heavier than males. The body has a distinctively arched back; the forelegs are shorter than the hindlegs, and the head is often held low. The general color is dark brownish-gray, sometimes with a bluish or chestnut-red sheen, with the back darker than the sides. There is significant variation in color between and within populations; this may be age-related, as old animals tend to be paler. The belly and inner thighs are whitish, and this color may extend to the chest, but not the neck. The tail is dark above and white underneath; the lateral hairs are white and tend to grow at right anglesto the tail. The face is generally colored as the body, but the forehead is dark, approaching black in some individuals. The hair on the forehead is quite long, and extends from the crown as a short crest. Distinct pale gray stripes run from the medial corners of the eyes to the crown of the head; these are very narrow above the eyes, widening and becoming more diffuse on the forehead. The contrast between the forehead and superciliary stripes is especially pronounced in young adults, but may be faded or indistinct in old animals. A pair of swollen preorbital glandslies in front of the eyes. The glandular opening is 2 - 5 cm long and is surrounded by naked skin. The underside of the jaw and upper throat are white. The ears are small and rounded, with a dark brown exterior and white interior. There is a slight coronal crest. Horns are always present in males, but their presence is not consistent in females. In form, the horns are conical and ribbed at the base; the sharp tips usually curve slightly forward. Average horn length in males is 3 - 5 — 4 - 9 cm; maximum recorded length is 6 - 25 cm. When present in females, the horns are shorter. Most females of subspecies maxwelli are hornless (95 % in Liberia; 81 % in Ghana); females of subspecies dane: generally have horns. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7C06DEF90DF75AFBE1.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Wide-ranging in both primary and secondary tropical forests in West Africa. Maxwell’s Duiker is highly adaptable and may be found in relic forest patches, gallery forests, and farmbush, where farm plots are interspersed with brushy thickets. Open fields and bamboo thickets tend to be avoided. The introduced Akyeampong weed (Chromolaena odorata) provides a significant source of cover in disturbed areas and allows Maxwell's Duikerto live in close proximity to human settlements. This species rarely ventures more than 20 - 30 m from cover. In Ivory Coast, population densities in primary forest have been estimated to be 63 ind / km?; in secondary forest densities tend to be higher, approximately 79 ind / km?. In Ghana and Liberia, population densities are much lower, estimated at 10 ind / km? even in protected areas. Food and Feeding. Primarily frugivorous, with fleshy fruits and leguminous seeds comprising, on average, 76 - 9 % ofthe diet (based on eight stomachs collected near Tai National Park, Ivory Coast; this averagerises to 87 - 9 % if one outlier is excluded). Leaves and flowers are also regularly consumed; these are eaten in a significantly greater proportion during the rainy seasons when fruit is scarce. Over 78 fruiting plant species have been identified in the diet of Maxwell's Duiker in Ivory Coast. Studies performed in central Ivory Coast (near Toumodi) indicate that preferred fruiting species during the dry season include Alchornea cordifolia, Blighia sapida, Ficus capensis, Griffonia simplicifolia, Mangifera indica, Nauclea latifolia, and Phoenix reclinata; during the rainy season, fruits of Canthium vulgare, Spondias mombin, Nauclea latifolia, and Blighia sapida comprise the greatest proportion of fruits eaten. In other regions of Ivory Coast, fruits of Dialium aubrevillei and Musanga cecropioides and seeds from Turracanthus africanus are heavily utilized. Maxwell’s Duiker is unable to ingest large fruits; the maximum size that can be swallowed whole is approximately 3 cm. Larger fruits must be soft enough for the flesh to be chewed off. Browse species in the diet include Thonningia sanguinea, Landolphia owariensis, Homalium aylmeri, Canthium vulgare, and the cultivated Manihot esculenta. Blossoms are frequently consumed; fungi and bark are eaten in small quantities. Because many of these food sources are most plentiful in the forest canopy rather than at ground level, Maxwell’s Duikers will forage beneath groups of primates, picking up dropped and dislodged items. Several species of ants, particularly Paltothyreus tarsatus and Oecophylla longinoda, are opportunistically consumed. " Breeding. Breeding occurs throughout the year in Ghana, although in Ivory Coast most births occur during the dry seasons, from January to March and from August to September. During courtship, the male chases the female, licking or biting at her tail. As the female becomes increasingly receptive, her pace slows and the male begins to perform ritualized leg-kicking (“ laufschlag ”); he determines female receptivity by testing her urine with the flehmen response. Copulation is brief. Gestation is approximately 205 days (from four reliable captive records). Litter size is one, and neonates weigh 620 - 954 g. Births typically occur in the early morning or late afternoon. Infants andjuveniles are much darker in color than adults, with distinct white markings above the hooves. Although they can stand soon after birth, infants spend the majority of time cached in an isolated and hidden spot, usually at the base of a tree (especially between buttress roots). The mother visits regularly to nurse the infant. The same bedding spot may be used for over a month, and the infant remains immobile there unless approached within 3 m. After two weeks, the infant becomes increasingly mobile and begins nibbling on dead leaves; at four weeks, the juvenile forages daily but consistently returns to the hiding spot to spend the night. Weaning occurs around two months and the caching bed is abandoned by three months. Females may reach sexual maturity as early as eight months, although 10 - 12 months is more typical. In captivity, this species may live up to 18 years. Activity patterns. Diurnal. Activity levels are highest in the early morning (06: 30 - 08: 00 h) and late afternoon (16: 30 - 18: 00 h). A general trend to lower activity levels is seen during midday (10: 00 - 14: 00 h), although 60 % of observations are still of active individuals. In captivity, Maxwell's Duikeris active for 64 % of daylight hours (06: 30 18: 00 h) and only 21 % of the hours of darkness (18: 30 - 06: 00 h). Females tend to be less active than males. Night-time is spent bedded down in dense cover; if disturbed, individuals will move away and then settle down quickly. The same sleeping spotis rarely used for two consecutive nights. Movements, Home range and Social organization. Maxwell's Duiker is a highly sedentary species, with individuals inhabiting stable home ranges that are typically 0 - 05 km?, but may be as small as 0 - 03 km? ®. There is no significant difference in home range size between the sexes. Home ranges in primary forest tend to be larger than in secondary forest. Networks of paths are used within the home range. Adult males make occasional forays outside of their home range boundaries, usually returning via a circular route within 3 - 5 hours. Such travel is very different from the typical slow foraging within the home range and may involve reproductive or territorial activity. The basic social unit is a male-female pair; maximum recorded group size is five (one male, two adult females, and two juveniles). A bonded pair effectively shares a home range, with an overlap of approximately 80 % between the two individuals. Adjacent pairs have distinct home ranges with less than 1 % overlap across seasons. Home range boundaries tend to be stable across years. Borders are marked with latrine areas; males may also horn vegetation at the boundaries. Males are territorial and frequently (5 - 6 times / 10 minute interval) mark boundary objects with their preorbital glands (females also mark, but at half that rate: 2 - 8 times / 10 minutes). Males do nottolerate the presence of other males at the periphery of the home range. Agonistic interactions between males are brief but very intense and lack a ritualized pre-combat stage. Fights generally last less than two minutes, and involve head-to-head collisions that may result in one competitor being flipped into the air with the force of impact. Intense chases usually follow. Paired individuals often reciprocally groom and mark each other using preorbital gland secretions. In the wild, pairs account for 39 % of observations; however, records of solitary animals (seen in 53 % of observations) may be misleading: the second partner may not be visible to the observer. Pedal scent glands may play a role in following or locating other duikers. Night-time observations are primarily of solitary individuals resting. Despite maintaining a close association with a single partner, males will mate with other females. While walking or foraging, the tail is constantly flicked up and down, flashing the white underside; it has been suggested that this is a visual cue for paired individuals, although visibility in some habitats is too low for visual signals. When startled, Maxwell’s Duiker freezes in position, even if in mid-stride; the tail also ceasesits regular motion. Only two vocalizations are known: an alarm whistle and a loud bleat.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C2FF7C06DEF90DF75AFBE1.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Maxwell's Duiker is common throughout most ofits range; the total population is estimated to be several million individuals. The adaptability ofthis species to disturbed habitats has enabled it to continue to thrive despite large tracts of original habitat being modified or destroyed. Hunting for bushmeatis the principal threat to survival.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C7FF7C0640FB27F948F3DC.taxon	materials_examined	1 gbere (8 ° 59 ’ N, 1 ° 7 E), For & t Protégée de Wari-Maro (328 m elevation), near the Ecological Center of Manigri, Benin.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C7FF7C0640FB27F948F3DC.taxon	discussion	The species was formerly included within P. maxwelli. A recent taxonomic review has elevated P. walter: to specific status on the basis of craniometric and genetic distinctiveness. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C7FF7C0640FB27F948F3DC.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Togo, Benin, and Nigeria (W of Cross River). The W distribution may extend to the Volta River in E Ghana.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C7FF7C0640FB27F948F3DC.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Few measurements available, but head-body c. hh- 75 cm, tail at least 15 cm; weight ¢. 6 - 12 kg. There is minimal sexual dimorphism in skull size based on a limited sample. Verheyen’s Duiker closely resembles Maxwell's Duiker (P. maxwelli). Skull measurements are similar to, but smaller than, Maxwell's Duiker, and body size may follow the same trend. The general coloration is slaty gray or brown with paler underparts (including the throat, chest, and belly). Verheyen’s Duiker is readily distinguished from the Western Blue Duiker (P. congica) from east of the Cross River, as the dark dorsum gradually fades into the paler haunches. The white-fringed tail is also much longer. The hair on the nape of the neck (from the shoulders to the back of the head) is prominently reversed. The head is smaller and less massive than in Maxwell's Duiker, but the dark muzzle and forehead and distinctive pale superciliary stripes (which run from the medial corners of the eyes to the horn bases) are similar in the two species. The preorbital glands form a distinctive slit in front of each eye. There is a small tuft of dark hair on the crown of the head. Horns are always present in males; among females, horns have been recorded in over 93 % of individuals in Nigeria and in all of the few females examined from Benin. The horns are small and pointed, with strong basal annulations in males. Horn lengths of 4 - 49 and 5 - 53 cm have been recorded in two male specimens; horns from a single female measured 3 - 96 cm. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C7FF7C0640FB27F948F3DC.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Rainforests, or scattered forest patches in savanna zones.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C7FF7C0640FB27F948F3DC.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but almost certainly frugivorous.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C7FF7C0640FB27F948F3DC.taxon	breeding	Breeding. In Nigeria, most young are born during the dry seasons (January-March and August-September). Little else is known about this species’ reproductive habits.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C7FF7C0640FB27F948F3DC.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but presumably similar to Maxwell’s Duiker.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C7FF7C0640FB27F948F3DC.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, but presumably similar to Maxwell’s Duiker.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C7FF7C0640FB27F948F3DC.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under P. maxuwelli). Populations in Togo and Nigeria are vulnerable, and this species is thought to be threatened in Benin. Verheyen’s Duiker is frequently caught and sold for meat; indeed, the majority of studied specimens have been collected in bushmeat markets.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C5FF7E037FFE85F7C1F762.taxon	materials_examined	Congo.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C5FF7E037FFE85F7C1F762.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered to be a subspecies of P. monticola. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C5FF7E037FFE85F7C1F762.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Nigeria (E of Cross River) to W Central African Republic and DR Congo (E to Lisala), S to coastal S Republic of the Congo; distribution is bordered to the S by the Congo River.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C5FF7E037FFE85F7C1F762.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 56 - 66 cm, tail 8 cm, shoulder height 32 - 38 cm; weight 4 - 6 kg (3.9 - 5 kg) in males and 5 - 4 kg (4: 2.6 - 1 kg) in females. Overall coloration is a warm grayish-brown, paling to gray on the flanks. The dorsum is especially dark, and may approach black in some individuals. A distinct black horizontal band crosses the haunches at the base of the tail, contrasting strikingly with the very pale brown rump and thighs. This contrast decreases cranially as both the pale and dark markings merge gradually with the overall coloration. The undersides are white. The tail is black above and white underneath. The legs are gray or brownish-gray; the degree of brownness tends to increase in eastern parts of the species’ distribution. Dark marks are present above the hooves. A reversal of hair is seen on the nape of the neck in roughly one-half of specimens. The face is dark, with reddish cheeks. Simple, spike-like horns are present in both sexes; they are typically 2 - 8 — 4 - 48 cm in males and 2 - 36.2 - 98 cm in females. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C5FF7E037FFE85F7C1F762.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Western Blue Duiker inhabits a wide range of forested habitats, including high forest, secondary forest, and forest edges. Large open areas are avoided, but pockets of gallery forest within the savannas of Cameroon are used. Mixed forests appear to be preferred over monodominant forests, and dense vegetation at ground level negatively affects abundance. The Western Blue Duiker enters dense thickets only if alarmed; even resting spots are often in areas with minimal underbrush. Population densities are highly variable. Low estimates include 0 - 9 - 6 - 1 ind / km? ® in Lopé National Park, Gabon, and 6: 4 - 8 - 2 ind / km? in Korup National Park, Cameroon. Net hunts in south-western Central African Republic resulted in density estimates of 10 - 7 - 45 - 9 ind / km?. In north-eastern Gabon, densities as high as 62 - 78 ind / km * may be reached.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C5FF7E037FFE85F7C1F762.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Frugivorous. Stomach content analysis of 16 animals in Gabon revealed that fruits and seeds constitute 78 -: 4 % of the diet, with seeds distinctly preferred. The remainder of the diet includes 20 - 3 % leaves and stems and small amounts (less than 1 %) of flowers, fungi, and animal matter. Preferred fruit species include Artabotrys letestui, Coelocaryon preussii (or Pycnanthus angolensis), and Staudtia stipitata. Other species observed in the diet include Pseudospondias longifolia, Canarium schwein-Sfurthu, Hugonia spp., Rytigyniasp., Gambeya beguei, and Donella pruniformis. Western Blue Duikers are able to swallow food items as large as 2 - 2 cm; if possible, seeds are generally chewed and crushed prior to swallowing. Most foliage consumed is in the form of fallen leaves picked from the forest floor; juveniles tend to consume more leaves and less fruit than adults. Western Blue Duikers will occasionally stand on their hindfeet to reach tall vegetation, but this is not sustained for long unless the front feet can rest on something for support. This species has been observed consuming ants by licking them from the substrate.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C5FF7E037FFE85F7C1F762.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Breeds year-round, but with peaks in birth rates during the two dry seasons (centered around January and July). A male courts a female by pursuing her, licking at her tail region during the chase. Ritualized foreleg kicks “ laufschlag ” are practiced by the male prior to copulation. Estrus lasts for approximately 24 hours, during which time the male pursues the female frequently and is quite aggressive to other animals in the vicinity. Flehming is frequently performed by males when females urinate (approximately 87 - 5 % of cases); this inconspicuous lip curl generally lasts for 10 - 3 seconds. Gestation is approximately 204 days, after which a single offspring is born. Maturity is reached at 1 - 2 years; subadults disperse at this time for social (rather than resource-based) reasons, with females typically dispersing earlier than males. Dispersal distances are generally short (a few hundred meters) if unoccupied habitat is present, but distances of 1 - 5 km from the natal home range have also been recorded. Life span may exceed twelve years in captivity.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C5FF7E037FFE85F7C1F762.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Strictly diurnal. The activity patterns of Western Blue Duikers are closely associated with cycles of light and dark. Activity typically begins at 05: 30 - 06: 00 h and will continue sporadically throughout the day until 18: 00 - 19: 00 h. Activity shows a bimodal pattern, with a peak during the early morning (06: 00 - 08: 00 h) and late afternoon (16: 00 - 18: 00 h). The decreased level of activity during midday is the result of two or three rests between foraging bouts; these occur most frequently between 09: 00 h and 14: 00 h. Western Blue Duikers are generally active (moving or foraging) for 67 - 76 % of daylight hours. Activity may be extended into the evening (until 20: 00 - 21: 00 h) during periods of excitement, such as estrus. At night, Western Blue Duikers retire to regularly used resting places; such resting spots are often smelled and scraped at briefly with the hooves before the duiker lies down. Occasionally, resting spots are changed during the night (typically involving a movement of several meters), but more often individuals will simply rise to stretch and groom before lying back down. Activity tends to be higher during the dry seasons, as reduced food resources require increased foraging time.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C5FF7E037FFE85F7C1F762.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The typical social unit is a bonded adult pair (one male and one female), sometimes accompanied by one or two subadult offspring. Partners spend approximately 54 % of their active time together. In southern Gabon, pairs are only seen in 20 % of observations, but this may be reflective of the poorvisibility in dense habitats. Night-time resting places are shared by pairs about 75 % ofthe time. Allogrooming among pairs focuses on the ears, forehead, and preorbital glands — all areas that are difficult to self-groom. Partners also mark each other with their preorbital glands, especially on the forelegs, lower rear legs, face, and rump. The female of the pair usually leads when moving (in 92 % of 215 observations). Daily linear movements average approximately 1 km (65 - 1770 m). While active, Western Blue Duikers constantly flick their tails up and down, flashing the white underside; this is thought to serve as a contact signal. Soft, brief calls also help maintain contact between family members. Pairs occupy stable home ranges. There are few changes in either boundaries or occupants across years, although movements tend to be less dispersed during the dry seasons. Typical home ranges are 0 - 02 - 0 - 04 km? up to 0 - 06 km? the size does not appear to be affected by the sex or age of the occupants. Home ranges do not overlap between neighbors. Both sexes appear to be territorial, each defending the area against others of the same sex. Natural boundaries often form the territory edges; the borders are marked with horn scrapings on tree trunks and with scent marks. Preorbital gland secretions are left on vertical surfaces (especially tree trunks and branches) at head-height; the secretion is clear and odorless, but accumulates as a white paste on frequently marked areas. Scent marking is most frequently performed by males (5 - 7 times / hour). Urine and feces are deposited across the home range, and may indicate that an area is occupied. The core area of each territory tends to be used more than the periphery, although daily movements usually include a patrol of the boundaries to reestablish border markings. Males have been recorded making frequent short forays (100 - 300 m) outside of their territories; however, the core of adjacent home ranges remains exclusive. Males may also leave when a female gives birth; the regular pattern of bonding may not be returned to for several weeks. When confronted with a potential threat (usually detected by sight or hearing), Western Blue Duikers freeze in position, tensing the body; the head may be moved vertically or horizontally to better assess the situation. A loud whistle is used as an alarm call, and is produced just before and during flight; the hindfeet may also be stomped just prior to fleeing. The Western Blue Duiker rarely flees far, usually stopping among dense vegetation after several meters to reassess the threat. Members of family groups will all flee in response to an individual’s alarm call, but usually run in different directions. In areas with heavy hunting by humans, Western Blue Duikers flee immediately without the observation phase.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C5FF7E037FFE85F7C1F762.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under P. monticola). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (combined with the other nine blue duiker species within the P. monticola complex). The Western Blue Duiker is the most commonly hunted duiker species in Cameroon; it is also the most frequently captured animal in south-western Central African Republic, accounting for 31 % of carcasses and 16 % of biomass. This species is currently abundant in many protected areas and common in unprotected areas within its range. Populations may be declining in areas of heavy human habitation due to intense hunting for bushmeat.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C5FF7F0677F6B2FC36FAD8.taxon	materials_examined	Fernando Po.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C5FF7F0677F6B2FC36FAD8.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered a subspecies of P. monticola. Historically, the Bioko Blue Duiker also encompassed the mainland populations of P. aequatorialis and P. anchietae. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C5FF7F0677F6B2FC36FAD8.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Endemic to Bioko I, Equatorial Guinea.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C5FF7F0677F6B2FC36FAD8.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 50 - 59 cm, tail 6 - 10 cm, ear 4.3 - 5. 3 cm; weight 3.9 - 5 kg. No specific body weights have been made apart from average weights (collected from animals studied in bushmeat markets); based on skull characteristics, general size is smaller than the Western Blue Duiker (P. congica). Pelage is long and thick; the overall color is gray-brown, with a distinctly dark dorsal surface (approaching black). The flanks are pinkish-gray and the underparts whitish. The black of the dorsum spreads laterally at the tail base to form a horizontal band. This band blends gradually into the brown pelage dorsally and cranially, but forms a line of sharp contrast with the pale hips, which may be almost white at the line of demarcation. The dorsal surface of the tail is black and its underside is white. The front legs and lower hindlegs are the same color as the body. Reversal of hair tracts on the nape of the neck occurs in 75 % of specimens. The face is similar in color to the body; there is minimal contrast between cheeks and mid-facial region. Horns are present in both sexes. Despite the small body size, the horns are relatively long, averaging 4 - 31 cm in males and 3 - 35 cm in females. Dental formula is 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 5 / 3. M 3 / 38 (2) = 332.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C5FF7F0677F6B2FC36FAD8.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Bioko Blue Duikers inhabit a wide variety of forest habitats across Bioko Island, including primary and secondary forest and forest edges. The distribution encompasses elevations up to 2000 m. This species currently occupies 70 - 90 % of Bioko Island, and it is often found nearvillages. Average density across the island is 22 - 6 ind / km? ®.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C5FF7F0677F6B2FC36FAD8.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but presumably frugivorous like other Central African Philantomba duikers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C5FF7F0677F6B2FC36FAD8.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely similar to the Western Blue Duiker on the adjacent mainland.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C5FF7F0677F6B2FC36FAD8.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but presumably diurnal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C5FF7F0677F6B2FC36FAD8.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is very little specific information available for this species. Field sightings are typically of individuals or pairs. Bioko Blue Duikers are easily recognized in the field by the flashes of white from the underside of the tail; this duiker rapidly flicks its tail up and down while moving and foraging.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C5FF7F0677F6B2FC36FAD8.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under P. monticola). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (combined with the other nine blue duiker species within the P. monticola complex). Locally common in protected areas (especially in Pico Basilé and Gran Caldera de Luba), Bioko Blue Duikers are intensively hunted for meat, accounting for an average of 29 - 33 % ofcarcasses in Bioko bushmeat markets. It is the second most common species hunted after Forest Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomys emini). Overhunting is the principal threat to survival.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C4FF7F03D8FA24F6A3FA4F.taxon	materials_examined	Chagwi, Uganda.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C4FF7F03D8FA24F6A3FA4F.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered to be a grouping of subspecies under P. monticola. Individuals from Pemba Island (Tanzania, adjacent to Zanzibar) are sometimes listed as a separate subspecies (pembae), but they are not presently considered distinct. Three subspecies are recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C4FF7F03D8FA24F6A3FA4F.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. P. a. aequatorialisMatschie, 1892 — fromCCentralAfricanRepublicandEDRCongo (EfromLisala, StoUpemba) toSWSudanandWUganda, withanisolatedpopulationinSSudan (ImatongMts). RangeborderedtotheSandWbytheCongoRiver. P. a. musculoidesHeller, 1913 — EUganda, WKenya (EtotheRiftValley), andNWTanzania. P. a. sundevalli Fitzinger, 1869 — Zanzibar, Pemba, and Mafia Is (Tanzania), coastal mainland Kenya and Tanzania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C4FF7F03D8FA24F6A3FA4F.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body c. 60 cm, tail 6.5 - 9 cm, shoulder height 31 - 38 cm; weight 4 - 3 kg (3.9 - 5 kg) for males and 5 - 4 kg (4 - 2 - 6 - 5) for females from Zanzibar. Head — body 60 - 67 cm, tail 8 - 12 cm, ear 4: 7.5 - 6 cm, for animals of both sexes from Uganda. Few specific body measurements are available for the Eastern Blue Duiker; skull measurements indicate that females are usually slightly larger than males. Overall color is a drab brown; the subspecies sundevalli tends to be paler than the other two subspecies. The dorsal surface tends to be darker in color than the flanks. A restricted black or very dark brown patch is present on the upper haunches on eitherside of the tail base; the transition between the dark croup and paler haunchesis relatively sharp, although less so than in the Western Blue Duiker (P. congica) and the Bioko Blue Duiker (P. melanorhea). The underparts range from pale gray (subspecies aequatorialis and musculoides) to whitish (sundevalli). Horns are always present in males, tending to be rather long: approximately 4 - 3 cm for male sundevalli and 3 - 17 cm for male musculoides. There is significant variation among males of subspecies aequatorialis, with a tendency for shorter horns in eastern parts of the subspecies’ range; average regional horn length varies between 2: 2 cm and 4 cm, although an isolated specimen from south-western Sudan had horns 4 - 6 cm long. Presence of horns in femalesis highly variable. Female musculoides appear never to grow horns, and they are regularly absent from female aequatorialis (especially in Uganda). However, when present in aequatorialis and sundevalli, female horns are fully developed and relatively long; one record from Pemba is 3 - 4 cm. Horn length from aequatorialis females is 2.5 - 3. 3 cm; as in the males, a single specimen from Sudan had very long horns: 4 - 05 cm. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C4FF7F03D8FA24F6A3FA4F.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Eastern Blue Duiker inhabits a wide range of forested habitats, including lowland rainforest, montane forest, and dry thickets. The species has been recorded from sea level (Zanzibar) to 3000 m (the Rwenzori Mountains in Uganda and Mount Kenya in Kenya). In the Ituri Forest, DR Congo, subspecies aequatorialis densities average 24 - 2 ind / km?, with a range in estimates from 15 ind / km? to 69 ind / km? The subspecies musculoides in Uganda lives at densities of 5 - 13 ind / km?. On Zanzibar, population densities of sundevalli are highest in undisturbed high thicket, averaging 34 - 1 ind / km?. The lowest densities on Zanzibar are in intermediate secondary thicket (14 - 6 ind / km?); young secondary thickets appear to be avoided.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C4FF7F03D8FA24F6A3FA4F.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Frugivorous / folivorous. Seeds or fruits from plants such as Maesopsis, Ricinodendron, Cordia, Musanga, and Pycnanthus have been recorded in the diet in Uganda; commonly consumed leaves in this region include Milbraediodendron and Mammea africanum, as well as Isoglossa, Brachylaena, and Urtica. Captive feeding trials in the Ituri Forest, DR Congo, indicated a strong preference for the fruits of Ficus exasperata; those of Aidia micrantha, Maeposis schweinfurthii, Cleisthanthus michelsonii, Klainedoxa gabonensis, and the opening flower buds of Gilbertiodendron dewevreiwere also consumed at high levels. The Eastern Blue Duiker is known to forage in agricultural areas, feeding on crops such as sweet potato (/ pomea sp.).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C4FF7F03D8FA24F6A3FA4F.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There islittle specific information available forthis species, but likely breeds year-round; adult females with late-term fetuses were observed in Zanzibar bushmeat markets in every month studied (July-December). There are several birth records in January-February from Uganda and western Kenya.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C4FF7F03D8FA24F6A3FA4F.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Diurnal; generally most active around dawn and dusk. Foraging patterns show short periods of activity interspersed with periods of rest and rumination.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C4FF7F03D8FA24F6A3FA4F.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Group size is typically two or three animals, most likely an adult pair and their subadult offspring. Distinct home ranges are defended against other members of the same species; territorial behavior is believed to be mostly the responsibility of the male. Each home range is covered with a network of regularly used pathways.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C4FF7F03D8FA24F6A3FA4F.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under P. monticola). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (combined with the other nine blue duiker species within the P. monticola complex). The widespread distribution of the Eastern Blue Duiker includes large tracts of undisturbed forest in central DR Congo, and it is the most common antelope species in several areas (including the Ituri Forest). Intense hunting pressure has led to localized declines in the coastal forests of Tanzania and in the forests of western Kenya.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C4FF7F06D1F995F7B0F2FD.taxon	materials_examined	Urori, German East Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C4FF7F06D1F995F7B0F2FD.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered a subspecies of P monticola. Split by some authors into subspecies based on the mountain ranges inhabited, but treated as monotypic here. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C4FF7F06D1F995F7B0F2FD.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Highlands of Tanzania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C4FF7F06D1F995F7B0F2FD.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. No specific measurements available, but head-body ¢. 65 cm, tail ¢. 10 cm; weight c. 5 kg. Based on skull measurements, the Mountain Blue Duikeris larger than the neighboring Eastern Blue Duiker (P. aequatorialis) and Malawi Blue Duiker (P. hecki). In the field, the size and coloration of the Mountain Blue Duiker may cause confusion with the slightly larger Mountain Suni (Neotragus kirchenpaueri). The pelage is a uniform dark gray-brown across the back, sides, and legs, except for a pale streak down the front of the limbs. The rump darkens to black above the tail, but this marking is not conspicuous because the haunches are also quite dark. The underparts are pale brownish-gray; the groin tends to be paler and there may be a narrow streak of white along the midline. The hairs on the nape of the neck are typically reversed (directed forward). The face is brown, exceptfor the forehead and the top of the muzzle, which are nearly black. The chin and underside of the jaw are white, and whitish superciliary streaks border the dark forehead. The ears are nearly black. The crown of the head has a very long crest of black hairs. Horns are present in both sexes and are long for a blue duiker, averaging 4 - 3 cm in males and 3 - 2 cm in females. Dental formula is 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C4FF7F06D1F995F7B0F2FD.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Montane forests. The type specimen of P. lugens was collected at an elevation of ¢. 1000 m.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C4FF7F06D1F995F7B0F2FD.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely fruits and leaves.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C4FF7F06D1F995F7B0F2FD.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but presumably similar to other Philantomba duikers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C4FF7F06D1F995F7B0F2FD.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but presumably diurnal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C4FF7F06D1F995F7B0F2FD.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably like other Philantomba duikers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399C4FF7F06D1F995F7B0F2FD.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under P. monticola). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (combined with the other nine blue duiker species within the P. monticola complex). The Mountain Blue Duiker is thought to exist in relatively low numbers. Populations appear to be severely affected by hunting; in the Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania, relative densities were ten times lower in forest reserves where regular hunting occurs than in reserves subjected to low hunting pressures. Habitat loss through human encroachmentis anothersignificant threat.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF60037BF824F89FFDC7.taxon	materials_examined	Mozambique.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF60037BF824F89FFDC7.taxon	discussion	Formerly included as a subspecies of P. monticola. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF60037BF824F89FFDC7.taxon	distribution	Distribution. NE Zambia (E of the Luangwa valley), Malawi, and N Mozambique.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF60037BF824F89FFDC7.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 55 - 65 cm, tail 8 cm, shoulder height 30 - 37 cm; weight 4 - 7 kg (4.5 - 2 kg) in males and 5 - 3 kg (4.3 - 6. 2 kg) in females. The overall color is reddish; the rufous-gray or brown dorsum blends into pale rufous flanks. The rump is medium to dark brown (not black), and is especially dark at the sides of the tail. There is a sharp demarcation between the dark rump and the pale red haunches. The legs have a reddish tone, and the pasterns may be brown or colored as the legs. The underparts vary from extensively white to very pale reddish-gray with white patches in the axillary and inguinal regions and along the midline. The forehead is dark brown, and rufous superciliary streaks clearly demarcate the edges ofthis dark patch. The outsides of the ears are dark brown, and each ear has a rufous patch at the base. A pair of short, straight horns is present in both sexes; average horn length is 4: 27 cm in males and 2.8 cm in females. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF60037BF824F89FFDC7.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Found in forests and thickets. The most commonly used forests in northern Malawi are dominated by Podocarpus milanjianus, Kiggelaria africana, Diospyros whyteana, and Olinia africana. Preferred habitats (highest population densities) are correlated with a balance between high canopy and dense undergrowth. Ground cover provides essential protection from predators such as the crowned hawk-eagle (Stephanoaetus coronatus), which frequently preys upon the Malawi Blue Duiker.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF60037BF824F89FFDC7.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. A selective forager that feeds on fallen fruit and leaves. The Malawi Blue Duiker generally feeds from the forest floor, but it will occasionally browse directly from plants. Wild individuals have been recorded feeding on the fruits of Adenia stolzii, Chrysophyllum gorungosanum, and Garcinia kingaensis.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF60037BF824F89FFDC7.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no information available for this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF60037BF824F89FFDC7.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF60037BF824F89FFDC7.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF60037BF824F89FFDC7.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under P. monticola). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (combined with the nine blue duiker species within the P. monticola complex). The distribution of the Malawi Blue Duiker has been considerably fragmented as a result of habitat destruction; numbers have been reduced by overhunting. Malawi Blue Duikers are present in several forest reserves and Nyika National Park.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF60037AFE80FB3BF8D8.taxon	materials_examined	Lukenye Valley, South Central Congo.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF60037AFE80FB3BF8D8.taxon	discussion	P. simpsoni was formerly included as a subspecies of P. monticola. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF60037AFE80FB3BF8D8.taxon	distribution	Distribution. C DR Congo (range confined by the Congo and the Kasai rivers).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF60037AFE80FB3BF8D8.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. No specific measurements available, but head-body c. 60 cm, tail c. 10 cm; weight c. 5 kg. Based on skull size, Simpson’s Blue Duiker is a relatively small member of the genus Philantomba. The general appearance is of a reddish duiker: the head, neck, and body are reddish-brown, darkening to blackish-brown in a strip along the midline of the back. The underparts are white, and this pale coloration extends up the sides and blends gradually with the color of the flanks. The legs are rufous-brown; the inner surfaces are pale but not white. The haunches are redder than the body, and the transition between the darker dorsal area and the red hindlegs is poorly marked. The face has a dark brown blaze running from the muzzle to the top of the forehead. Bright rufous superciliary streaks are well defined at the periphery of the dark forehead. The underside of the jaw is white, blending to dull rufous at the throat. Spike-like horns are usually present in both sexes; they are occasionally lacking in females. Those of males are long for the genus Philantomba, averaging 4 - 4 cm; horns of females are proportionate to body size for blue duikers, averaging 2: 74 cm. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 502) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF60037AFE80FB3BF8D8.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Forest. There is no specific information available for habitat preferences.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF60037AFE80FB3BF8D8.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but presumably frugivorous, like the Western Blue Duiker (PF. congica) and the Eastern Blue Duiker (P. aequatorialis).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF60037AFE80FB3BF8D8.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no information available for this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF60037AFE80FB3BF8D8.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but presumably diurnal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF60037AFE80FB3BF8D8.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably similar to other Philantomba species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF60037AFE80FB3BF8D8.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under P. monticola). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (combined with the other nine blue duiker species within the P. monticola complex). There is no specific information available on the status of Simpson’s Blue Duiker. Hunting for bushmeat is likely a major threat.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF610672FD16FB36FC72.taxon	materials_examined	Umgozy Forest, Ntunsini district, Kwa-Zulu.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF610672FD16FB36FC72.taxon	discussion	Formerly classified as a subspecies of P. monticola. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF610672FD16FB36FC72.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Mozambique and E Zimbabwe S of Zambesi River to E South Africa (Limpopo & KwaZulu-Natal).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF610672FD16FB36FC72.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 57 - 64 cm, tail 7 - 9 cm, shoulder height 32 - 37 cm; weight 4 - 7 kg (3.9 - 5. 4 kg) in males and 5 - 4 kg (3.8 - 6. 5 kg) in females. A very small duiker; females are slightly larger than males. Overall color is a dark bluish-gray or gray-brown, with the amount of gray in the pelage being highly variable. The Zimbabwe Blue Duiker is darker than the neighboring Malawi Blue Duiker (PF. hecki), but paler than the Mountain Blue Duiker (P. lugens). The sides are paler and brighter than the dorsal surface, usually with a distinct rufous tone. The rump and base ofthe tail are very dark. The legs are rusty brown (the front legs are paler than the hindlegs), and the fetlocks are dark, interrupted by pale reddish patches immediately above the hooves. The undersides are white. The upper surface of the tail is the same dark brown as the dorsum; the underside is white, and these hairs grow outward, creating a white fringe along the tail edge. The forehead and the bridge of the nose are dark brown, and the cheeks are pale gray with a rufous tinge. This pale coloration extends around the eyes, forming dull rufous superciliary streaks 1.1 - 5 cm wide The underside of the jaw is white and the throat is warm gray in color, often with an orange tinge. The ears are dark brown outside and white inside; distinct white spots are present at the bases of the ears. There is a short coronal tuft on the forehead. Horns are present in both sexes. Those of males are strongly ridged, with 4 - 6 annulations at their bases; typical length is 3 - 4 — 4 - 2 cm. Horns of females are shorter: 2: 3.2 - 9 cm. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF610672FD16FB36FC72.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. In South Africa, Zimbabwe Blue Duikers inhabit lowland evergreen forests with Podocarpus vegetation, coastal forest, dune forest, and montane forest up to 1370 m. Areas with dense underbrush are used for cover and are an important habitat feature; stands of Dracaena fragrans are frequently used for this purpose in Zimbabwe. Population densities in appropriate habitats tend to be high. Estimates from the Chirinda Forest in eastern Zimbabwe are 120 - 220 ind / km?; typical densities in South Africa are about 150 ind / km?, but may exceed 300 ind / km? in some regions.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF610672FD16FB36FC72.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Principally folivorous, opportunistically frugivorous. In South Africa, leaves of dicotyledonous plants comprise, on average, 69 - 8 % of diet; 23 - 3 % of food consumed is fruit and seeds. In the forests of Zimbabwe, where fruits are more abundant, the diet is approximately 75 % fruit and 15 % leaves; flowers and fungi each constitute 5 % of the diet. Instead of browsing, Zimbabwe Blue Duikers feed principally on fallen leaves: freshly fallen leaves are preferred, although dry ones are also eaten. While foraging, a Zimbabwe Blue Duiker may pick up a leaf and rotate it using its tongue; if the quality is not sufficient, the leaf will be spat out. Because most foods are out of reach, the duikers may follow groups of Blue Monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis) to capitalize on items dropped from the canopy; flocks of African olive-pigeons (Columba arquatrix) also augment the food supply by knocking fruits and leaves to the ground. Highly preferred food plants are Protorhus longifolia, Combretum molle, and Syzygium cordatum. Other preferred species (determined experimentally in palatability trials in South Africa) are Ziziphus mucronata, Ekebergia capensis, Croton sylvaticus, Albizia adianthifolia, and Carissa macrocarpa. These duikers have been observed feeding on the fallen blossoms of Strelitzia nicolai. In Zimbabwe, the fruits of Ficus spp. are an important food source. The Zimbabwe Blue Duiker will opportunistically feed on insects, especially ants. This species is able to obtain all needed moisture from food sources and is thus not dependent on drinking water.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF610672FD16FB36FC72.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Breeds year-round. The estrous cycle is approximately 20 days in length. Males court estrous females by closely follow or chasing them, and may become very aggressive towards other conspecifics. During courtship, the male licks the female’s anogenital region and performs ritualized leg-kicks (“ laufschlag ”) between her hindlegs whenever she stops. Copulation is very brief, but occurs frequently (up to five times within a 15 - 20 minute interval). Gestation has been measured at 205 days in captive animals (range 197 - 215, from 19 births). Females choose a secluded, sheltered area in which to give birth to the single offspring. Birth weight is approximately 450 - 600 g. Females reach sexual maturity at 8 - 12 months, males at 11 - 14 months. Longevity in captivity may exceed 15 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF610672FD16FB36FC72.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Diurnal, with the highest activity levels immediately after dawn and just prior to dusk. Between bouts of activity, it frequently retires to resting spots; 33 - 50 % of daylight hours (05: 00 - 19: 00 h) may be spent resting. The Zimbabwe Blue Duiker tends to be more active in higher quality habitats: although foraging time is reduced, the time spent patrolling territorial boundaries and defending resourcesis significantly higher.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF610672FD16FB36FC72.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Small home ranges are occupied year-round; the boundaries may be dynamic between seasons, but the core area remains constant. The central area usually contains frequently used bed sites (3 — 4 on average), which are used for refuge, rest, and rumination. Average home ranges are 6500 - 7400 m?, and are shared by a family group of an adult male and female, plus their subadult offspring. Home ranges are exclusive territories; there is no overlap between neighboring occupied areas. Each territory is transected by a number of regularly used pathways.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DBFF610672FD16FB36FC72.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under P. monticola). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (combined with the other nine blue duiker species within the P. monticola complex). The stronghold of the Zimbabwe Blue Duiker is in KwaZulu-Natal. It is uncommon or rare in Zimbabwe and Mozambique, with populations continuing to decline due to poaching.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6106D7FD0FF933F7C3.taxon	materials_examined	Angola.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6106D7FD0FF933F7C3.taxon	discussion	Formerly included as a subspecies of P. monticola. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6106D7FD0FF933F7C3.taxon	distribution	Distribution. N Angola and SW DR Con-EO	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6106D7FD0FF933F7C3.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 60 - 67 cm, tail 7 - 11 cm, ear 6 cm; weight c ¢. 5 kg. Based on skull measurements this is one of the largest Philantomba species. Specimens from coastal regions tend to be larger than inland individuals. The pelage is pale gray-brown, with the darkening of the dorsal surfaces (typical of the genus Philantomba) restricted to the base of the tail. The tail itself is black on the upper surface and white underneath. The sides are pale gray, blending to red on the posterior haunches. The transition between the red haunches and the dark at the tail base is well marked but not extensive. The legs are pale brownish-red, and the grayish-white of the underparts extends down the proximal half of the inner legs. Horns are typically present in both sexes but can be absent in females. Average length in males is 4.1 - 4. 6 cm; the horns of a single female measured 2 - 6 cm. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6106D7FD0FF933F7C3.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Forests, thickets, and dense coastal brush.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6106D7FD0FF933F7C3.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely similar to other Philantomba duikers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6106D7FD0FF933F7C3.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no information available for this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6106D7FD0FF933F7C3.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but presumably diurnal like other Philantomba duikers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6106D7FD0FF933F7C3.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6106D7FD0FF933F7C3.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under P. monticola). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (combined with the other nine blue duiker species within the P. monticola complex). There is no estimate of the population size of the Angolan Blue Duiker, butit is believed to be widespread in northern Angola.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6103DFFBBEF6FBFDC2.taxon	materials_examined	Cape Colony.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6103DFFBBEF6FBFDC2.taxon	discussion	P. monticola was formerly a parent taxon that included all blue duikers (all members of the genus Philantomba east of the Cross River, Nigeria) as subspecies. The present taxonomy has divided this group into ten distinct species, and the Cape Blue Duikeris now restricted to the southern coast of South Africa. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6103DFFBBEF6FBFDC2.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S South Africa (from the city of George, Western Cape, E through Eastern Cape).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6103DFFBBEF6FBFDC2.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Few body measurements specific to the Cape Blue Duiker (as defined here) are available, but head-body c. 60 cm, tail ¢. 8 cm; weight c ¢. 4 - 5 kg. Skull size 1 s similar to the Zimbabwe Blue Duiker (P. bicolor), and body size likely follows. In color, the Cape Blue Duiker is rather paler than the Zimbabwe Blue Duiker; the overall color is a pale gray or fawn. The rump is not particularly dark, and the haunches have only a slight reddish tinge; there is very little difference in color between these two areas (cf. the Zimbabwe Blue Duiker). The underparts are whitish. All four legs are bright rufous in color. The tail is only slightly darker than the dorsum. The face is colored similarly to the body; although the cheeks and underside of the jaw are paler. Simple, spiked horns may be present in both sexes; they are longer than in the Zimbabwe Blue Duiker, averaging 4 - 7 cm in males. Dental formula is 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6103DFFBBEF6FBFDC2.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Evergreen forests and scrub, a habitat type now limited to fragmented forest patches along the southern Cape. The dominanttree species in areas inhabited by the Cape Blue Duiker in coastal South Africa is Trichocladus crinitus. Most foraging occurs in open forest glades, where vegetative ground coveris typically less than 10 %. Denser cover is important for refuge, especially from aerial predators such as the crowned hawk-eagle (Stephanoaetus coronatus). Population densities are 14 - 28 ind / km?; this is significantly lower than the adjacent population of the Zimbabwe Blue Duiker in Kwa-Zulu-Natal, a discrepancy attributed to lower habitat quality (rather than to predation or competition).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6103DFFBBEF6FBFDC2.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Folivorous, opportunistically frugivorous. Although most forest duikers rely on fruit, this is a highly variable and often limited food resource in South Africa. Fallen leaves and fruit are consumed from the ground. The Cape Blue Duiker is highly selective and appears to use scent in order to select the highest quality foods available. Stomach contents from a single individual indicate a strong preference for the leaves from Canthium obovatum; leaves from Canthium mundianum, Cassine papillosa, Apodytes dimidiata, Olea capensis macrocarpa, and Olinia ventosa were also present in small (but not trace) quantities. Fruit from C. mundianum, seed pods from Dietes iridioides, and traces of fungi were also identified.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6103DFFBBEF6FBFDC2.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species from the wild. Reproduction in captivity in South Africa occurs year-round, with a distinct peak in births from September to November (over 50 % of 49 recorded births). Other aspects of reproduction are likely similar to those of the Zimbabwe Blue Duiker.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6103DFFBBEF6FBFDC2.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Active throughout the day: transect counts show no significant difference in activity between morning, midday, and afternoon. No data are available on night-time activity.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6103DFFBBEF6FBFDC2.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Most field observations are of solitary individuals (73 %), although pairs and groups of up to five individuals are sometimes seen. Sightings of groups are most frequent between October and February; these are most likely juveniles accompanying a parent. The Cape Blue Duiker uses regular pathways within forested habitats, including “ game trails ” created and used by larger species. The alarm call is a shrill whistle.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6103DFFBBEF6FBFDC2.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (combined with the other nine blue duiker species within the P. monticola complex). Habitat destruction has dramatically affected the Cape Blue Duiker, and the fragmented nature of the remaining forest pockets may lead to issues with long-term population viability. Viable populationsstill exist in several protected areas. Low populations have in the past been attributed to a rise in Caracal (Caracal caracal) numbers, although it now appears that habitat quality plays a significant role in determining population size.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6206D6F708F69CFDEE.taxon	materials_examined	Itambe, between Lakes Mweru and Tanganyika, northern Rhodesia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6206D6F708F69CFDEE.taxon	discussion	Formerly included as a subspecies of P. monticola. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6206D6F708F69CFDEE.taxon	distribution	Distribution. E Angola, S DR Congo (S of Upemba National Park), and Zambia NW of the Muchinga and Zambezi escarpments.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6206D6F708F69CFDEE.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 54 - 66 cm, tail 8 cm; weight up to 5 - 4 kg (males) and 7 - 3 kg (females). Size is large among Philantomba duikers. The overall color of the Zambian Blue Duiker is gray-brown, although there is considerable variation among individuals. The pelage is noticeably paler than in the neighboring Malawi Blue Duiker (PF. hecki). The forequarters are often bluishgray, the dorsum darker gray over the midline, and the flanks usually have a reddish tinge. The tail and rump are dark, and this coloration extends laterally onto the upper hindlegs, where there is a clearly defined line between this dark patch and the reddish haunches. The legs are distinctly rufous; the front surfaces tend to be brighter. The undersides (including the lower surface of the tail) are whitish, as are the inner legs to the carpal and tarsal joints. The groin and axillary regions are bright white. The face is marked with a dark blaze running from the muzzle to the top of the head. A wide rufous superciliary streak borders this blaze around the eyes. The cheeks are paler than the body. The ears are dark fawn with scattered white hairs on their outer surfaces; the insides are white. Horns are present in both sexes, growing (on average) 4 - 35 cm long in males and 3 - 11 cm in females. They are widely spaced and tend to have a slight curve. Dental formulais 10 / 3,. C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3. M 3 / 3 (62) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6206D6F708F69CFDEE.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Forests and thickets. The Zambian Blue Duiker is especially common in Cryptosepalum forest.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6206D6F708F69CFDEE.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Folivorous / frugivorous. The fruits of Ficus brachypoda and Gymnema sp. and the leaves of Maerua friesii have been recorded in the diet; feeding habits are otherwise unknown.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6206D6F708F69CFDEE.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Births in Zambia have been recorded in June, August, and October. Litter size is one. Other aspects of reproduction are thought to resemble the similar Zimbabwe Blue Duiker.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6206D6F708F69CFDEE.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Most active in open habitats (forest edges and clearings) in the early morning and late afternoon. The rest of the day and night are spent in dense vegetation.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6206D6F708F69CFDEE.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is little specific information available for this species, but field observations are usually ofsolitary individuals or pairs.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DAFF6206D6F708F69CFDEE.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under P. monticola). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (combined with the other nine blue duiker species within the P. monticola complex). The Zambian Blue Duiker continues to survive in protected areas, but it is thought to have been broadly affected by hunting. No recent estimates of population size have been made.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DFFF64036BFE20F94AFCDE.taxon	materials_examined	Sierra Leone.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DFFF64036BFE20F94AFCDE.taxon	discussion	This species is monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DFFF64036BFE20F94AFCDE.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Sierra Leone (E of the Moa River), Liberia, and Ivory Coast (W of the Niouniourou River); recently confirmed in SE Guinea.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DFFF64036BFE20F94AFCDE.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 85 - 90 cm, tail 15 cm, shoulder height 40 - 50 cm; weight 15 - 23 kg. Typical of duikers, the back is arched and the legs short. The golden or reddish-brown coat is distinctively marked with 12 - 16 black transverse stripes, which cross the back and taper vertically down the sides. The first of these bands is located behind the shoulders and they continue to the base of the tail; the striping patterns are individually unique. The belly, chest, and throat are nearly white and lack stripes. Dark garter-like markings ornament the upper legs; these bands cover a tufted gland just distal to the hocks on the hindlegs. The shoulders, lower legs, and nape of the neck are a deep russet. The tail is the same reddish-gold as the rump but has white hairs on the underside. The face is deep chestnut brown and the muzzle is slate gray or black; distinctive facial markings are lacking. Preorbital glands are visible as long slits in front of the eyes. A coronal tuft on the forehead is short and usually deep maroon in color. Both sexes possess a pair of horns that are robust, conical, and sharply pointed. Horns grow 4 - 5 cm long in males and no more than 2.2 - 5 cm in females; they may be concealed by the coronal tuft. Dental formula is 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3. M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DFFF64036BFE20F94AFCDE.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Closed-canopy primary forests, as well as along forest margins and clearings, extending into secondary growth. The Banded Duiker is most common in lowland forests (especially in river valleys), but montane and upland forests may also be used. Farmbush (cultivated land interspersed with brushy thickets) is rarely inhabited by this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DFFF64036BFE20F94AFCDE.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Fruits and seeds comprise at least 79 % of the diet, based on the stomach contents of four Banded Duikers from Liberia. The fruits of Diospyros sanzaminika were found in all four samples; Bussea occidentalis, Eremospatha macrocarpa, and Tetraberlinia tubmania were also identified in at least one individual. Leaves account for most of the remaining dietary fraction. Banded Duikers are reported to occasionally raid farmland adjacent to forest to feed on crops. Animal matter is opportunistically consumed both in captivity and in the wild. Captive individuals have an increased requirement for dietary copper compared to other duiker species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DFFF64036BFE20F94AFCDE.taxon	breeding	Breeding. All data regarding the breeding of this species comes from captive specimens. An estrous female is courted by a male with persistent pursuits; during such chases, the male keeps his head and neck stretched forward and licks at the female’s neck, hindlegs, and anogenital region. Both sexes may make deep grunting sounds during courtship chases. Flehming is used to test female receptivity. Males perform a ritualized high lifting of the foreleg (“ laufschlag ”) toward receptive females; the leg is lifted to one side of the female’s hindlegs and may be held up briefly or pressed against her body for an extended period. Copulation attempts last only a few seconds but are repeated frequently. The duration of estrus is 12 - 24 hours; a postpartum estrus allows females to conceive ten days after giving birth. Gestation lasts for 221 - 229 days; one captive female had an average interbirth interval of 241 days. Littersize is one. Birth weight in captivity averages 1 - 48 kg (range is 1 - 27 kg- 1 - 75 kg). Young are born with the characteristic striping pattern visible. However, the golden background color of the coat has a bluish cast in infants; this gradually brightens beginning at two months of age and full adult coloration is reached by 7 - 9 months. Young lie up in a secluded location for two to three weeks after birth, and are visited by the mother to nurse approximately four times per day; each nursing session lasts several minutes. Consumption of solids begins after one week, and hand-raised Banded Duikers are usually weaned around 95 days. A similar time frame has been observed in motherreared duikers, although the young may continue trying to nurse until approximately 120 days of age. Horn growth begins between one and two months. Males reach sexual maturity at about two years of age. Captive individuals may live 11 - 13 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DFFF64036BFE20F94AFCDE.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Observations of captive specimens in Liberia suggest that the Banded Duikeris a diurnal species (active during 71 % ofthe daylight hours, and less than 10 % of the twelve hours of darkness).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DFFF64036BFE20F94AFCDE.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. A breeding pair is believed to be the normal social unit. Captive pairs develop strong bonds, and frequently rub and lick each other. Both males and females may apply preorbital gland secretionsto their partner’s head, neck, back, and carpal and tarsal joints; males mark more frequently as females approach estrus. Both sexes may defend a territory against conspecifics, and may also take an active role in defending their offspring. Scarred heads suggest that fighting is especially vigorous in the Banded Duiker; it has been suggested that the striped markings may reduce the likelihood of being gored in the abdomen in aggressive encounters.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DFFF64036BFE20F94AFCDE.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The total population is estimated to be 28,000 individuals at most, butis likely less than 15,000. The Banded Duikeris threatened by overhunting (for meat) and by the continued destruction of West Africa’s remaining primary rainforests: the species is more sensitive than other duikers to logging and farming activities. Formerly more widespread, the Banded Duiker is now found primarily in protected areas of habitat such as the Gola Forest Reserve in Sierra Leone, Sapo National Park in Liberia, and Tai Forest National Park in Ivory Coast.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DFFF650663FC26FBAEFB62.taxon	materials_examined	Sierra Leone.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DFFF650663FC26FBAEFB62.taxon	discussion	C. dorsalis formerly included populations of both Western Bay Duiker and the Eastern Bay Duiker (C. castaneus) as subspecies. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DFFF650663FC26FBAEFB62.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Guinea-Bissau to Togo; an isolated population exists in E Nigeria (E of the Cross River) and W Cameroon.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DFFF650663FC26FBAEFB62.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 76 - 85 cm, tail 8.1 - 11. 6 cm, shoulder height 45 - 50 cm; weight 17.9 - 23. 4 kg. A heavily built duiker, with females slightly larger than males. Body size of the Western Bay Duiker is smaller and lighter than the Eastern Bay Duiker (C. castaneus). The pelage is coarse, with the hair shortest on the neck; in some animals, the hair on the rump is noticeably longer. General coloris a bright chestnut or reddish-brown; the legs are darker brown from below the shoulder and hocks. The underparts are colored as above, but with a black patch on the chest that extends into a dark median stripe along the belly. A distinctive and well-defined black dorsal stripe runs from the nape of the neck to the tail (in some specimens from Ghana, the stripe begins at the shoulders, not the nape). This stripe may expand on the shoulders, in some individuals connecting with the dark coloration of the legs. The dorsal stripe is generally narrower than in the Eastern Bay Duiker: its width averages 4: 94 cm in the Western Bay Duiker from the Guinean forest block of West Africa, butis significantly narrower in Nigeria and Cameroon, averaging only 2: 67 cm wide. The tail is black above (an extension of the dorsal stripe) and white below. Well-developed, pocket-like inguinal glands are present near the stifle. The face has a very dark brown or black frontal blaze, occasionally with reddish tones. A poorly-developed tuft of hair is present at the top of the head; it is usually blackish. The lips, chin, and a spot above each eye are white; there is also a bright rufous eyebrow streak. The ears are short, broad, and lined with white hairs. A long slit in front of each eye marks the preorbital glands, which are larger in males. Short, conical horns are present in both sexes, but longer in males; the bases of the horns are ridged. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DFFF650663FC26FBAEFB62.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. A forest specialist, frequently seen in moist lowland primary forest and occasionally observed in secondary growth. The Western Bay Duiker is encountered in both gallery (closed-canopy riverine) and non-gallery forests in Sierra Leone. This species is rarely observed in forest fragments with high human disturbance, and is thus now absent from forest patches within savanna — forest mosaics. Dense thickets and dead trees are essential refugia. The Western Bay Duikeris preyed upon by nocturnal predators such as Leopards (Panthera pardus) and large pythons.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DFFF650663FC26FBAEFB62.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Primarily frugivorous (85 - 98 % of the dietis fruits and seeds, based on two samples). The sense of smell is well developed and is used in finding food. The Western Bay Duiker has a large gape, enabling it to feed on large and tough-skinned fruits that other duikers cannot chew. For fruits with very large seeds (stones), the pulp is chewed away and the stones spat out. The stones of Ricinodendron heudelotii, Gambeya beguei, and Hugonia planchonii may be swallowed whole along with the fruit but are often regurgitated; these stones are frequently found in daytime resting places. Fruits from the above-mentioned species, as well as Ongokea gore, Elaeis guineensis, Blighia unijugata, and Irvingia gabonensis, have been recovered in stomach-content analyses in Ghana. Pentaclethra macrophylla and Klainedoxa gabonensis have been consumed by individuals in Liberia, and Dacryodes klaineana, Chrysophyllum taiense, and Dialium aubrevillei are in the diet of duikers in Ivory Coast. This species will consume animal matter, including bird eggs. A captive individual actively hunted and consumed small and medium-sized birds; doves were entirely eaten except for the wings and feet.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DFFF650663FC26FBAEFB62.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Western Bay Duikers breed year-round. Most data on the species’ breeding behavior comes from a single female in Ghana. Estrus lasts no more than a day, during which the male courts the female with intense chasing. Ritualized leg-kicking by the male (“ laufschlag ”) is minimal in this species, and (when performed) occursjust prior to copulation. Gestation lasts for approximately 238 days; litter size is one and weight at birth is 1.6 - 1. 7 kg. Infants are dark brown or nearly black in color; the dorsal stripe is difficult to discern except faintly on the rump. Neonates lie up in a sheltered spot for several weeks, and begin trying solid food at three weeks of age. Weaning occurs at 3 - 5 months. The bright reddish adult body color appears at five or six months of age. Females reach sexual maturity at approximately 18 months; the onset of puberty in males has not been determined. Individuals may live for more than 16 years in captivity.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DFFF650663FC26FBAEFB62.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Nocturnal. Observations of captive Western Bay Duikers indicate that 65 % of night-time hours, and only 17 % of daylight hours, are spent active. Encounter rates in the wild are 50 times higher at night than during the day. Sheltered resting places are used during the day; rumination frequently occurs at thesesites.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DFFF650663FC26FBAEFB62.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Western Bay Duiker is poorly known compared to the Eastern Bay Duiker, which it likely resembles in habits. This species is typically solitary, but no data on home range size has been collected. Latrine areas are not used by this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DFFF650663FC26FBAEFB62.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. This species is no longer common as a result of habitat loss. Overhunting may also play a role in the decline of this species, although its nocturnal nature makesit less susceptible to hunting than sympatric diurnal duikers. It is rare in Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Togo, and Nigeria, and uncommon in Ivory Coast. The Western Bay Duiker is only considered common in protected areas in Liberia and Ghana.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DEFF6503D7FAAFF870F4D8.taxon	materials_examined	Cameroons.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DEFF6503D7FAAFF870F4D8.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered to be a subspecies of C. dorsalis, which it closely resembles. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DEFF6503D7FAAFF870F4D8.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S Cameroon (E of Adamawa Highlands) and S Central African Republic to E DR Congo, S to N Angola; less abundant in eastern forests within its range.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DEFF6503D7FAAFF870F4D8.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 88 - 3 103.2 cm, tail 8: 1 - 12. 6 cm, shoulder height 45 - 52 cm; weight 18.4 - 24. 2 kg. Females are slightly larger than males. The Eastern Bay Duiker is larger and darker in color than the Western Bay Duiker (C. dorsalis); the ears are also slightly larger. Overall coloration is a rich reddish chestnut brown, with the undersides slightly brighter than the back. A wide dorsal stripe of black hair runs along the spinal ridge from the neck to the rump, narrowing to a thin line that extends to the end ofthe tail. The width of this dorsal stripe is generally greater than 8 cm (wider than that of the Western Bay Duiker), although in some localities the width averages only 4: 6 cm. All four legs are dark brown. The tail is black bordered with white and a white terminal tuft. The throat and upper neck are whitish. Pronounced cheek muscles accentuate the broad head and reduced muzzle. White lips and chin contrast with the chestnutred face. Superciliary stripes are bright rufous, and a white spot is usually present immediately above each eye; these markings are generally less strong than in the Western Bay Duiker. A reddish frontal blaze extends up the bridge of the nose to a wide triangle on the forehead. This is extended by the bright chestnut-red tuft on the crown of the head (with hairs that are basally dark and distally red). The face and crest are usually red, not blackish as in the Western Bay Duiker. The ears are dark brown on the back; the pale interior has sparse short white hairs. The horns of males are longer than those of females, but in both sexes they are parallel and smooth from base to tip. Generally 5: 1.7 - 9 cm in length, horns may grow up to 9 - 25 cm. Dental formula is 1 0 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DEFF6503D7FAAFF870F4D8.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Eastern Bay Duiker shows a distinct preference for closed-canopy forest, and is found most frequently in moist lowland areas. Its reliance on dense cover makes the species more susceptible than other duikers to human disturbances such as agriculture. Density estimates are 1 - 5 - 8 - 7 ind / km?.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DEFF6503D7FAAFF870F4D8.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Primarily frugivorous. Fruits comprise, on average, 86: 3 % of the diet (on a dry weight basis, based on stomach content analysis of 51 individuals). Small fruits, with a diameter less than 2 - 5 cm, constitute the greatest proportion of stomach contents and are usually eaten whole. Otherfruits up to 20 cm in diameter may also be consumed; the pulp of large-seeded fruits is usually chewed off and the seeds spat out. Large seeds up to 2 cm in diameter (from fruiting trees such as Gambeya beguei, Hugonia platysepala and H. planchonii, Ricinodendron heudelotii, Pseudospondias longifolia, Antrocaryon klaineanum, and Elaeis guineensis) may be swallowed whole, but are usually regurgitated intact at resting sites. Seeds without strong protective coatings may be chewed and eaten. Leaves comprise 11 - 1 % of the diet, and are consumed at higher frequencies during March, April, and May (the “ short ” rainy season) than any other time during the year. Flower buds, fungi, and animal matter comprise the rest of the diet; termites and other invertebrates make up most animal matter consumed, but the Eastern Bay Duiker may also feed at carcasses. Plant species most frequently consumed include Pachypodium sp., Polyalthia suaveolens, Dacryodes buttneri, Santiria trimera, Irvingia gabonensis and I. grandifolia, Klainedoxa gabonensis, Panda oleosa, Blighia welwitschii. C. castaneus may “ kneel ” on the carpal joints when feeding from the ground, and can stand vertically on the hindlegs for short periods to reach hanging foods that would otherwise be unreachable.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DEFF6503D7FAAFF870F4D8.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Eastern Bay Duikers are polygynous and breed throughout the year, with a peak in births in the rainy seasons (notably May and October in Gabon) as well as in the short dry season (January-February). During courtship, a male pursues a female with his head outstretched, licking the anogenital region of the female. Males test female receptiveness by performing the flehmen response on fresh urine (each flehming lasts an average of 9 - 3 seconds). Unreceptive females puff at approaching males; they may avoid further advances by retiring to a sheltered spot. Receptive females remain quiet during courtship and will stop and stand for mounting. Estrus lasts for less than 24 hours, and copulation duration is typically 1 - 2 seconds. Each copulation attemptis followed immediately by a new pursuit. Ritualized foreleg kicking (“ laufschlag ”) has not been observed. Gestation is approximately 240 days; litter size is usually one. Infants are blackish-brown, with red on the back, sides, and face. White facial spots are less apparent in juveniles than in adults. First reproduction occurs around 2 - 5 years, and a female generally produces 0 - 7 young / year. Maximum recorded life span in captivity is 17 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DEFF6503D7FAAFF870F4D8.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Nocturnal. During the day, the Eastern Bay Duiker hides in areas with highly restricted visibility (on average, visibility is only 1 - 2 m), such as in buttress roots of large trees, hollow logs, and recent deadfall. Hiding places may be reused from day to day, and are the principal site of rumination. Eastern Bay Duikers will often remain hidden in resting sites even when directly approached. Activity and foraging begin slightly before sunset, between 18: 00 h and 18: 30 h, and cease before dawn, usually between 05: 30 h and 06: 00 h. Most movements occur at the start and end of the night, corresponding with searching for food (19: 00 - 21: 00 h), and then a sheltered location in which to rest for the day is selected in the early morning. Females may travel 1 - 1 - 9 km every night; males average significantly more, at 4 - 3 km per night. Nightly foraging is interrupted 1 - 3 times by short rests averaging 44 minutes; these occur more frequently at the start of the night than at the end.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DEFF6503D7FAAFF870F4D8.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Almost exclusively solitary. Social contact may occur during periods of activity, but tends to be brief. Eastern Bay Duikers are never found resting with others. Individuals inhabit home ranges that may vary from 0 - 07 km? ® to 0 - 79 km?; in a study in Gabon, females generally used 0 - 2 - 0 - 4 km? and the single male used an area twice that size. Overlap between home ranges may result in up to six or seven duikers (including infants and juveniles) being present in a single male’s range. Home ranges vary in size depending on season, being generally larger during the dry seasons. The sense of smell is most important for social communication. Males mark vertical objects (especially tree trunks) with secretions from their preorbital glands at a frequency of 19 - 20 markings / hour, forming a whitish plaque of crystallized secretion on often-used branches. Eastern Bay Duikers tend to move slowly with the head stretched out at shoulder height, dropping the head so that the nose is at ground level on a regular basis. Individuals will frequently stop to smell areas marked by other duikers with preorbital gland secretions, urine, or feces. Vocalizations are rare; a weak “ hon, ” produced with a closed mouth, is used when two individuals are in close proximity (either in sight or when scent marks are sufficiently fresh). Being nocturnal, the sense of sight is not especially important; visual signs (such as horn scrapes on tree trunks or bushes) are not left. Likewise, detection of danger is principally by smell and hearing. Upon detection, an Eastern Bay Duiker will freeze in position; the head (with ears pricked) is then moved either side-to-side or up-anddown to better detect the threat. A threatened duiker will attempt to move off silently if possible. When startled, this species will flee directly into dense cover with the head stretched forward, and will then observe the threat while standing stock-still. Thereis no alarm vocalization or warning in the form of stamping of the forefeet.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DEFF6503D7FAAFF870F4D8.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under C. dorsalis). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under C. dorsalis). The Eastern Bay Duiker is common to abundant in all core range countries (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Republic of the Congo, and DR Congo). However, it is believed extinct in Uganda, and is of unknown status in Angola. The Eastern Bay Duikeris frequently caught in wildlife snares; in south-western Central African Republic, this species accounted for 15 % of all duikers caught. Its preference for primary forest also makes habitat loss and degradation a significant threat.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DEFF6606A1F41FFC42F6FC.taxon	materials_examined	Liberia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DEFF6606A1F41FFC42F6FC.taxon	discussion	This species is monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DEFF6606A1F41FFC42F6FC.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Sierra Leone, Liberia, and SW Ivory Coast; range is bordered to the E by the Niouniourou River. Currently restricted to scattered localities of remaining forest habitat.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DEFF6606A1F41FFC42F6FC.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 135 cm, tail 15 cm, shoulder height 75 - 85 cm; weight 56.5 - 79. 4 kg. One ofthe largest and moststrikingly colored duiker species. The body ofJentink’s Duiker, from the shouldersto the thin tail, has coarse, grizzled bluish-gray pelage; the upper shoulders, neck, and head are short-haired and glossy black. The boundary between the gray and black areas is marked by a thin white or pale gray band that circles in front of the forelegs and over the shoulders. A thin black line is present along the ventral midline; there is no dorsal stripe. The legs are whitish or pale gray. The muzzle and lips are white; other facial markings are absent. Preorbital glands are large and swell considerably in adult males. Both sexes bear a pair of sharp, straight horns that are typically smooth; annulations are generally absent. The horns are long when compared with other duiker species: 15.5 - 17. 5 cm is typical, but several skulls with horns longer than 21 cm have been recorded. The horns are black and angle backward from the forehead. The tuft of hair between the horns typical of duikersis either reduced or absent; when presentit is black in color. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DEFF6606A1F41FFC42F6FC.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Most frequently observed in closed canopy forests, although also recorded in areas of secondary forest and farmland adjacent to blocks of primary forest. A diversity of fruiting trees and very dense shelter are both important habitat characteristics.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DEFF6606A1F41FFC42F6FC.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Most information on feeding habits is from anecdotal evidence. Growing stems and fruits are principal food sources. Plant species frequently browsed upon reportedly include Hannoa klaineana and Chlorophora regia. Fruits from plants such as Ricinodendron heudelotii, Tieghemella heckelli, Cola nitida, Parinari sp., and Pentadesma sp. may be consumed; this duiker’s strong jaws allow it to consume hard-shelled fruits. Cultivated palm nuts, mangos, and cocoa pods may be fed upon during forays into farmland. This species has also been reported chewing on plant roots dug up with the hooves.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DEFF6606A1F41FFC42F6FC.taxon	breeding	Breeding. All knowledge on the reproduction of Jentink’s Duiker is from captive specimens. During courtship, a male may inflict small puncture wounds on the rump of the female. Gestation period is unknown, but likely resembles that of the similarsized Western Yellow-backed Duiker (C. silvicultor). Littersize is one. Neonates weigh 3.3 - 5. 9 kg. Infants are a uniform dark brown with pale markings around the lips; they closely resemble young Western Yellow-backed Duikers, to the degree that infants may be easily misidentified. Adult coloration is achieved at approximately one year of age. A captive individuallived for approximately 21 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DEFF6606A1F41FFC42F6FC.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Jentink’s Duiker appears to be largely nocturnal. Hunters use torches to locate animals by their eye-shine, and most collected specimens have been shot at night. Local hunters report activity peaks between 03: 00 - 6: 00 h and 13: 00 - 17: 00 h. A captive specimen at the Monrovia Zoo was active during 28 % of daylight hours and 40 % of the hours of darkness. When resting, Jentink’s Duiker may seek shelter in buttress bays of Bombax sp., Ceiba pentandra, and Klainedoxa gabonensis and along hollow or fallen tree trunks. If discovered, it will bolt from its refuge at great speed, but it cannot run far due to poor stamina.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DEFF6606A1F41FFC42F6FC.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. During the rainy season in Sierra Leone (May-October), Jentink’s Duikers are more frequently observed in coastal farmland than in the more typical habitat of forest. This species appears to be sedentary and is supposedly territorial. Most observations in the wild are of solitary animals, although pairs have been observed on rare occasion.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DEFF6606A1F41FFC42F6FC.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The last formal estimate of numbers in 1999 placed the wild population at 3500 individuals, although others suggest the population is no greater than 2000. Continued hunting pressure and loss of habitat throughoutits range are principal threats.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DDFF66037FF641F851F3C2.taxon	materials_examined	Liberia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DDFF66037FF641F851F3C2.taxon	discussion	Three subspecies are recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DDFF66037FF641F851F3C2.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. C. s. silvicultorAfzelius, 1815 — S Senegalto W Nigeria (W of Niger River). C. s. longicepsGray, 1865 — ENigeria (EofNigerRiver) toSChadandSWSudan, StoCongoRiver. C. s. ruficrista Bocage, 1869 — DR Congo S of Congo River, Angola, and Zambia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DDFF66037FF641F851F3C2.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 115 - 145 cm, tail 11 - 18 cm, shoulder height 65 - 85 cm; weight 45 - 80 kg. The Western Yellow-backed Duikeris the largest duiker species. The pelage is soft and oily. Color is an overall glossy brownish-black; the legs may be slightly darker. The underparts (including the inguinal region) are similarly dark. This species is named for the triangular patch of erectile yellowish hairs that runs along the spine; it is narrowest behind shoulders and widens on the rump. The size and extent of the yellow back are variable among individuals, but the hairs within this patch are always longer than adjacent dark hairs, and are longest (6 - 7 cm long) at the widest end of the triangle. Caudal to the dorsal patch, the rump has very short hairs and tends to be paler brown compared to the rest of the body; this area may be bordered with yellow hairs. The tail is short and thin, with a small black terminal tuft. The sides of the head are grayish, with no conspicuous markings besides the white lips and the prominent slits of the preorbital glands. The ears are dark on the back and rimmed with a border of white hairs inside. A coronal tuft is present on the top of the head, and typically surrounds the bases of the horns. This crest is rufous or orange in color, and usually 5 - 8 cm long. Horns are present in both sexes; these are smooth, slender spikes that extend backward from the skull. Horn length is typically 8 - 15 cm, with measurements from males being at the upper end of this range. Maximum recorded horn length is 21 - 3 cm. Dental formula is 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DDFF66037FF641F851F3C2.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Western Yellow-backed Duiker is found in a wide variety of habitats including primary and secondary rainforest; gallery, riparian, and montane forests; semideciduous forests; and more open bush and savanna woodlands. Population density is estimated to be 0 - 5 - 2 - 1 ind / km? ® in areas of good habitat in Gabon.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DDFF66037FF641F851F3C2.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Fruits and seeds constitute the largest portion of the diet (71 - 3 % of the contents of four stomachs examined in Gabon, on a dry matter basis), followed by petioles and stems (25 - 5 %). Leaves are consumed in small quantities (3 - 1 %), flowers, fungi, and grasses have not been recorded in the diet. Fruits are frequently eaten whole (both flesh and seeds); the large mouth and strong teeth are also able to crack hard seeds and break apart seed pods. Items up to 4 - 7 cm in size may be swallowed, including the stones of Irvingia gabonensis, Mammea africana, and Detarium macrocarpum; the flesh of Klainedoxa gabonensis, another large-stoned species, is usually chewed off of the stone and eaten without swallowing the pit. Other plant species consumed in Gabon include Eremospatha wendlandiana, Pseudospondias longifolia, Polyalthia suaveolens, Ricinodendron heudeloti, Pentaclethra eetveldeana, and Strychnos camptoneura. In the Central African Republic, fruits, seed pods, and leaves from Piliostigma thonningii, Swartzia madagascariensis, Nauclea latifolia, and Gardenia sp. are consumed. The Western Yellowbacked Duiker has been recorded feeding on several types of animal matter, including insects, newly hatched tortoises (Testudo pardalis), chameleons, and doves.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DDFF66037FF641F851F3C2.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Breeding of the Western Yellow-backed Duiker does not appear to be seasonal. Males may be highly aggressive during courtship, chasing or driving estrous females while licking, biting, or butting the female’s hindquarters. A soft bleat or grunt is produced by the male during courtship. Flehming is used by males to test the urine of females. Copulation is very brief, lasting only one or two seconds. Gestation is reported to be 151 - 282 days; observationalerroris likely, especially for the shortest time periods. Based on the gestations of related species, pregnancies likely last for at least seven months. Captive birth weights are also highly variable (2: 3.6 - 1 kg); litter size is one. Infants are a uniform brownish-black at birth; they do not follow their mothers, but hide alone in protected areas, often at the base of a tall vertical object. Solid foods may be tried as early as eight days of age. Horn growth begins at one month of age; at the same time the yellow dorsal patch begins to develop with a thin stripe of hair along the lower spine becoming paler in color. The dorsal patch is fully developed by seven months of age. Coronal crest hairs also become paler and more rufous as young animals grow. Weaning occurs around 95 days of age for hand-reared captive individuals; rearing of mother-raised Western Yellow-backed Duikers occurs by five months. The average interbirth interval in captivity is 479 days (23 birth records from four females). Maximum longevity, as recorded in captivity, is approximately 22 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DDFF66037FF641F851F3C2.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Active throughout the day and night. Captive individuals are typically active during 39 % of daytime hours and 26 % of the hours of darkness. Wild individuals also appear to be active throughout the 24 hour day, although numerous observations have been made of Western Yellow-backed Duikers sleeping during midday. Such resting occurs in sheltered areas, such as tree buttresses, dense thickets, or near fallen trees.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DDFF66037FF641F851F3C2.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Generally solitary, occasionally observed in pairs. One isolated report exists of a group of six animals. It is unknown whether pair-bonds form or whether territories are held. Both sexes use secretions from the preorbital glands to mark vertical structures (such as trees); males perform this behavior up to three times more frequently than females. This duikeris typically a slow-moving species that often walks with the head down and back hunched. When disturbed, the Western Yellow-backed Duiker will immediately freeze in position (usually with one foreleg off the ground) and erect the yellow dorsal patch so that the hairs are perpendicular to the skin. If the source ofthe threatis visually identified during this period of motionlessness, the Western Yellow-backed Duiker will move slowly into cover. If startled or alarmed, individuals will explode into a fast trot interspersed with large Jumps. In areas with high levels of hunting by humans, they will often flee immediately.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DDFF66037FF641F851F3C2.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (coupled with C. curticeps). The Western Yellow-backed Duikeris less impacted by cable snare hunting than other duikers because ofits ability to break the snares (due to its size and strength). However, the species will readily approach hunters reproducing duikercalls, rendering them vulnerable to shooting. The total population is estimated to be 160,000 animals, spread across an increasingly fragmented range.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DDFF670649F30CFB40F8B4.taxon	materials_examined	Mt. Sabinio, Uganda.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DDFF670649F30CFB40F8B4.taxon	discussion	Only recently recognized as distinct, C. curticeps was initially included as a subspecies of C. silvicultor. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DDFF670649F30CFB40F8B4.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, and W Kenya.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DDFF670649F30CFB40F8B4.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. No specific measurements available, but head-body c. 115 cm, tail c. 11 cm; weight c. 45 kg. Based on skull size, this species is similar to the Western Yellow-backed Duiker (C. silvicultor), although much smaller. Greatest skull length is less than 26 cm. Overall color is blackish-brown, generally darker than the Western Yellow-backed Duiker. A triangle of bright gold to very dark golden-brown hair is present on the dorsum; it is narrowest toward the head and ends in an abruptline at the hip. This dorsal triangle is narrower and darker than in the Western Yellow-backed Duiker; the mean posterior width is 18: 2 cm (16.5 - 27. 3 cm) in four specimens from Rwanda, and only 7 - 2 cm (3 - 10. 9 cm) in four specimens from Kenya. Smaller gold-colored spots are found behind the poste- ~ rior corners of the dorsal triangle; these markings are generally well developed and are never absent. The sides of the neck and cheeks are paler than the body. The coronal tuft is prominent and often reddish. Horns are present in both sexes; no measurements have been published. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DDFF670649F30CFB40F8B4.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Montane forests and bamboo stands, as well as some protected forests at lower elevations.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DDFF670649F30CFB40F8B4.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably frugivorouslike the Western Yellow-backed Duiker.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DDFF670649F30CFB40F8B4.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no information available for this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DDFF670649F30CFB40F8B4.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is little specific information available for this species. Two observations of foraging individuals in Burundi were made between 08: 25 h and 09: 15 h. Presumably active both night and day, like the Western Yellow-backed Duiker.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DDFF670649F30CFB40F8B4.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely similar to the Western Yellow-backed Duiker.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DDFF670649F30CFB40F8B4.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under C. silvicultor). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under C. silvicultor). These general listings belie the status of the Eastern Yellow-backed Duiker: “ C. silvicultor ” (i. e. C. curticeps) is considered endangered in Uganda, rare in Kenya, and may be extinct in Rwanda. There is insufficient knowledge aboutits status in Burundi. It is likely that the Eastern Yellow-backed Duiker is of considerable conservation concern. Poaching activity radiating from DR Congo has resulted in a great decline in this species’ numbers in the three adjacenr range countries.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DCFF6703DBF8FCF949FADD.taxon	materials_examined	Mt Kilimanjaro.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DCFF6703DBF8FCF949FADD.taxon	discussion	Closely related to C. silvicultor and C. curticeps, and may represent a relict population that has undergone speciation. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DCFF6703DBF8FCF949FADD.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Endemic to Tanzania; localized in the Uluguru-Uzungwe Mts, Rungwe Mts, Usambara Mts, Mt Kilimanjaro, and Mt Meru.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DCFF6703DBF8FCF949FADD.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 97 - 140 cm, tail 8 - 13 cm, shoulder height 66 - 74 cm; weight 50 - 60 kg. Abbott’s Duiker is smaller than the Western Yellow-backed Duiker (C. silvicultor), but is otherwise similar in general form. The legs are relatively short and sturdy, and the neck is thick. Overall color is a dark chestnut brown or black, becoming darker and more intense towards the hindquarters. There is a thin dorsal stripe faintly darker than the rest of the coat. The belly, lower flanks, and insides of the legs are paler brown than the back, occasionally with a reddish hue. A small pale gray patch may be present on the back near the base of the tail. The tail lacks a terminal tuft of hair. The face and throat are grayish-white except for the dark brown forehead and the bright white upper lip. A prominent bushy crest at the top of the head is one of the most distinctive characters of Abbott’s Duiker. The crest extends well past the horns in some specimens, and may range in color from dark brown or maroon to bright rufous. The ears are rounded, pale brown outside and even paler inside. Horns are present in both sexes; they are long, thin, and slender, and lack conspicuous thickening at their base. Reported horn lengths are 8 - 12 cm. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DCFF6703DBF8FCF949FADD.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Dense montane evergreen forest and high-elevation swamps. Abbott’s Duiker is most common at 1300 - 2700 m in Kilimanjaro National Park. Occasional sightings occur in scrub and moorland at higher elevations (up to 4000 m); Abbott’s Duiker will also descend to farmland to feed and has been recorded at 300 m in a semi-deciduous forest. In the Udzungwa Mountains, it is seen in forests dominated by Parinari excelsa, Celtis gomphophylla, Bombax rodhognaphalon, Lettowianthus stellatus, Tabernaemontana pachysiphon, Tarenna pavettoides, Ficus sp., Dracaena mannii, Anthocleista grandiflora, and Macaranga capensis. It is restricted to wetter, swampier areas, and is thus usually found on eastern-facing slopes. Even where locally common, it exists at low densities: maximum population density in the Udzungwa Mountains is estimated to be 1 - 3 ind / km ®.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DCFF6703DBF8FCF949FADD.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. No detailed dietary studies have been conducted. Abbott’s Duiker is thought to be mainly frugivorous, although the diet may also include flowers, green shoots, and herbage. It has been recorded feeding on the leaves of balsam (/ mpatiens elegantissima), as well as plucking green moss from rocks. A camera-trap in the Udzungwa Mountains photographed an Abbott’s Duiker holding an amphibian in its mouth, suggesting that it, like other duiker species, eats animal matter.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DCFF6703DBF8FCF949FADD.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is very little specific information available for this species. Infants have been recorded in September — October, but it is possible that the species breeds throughout the year. Reproductive parameters are likely similar to those of the Western Yellow-backed Duiker.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DCFF6703DBF8FCF949FADD.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Abbott's Duiker appears to be primarily nocturnal, spending the day resting in dense forest undergrowth or among ferns. Camera-traps have photographed Abbott’s Duikers primarily at night (19: 00 h- 06: 00 h), although one crepuscular observation was made.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DCFF6703DBF8FCF949FADD.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Presumed to be solitary. Pathways through dense habitat are regularly used, and hunters set snares along such paths to capture this species. Although generally retiring, Abbott’s Duiker has been known to kill dogs if cornered with no means of escape. If pressed, individuals may take to water when fleeing from a threat.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DCFF6703DBF8FCF949FADD.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Its distribution is extremely restricted and fragmented, making Abbott’s Duiker vulnerable to habitat loss and degradation as a result of logging and human settlement. Hunting is also a major threat. The total population is estimated at 1500 individuals, with a declining trend. It is believed to have become extinct in some localities in recent decades; protected areas, notably Kilimanjaro National Park and Udzungwa Mountains National Park, are important to the ongoing survival of Abbott’s Duiker.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DCFF6806D3FA22FEB6FB65.taxon	materials_examined	Guinea Coast.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DCFF6806D3FA22FEB6FB65.taxon	discussion	This species is monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DCFF6806D3FA22FEB6FB65.taxon	distribution	Distribution. From S Guinea to W Nigeria (W of the Niger River).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DCFF6806D3FA22FEB6FB65.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 80 - 100 cm, tail 9 - 14 cm, shoulder height 44 - 50 cm; weight 19 - 23 kg (males) and 17 - 26 kg (females). A heavily built duiker; the bodyis long, with short, stocky legs. Female Black Duikers are slightly larger than males. The pelageis soft, glossy, and black or deep brownish-black in color. The hairs on the trunk are longer than in most duikers. The undersidesare slightly paler than the back, and a rusty orange patch may be present between the forelegs. The tail is short, with a bushy white tuft at the tip; the black upper surface contrasts strikingly with the white underside. The face has very little hair; it is predominantly black with a rufous-orange forehead. The coronal tuft is rich rufous and does not taper to a point, but instead is an even shock of hair. The chin, lower jaw, and throat are pale gray. The insides of the ears are whitish and the backs are black. Horns are usually present in both sexes, although they may be hidden within the coronal tuft. Straight and pointed, the horns of males may grow 7.2 - 9. 4 cm in length. The horns of females are much smaller (1.8 - 3. 1 cm); the tips are generally rounded in adult females, although they may be sharp in subadults. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DCFF6806D3FA22FEB6FB65.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Black Duiker is very common in lowland secondary forests and farmbush (cultivated land interspersed with brushy thickets), and it is also found in riverine galleries, isolated forest patches, and semi-deciduous forests at lower densities. It is present in low numbers in the drier and more open habitat of the Dahomey Gap between Togo and Nigeria.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DCFF6806D3FA22FEB6FB65.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Highly frugivorous. Fruits typically comprise at least 88 % ofthe diet, although leaves and stems, roots, blossoms, fungi, grasses, and animal matter are also consumed. The Black Duiker is presumed to be dependent on year-round fruit like many other large duikers. Fruits up to 6 cm in diameter can be swallowed or broken inside the mouth; large fruits that cannot be swallowed whole are chewed, and toughskinned fruits are excluded from the diet. Young green leaves are preferred over dry or old leaves; the diet shifts to increased frugivory during the dry season when young shoots are rare. Fruits of Alchornea cordifolia, Ficus capensis and FE vallis-choudae, Elaes guenieensis, Persea americana, and Theobroma cacao are frequently consumed, based on stomach content analysis. The latter four species are cultivated; leaves and tubers of cassava (Manihot esculenta) are also frequently consumed. The abundance of cultivars in the diet (in 62 % of 81 stomachs examined in Kumasi, Ghana) indicates that the Black Duiker forages regularly in agricultural areas. These foods (with the exception of the native FE. guineensis) would not form the natural diet. Among native plants, the leaves of Alchornea cordifolia are eaten often. Tubers and rhizomes are dug up with the front hooves and consumed. Black Duikers consume an average of 2 - 3 species in a feeding bout.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DCFF6806D3FA22FEB6FB65.taxon	breeding	Breeding. In the wild, pregnant female Black Duikers have been recorded in every month of the year, although there appears to be a birthing peak in November — January. A single estimate of gestation from a captive specimen was 126 days, although in light of the gestation periods for similarly sized duikers, this seems extremely low. The interbirth interval in captivity averages 7 - 5 months. Littersize is one; neonates in Ghana average 1 - 94 kg (range: 1: 65 - 2: 31 kg). In captivity, birth weights are 1 - 42.2 - 18 kg. Males tend to grow faster than females. Weaning occurs at around 90 days of age (81 - 108 days). Captive individuals have lived for over 14 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DCFF6806D3FA22FEB6FB65.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. In captivity, Black Duikers are three times more active during daylight hours than during the night (64 % of the day spent active, 24 % of the night). In Ghana, the Black Duikeris crepuscular, being most active prior to sunrise and during the cool hours of the morning, and for several hours in the late afternoon and evening (from 17: 00 h onward). Midday and the middle of the night are spent lying up and resting in buttresses of large trees or in dense thickets; rumination reportedly occurs at night. Near human settlements, the presence of people during the day may alter the natural rhythms and result in a more nocturnal existence.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DCFF6806D3FA22FEB6FB65.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Generally solitary, although pairs (adult male and female, or female and offspring) and groups of three (adult male, female, and offspring) have been observed. It is unknown how permanent such associations are.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399DCFF6806D3FA22FEB6FB65.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Black Duiker is common in the center ofits range (Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana), but it is heavily hunted for the bushmeat trade. It is the most adaptable mid-sized duiker in West Africa, and actually appears to be more successful in areas with human disturbance. The total population is estimated at 100,000 individuals; with a general decline in numbers across its range.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF68067EFD95F84CF626.taxon	materials_examined	Orobi Jokwa, near Ogouma, Gabon.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF68067EFD95F84CF626.taxon	discussion	Initially described as a subspecies of C. ogilbyr, but is considered here to be a distinct species. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF68067EFD95F84CF626.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Coastal Gabon to W Republic of the Congo.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF68067EFD95F84CF626.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 96.5 - 104. 1 cm (although two recorded specimens are much larger, c ¢. 145 cm), tail 13 - 16 cm; weight ¢. 20 kg. A medium-sized duiker with a golden brown coat. The hindquarters and rump are darker than the sides, and the neck and forequarters have a grayish tint. The hair on the nape of the neck may be reversed in a narrow tract along the spine. The belly is grayish. A black dorsalstripe, 2.5 - 6 cm wide (wider than that of Ogilby’s Duiker, C. ogilbyi), runs from the shoulders to the rump, where it narrows to I cm and extends to the tail tip. Scattered black hairs may expand out from the stripe near the tail, creating a secondary band up to 10 cm wide. Aside from the median black stripe, the dorsal surface of the tail is golden brown. The underside of the tail has longer white hairs, and there is a long (approximately 7 - 5 cm), narrow terminal tuft of gray-brown hairs. All four legs are relatively long and distinctly white below the carpus and tarsus. A narrow brown stripe extends down the front of the forelegs, widening and darkening around the hooves; a similar but less distinct band runs down the hindlegs. The throat and lower jaw are white. The head is gray, with a darker brown forehead and blackish muzzle. A bright chestnut arch runs above each eye, and the coronal tuft between the ears is dark chestnut in color. The ears are covered with sparse black hairs outside, and the inside surfaces are marked with striking tracts of white hair. Horns are present in both sexes; reported measurements are 8: 7 - 10. 9 cm for males and approximately 5 cm for females. Dental formula is 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (2 Y = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF68067EFD95F84CF626.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Rainforest blocks and forest patches within savanna-forest mosaic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF68067EFD95F84CF626.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Feeds on fruits, seeds, and flowers. The White-legged Duiker is frequently observed under trees in which primates are feeding, consuming fallen or dropped matter. One individual was recorded feeding on the fruits of Klainedoxa gabonensus.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF68067EFD95F84CF626.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is very little specific information available for this species. Juveniles are strongly speckled.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF68067EFD95F84CF626.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Limited observations indicate this species is diurnal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF68067EFD95F84CF626.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is little specific information available for this species, but observed alone or in pairs.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF68067EFD95F84CF626.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under C. ogilbyi). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as C. o. crusalbum). The White-legged Duikeris relatively common, with stable population numbers throughout most of its known distribution. The total population is estimated to be 18,000 individuals.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF680378FAAAF625FE53.taxon	materials_examined	Equatorial Guinea, Fernando Po.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF680378FAAAF625FE53.taxon	discussion	The three species recognized here (C. ogilbyi, C. brookei, and C. crusalbum), were formerly included as subspecies of C. ogilby: based on physical resemblances. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF680378FAAAF625FE53.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Bioko I (Equatorial Guinea) and mainland Africa from E Nigeria (E of the Niger River) to W Cameroon.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF680378FAAAF625FE53.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 90 cm, tail 15 cm, shoulder height 56 cm; weight 18 - 20 kg. Ogilby’s Duiker is larger than the similar Brooke’s Duiker (C. brookei) and the White-legged Duiker (C. crusalbum). The hindquarters are powerful and the legs are relatively long. The coat is a deep golden brown color, darker than that of Brooke's Duiker. The rump tends to be more richly colored than the sides. The nape and sides of the neck are very sparsely haired and appear browner in color than the body. A wide zone of reversed hair occurs on the nape of the neck. The underparts are a pale golden brown. Scattered black hairs on the midline of the neck become increasingly dense between the shoulders, beginning a well-defined black dorsal stripe that runs from the shoulders to the base ofthe tail (in some individuals, the stripe remains indistinct from the shoulders until the middle of the back); this stripe is relatively narrow, typically 1.1 - 3 cm wide. The limbs are the same color as the body, but darken around the hooves. Dark brown stripes may be present down the fronts of the forelegs, and a dark patch is often present on the hocks. The tail has a terminal tuft of gray hair that is sometimes quite large. The cheeks are the same color as the body, but the muzzle is blackish and the forehead bright rufous. The sparse tuft of hair at the top of the head can vary from bright orange to dark brown. Both sexes of Ogilby’s Duiker bear a pair ofslightly upward-curving horns. In males they are thick, with roughened rings on the basal half, and may grow 9 cm long; those of females are approximately 6 cm in length. The convex skull has a thickened frontal boss, especially in individuals from Bioko Island. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF680378FAAAF625FE53.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Moist lowland forests. On Bioko Island, Ogilby’s Duikers may be found in lowland and montane forests, including the high-elevation Schefflera zone. It has been observed at elevations of 10 - 2260 m. Density in Korup National Park, Cameroon, and on Bioko Island was estimated at 13 ind / km?.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF680378FAAAF625FE53.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but presumably frugivorous.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF680378FAAAF625FE53.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no information available for this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF680378FAAAF625FE53.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Diurnal. Activity begins abruptly around dawn, and stops equally abruptly at sunset. Times of greatest activity are the few hours after sunrise (6: 30 - 11: 00 h) and the late afternoon (16: 00 - 19: 00 h). Midday is usually spent sleeping. Specific resting places are used for sleeping at night; other areas are frequented during the day for foraging and midday rests.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF680378FAAAF625FE53.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Solitary, although pairs (an adult and youngster) are occasionally seen. Latrine areas appear to be used. A radio-collared adult male in Korup National Park, had a home range of 0 - 10 km?. Several other Ogilby’s Duikers were observed within this range near the periphery, and it is unknown whether territoriality is involved.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF680378FAAAF625FE53.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as C. ogilbyi ogilbyr). The total population is estimated at 12,000 animals. Ogilby’s Duikeris one of the principal sources of bushmeat on Bioko Island, representing the second most frequently used species based on biomass (over 10,000 kg are harvested per year). Current levels of harvest are likely unsustainable.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF690670F672FC94FB6B.taxon	materials_examined	Fanti, Cape Coast (Ghana).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF690670F672FC94FB6B.taxon	discussion	Initially described as a subspecies of C. ogilby:, but it now appears that the similarities between the two species are the result of convergence. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF690670F672FC94FB6B.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Sierra Leone to Ghana W of Volta River.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF690670F672FC94FB6B.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. No specific measurements available, but head-body c. 100 cm, tail c. 12 cm; weight c. 14 - 20 kg. It is similar in size to Ogilby’s Duiker (C. ogilbyi), which it generally resembles. The overall color is a dull golden brown; the dorsal surface tends to be brighter, and the undersides are very pale. Brooke’s Duiker is paler in overall color than Ogilby’s Duiker. The dorsal midline is marked with a black stripe 2 -: 7.6 - 6 cm wide (wider than in Ogilby’s Duiker); this stripe begins around the shoulders and terminates on the rump as a very thin line (it does not extend to the tail). The tail has a distinctive terminal tuft of black and white hairs. The legs are the same color as the body, with slightly paler inner surfaces. Most individuals display a reversal of hair on the neck, starting from a whorl at the shoulders and continuing up the nape in a wide band for 7.5 - 10 cm. The coronal tuft is reddish-ocher. Horns are present in both sexes: they are 5.1 - 9. 3 cm long in males and smaller in females, approximately 2: 3 cm in length. Dental formula is 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF690670F672FC94FB6B.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Primary forests in moist lowlands are preferred; this speciesis rarely observed in secondary forest. Brooke’s Duiker may enter farmland adjacentto forestto feed on Crops.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF690670F672FC94FB6B.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Fruits and seeds appear to comprise the majority of the diet, accounting for 92 % of dry weight in one stomach sampled. The remainder of the sample was comprised ofvegetative parts (7 %) and flowers (1 %). Species observed in this stomach analysis included Dialium aubrevillei, Diospyros sp. (seeds only), Amphimas pterocarpoides, Nauclea sp., Scottelia chevalieri, and Coelocaryon oxycarpum. A juvenile in Tai Forest National Park, Ivory Coast was observed feeding on the fruits of Coelocaryon oxycarpum.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF690670F672FC94FB6B.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is very little specific information available for this species, but the infant coatis speckled.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF690670F672FC94FB6B.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Primarily diurnal; one captive in Liberia was active for 58 % of the day and only 17 % of the night.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF690670F672FC94FB6B.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, but presumably solitary.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D3FF690670F672FC94FB6B.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under C. ogilby:). Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List (as C. o. brooke). The total population is estimated at 5000 individuals. The distribution of Brooke's Duiker is localized, and surveys are confounded by field similarities with the nocturnal Western Bay Duiker (C. dorsalis). Brooke’s Duiker appears to be highly susceptible to the effects of habitat loss and hunting.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D2FF6903D8FAB0F9E5F68E.taxon	materials_examined	Gabon.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D2FF6903D8FAB0F9E5F68E.taxon	discussion	Closely related to Weyns’s Duiker (C. weynsi), which was formerly classified as a subspecies of Peters’s Duiker. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D2FF6903D8FAB0F9E5F68E.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S Cameroon E to SW Central African Republic and Republic of the Congo, S to Equatorial Guinea and Gabon; bounded to the E by the Congo and Ubangirivers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D2FF6903D8FAB0F9E5F68E.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 101 - 2 135 cm, tail 13 - 16. 5 cm, shoulder height 50 - 576 cm; weight 17.2 - 26. 9 kg. Females are generally larger than males. General color is reddish-brown but can range from tawny to a rich russet or even dark brown. Central African populations tend to be darker than western forms. A thin black dorsal line begins between the shoulders and runs along the spine to the rump, typically expanding onto the haunches and hindlegs so that the entire rump (including the tail) is dark. The legs, shoulders, neck, and face are dark in some individuals. The belly is paler than the rest of the body. The head lacks distinct markings, except for two white spots (0.8 - 1 cm in diameter) just above and behind each eye. The forehead is reddish-brown, and a rich russet-colored tuft of hair is present on the top of the head. The ears are whitish inside, with a black and white band at the edges. Horns, present in both sexes, are short, pointed, and in line with the face. They are 6.2 - 9. 1 cm long in males, 4.5 - 8 cm long in females. The skull is very heavily reinforced at the forehead, with the frontal bone in males up to 1 - 8 cm thick. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D2FF6903D8FAB0F9E5F68E.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Moist lowland equatorial forests. Peters’s Duiker avoids outlying riverine strips and gallery forests. Dense undergrowth is needed for shelter; individuals flee to dense thickets if disturbed. This species therefore does well in forests regenerating after logging. Density estimates from line transects in the Central African Republic were 0 - 9 ind / km? and 0 - 9 — 4 - 4 ind / km? * from net encounters. Densities in other areas may be as low as 0 - 6 ind / km? to as high as 15 - 5 ind / km? *.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D2FF6903D8FAB0F9E5F68E.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. One of the most completely frugivorous duikers. Fruit comprises, on average, 79 - 89 - 6 % of the diet by dry weight based on examination of stomach contents. Other dietary components include leaves, petioles, and stems (7 - 9 - 16: 2 %). Flowers, fungi, and animal matter (principally insects) are found much less frequently (in fewer than 50 % of animals sampled), and comprise less than 1 % of the diet. Fruit consumption is lowest and leaf ingestion highest from March to May (the short rainy season). Peters’s Duikeris specialized in feeding on small fruits: 40 - 2 % of fruits consumed are 1 - 2 cm in diameter, and 77 - 2 % are 0.5 - 3 cm. Critical size for swallowing fruits whole is 2 - 3 cm. Fruits from 55 plant species have been identified in the diet; favored species include Xylopia hypolampra, Cylindropsis parvifolia, Canarium schweinfurtha, Klainedoxa gabonensis, Coelocaryon preussii, Pycnanthus angolensis, and Staudtia stipitata. Unweaned animals eat much less fruit and significantly more leaves than adults. A Peters’s Duiker in the Central African Republic was observed actively (and successfully) hunting young Hartlaub’s ducks (Pteronetta hartlaubur).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D2FF6903D8FAB0F9E5F68E.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Breeds continually throughout the year, but birth peaks have been noted in May-June and December. These peaks correspond with the early months of the two dry seasons, when the quantity and quality (protein content) offruits are highest. The gestation period is estimated at 240 days, based on that for the similarly sized Eastern Bay Duiker (C. castaneus). Infants weigh approximately 3 kg at birth, and are darker in color than adults but with paler forequarters. The dorsal stripe is already apparent in neonates.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D2FF6903D8FAB0F9E5F68E.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Strictly diurnal, risingjust before sunrise (5: 15 - 6: 00 h) and bedding down just after sunset (18: 30 - 19: 00 h). Peters’s Duiker often rests in dense thickets during the middle of the day (such rests last for an average of 51 minutes). Both thickets and more open areas may be used at night. Rumination generally occurs at night, based on piles of regurgitated fruit stones around resting areas. Neither daytime nor night-time resting areas appear to be reused.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D2FF6903D8FAB0F9E5F68E.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is an active social system and polygynous social structure. Daily movements of 2 — 4 km are typical. Adult females inhabit home ranges approximately 0 - 4 km? * the home range of one adult male was 0 - 36 km? *. Males are believed to be territorial.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D2FF6903D8FAB0F9E5F68E.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The total population of this speciesis estimated at 382,000; it is widespread and locally common. Peters’s Duiker is known for dense populations that regenerate rapidly. Primary threats are hunting and habitat loss due to human settlement. Peters’s Duikeris especially affected by snare hunting. In the Central African Republic, this species accounted for 29 % of all animals captured in snares and 56 % of captures by weight; hunters calculate their total returns in Peters’s Duiker units. The rate of snare hunting does not appear to be sustainable for this species, even under the most optimistic of circumstances. Unless mediatory actions are taken, Peters’s Duiker could decline drastically.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C0370F751F685FC74.taxon	materials_examined	Toro, Uganda.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C0370F751F685FC74.taxon	discussion	Until recently, C. johnston: was considered to be a subspecies of C. weynsi. Johnston's Duiker may perhaps hybridize with C. harvey: in Kenya. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C0370F751F685FC74.taxon	distribution	Distribution. E DR Congo, S Sudan, Uganda, and W Kenya.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C0370F751F685FC74.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Very few specific measurements available, but head-body 89 - 7 cm (a single specimen from Mount Elgon), tail c ¢. 10 cm; weight unknown. Skull measurements ofJohnston's Duiker are much smaller than Weyns’s Duiker (C. weynsi), there is no overlap between the two species; body weight is likely less than that of Weyns’s Duiker. Coatis thick and both woollier and darker in color than that of Weyns’s Duiker. Overall color ofJohnston's Duiker is deep reddish-brown, becoming darker and less reddish on the shoulders and neck. The limbs are brown and darken to almost black at the hooves. The underparts are brown. The tail is rufous to black above with a white underside; the terminal tuft is a mix of white and brown hairs. The forehead is covered with a mix of rufous and black hairs, leading to a deep chestnut or maroon-colored coronal tuft. The muzzle is dark; the lips and chin are contrastingly white. Ears are brown on their external surface with a white border along the edges; the insides are white. Short, straight horns are found in both sexes. Horn length is 8: 8 - 10. 7 cm in males, 3.5 - 3. 7 cm in females. Dental formula is 10 / 3 %, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3. M 3 / 5 (2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C0370F751F685FC74.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Forests, bush thickets, and “ grassyjungles ” up to 3000 m.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C0370F751F685FC74.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Likely frugivorous, but no detailed observations have been made. One individual was observed consuming large quantities of Spathodea sp. flowers in Uganda. This species is known to browse on Podocarpus milanjianus seedlings in plantations.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C0370F751F685FC74.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is little specific information available forthis species. Infants are darker and browner in color than adults; they have a speckled or grizzled appearance due to strong light and dark bands on the hairs.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C0370F751F685FC74.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but presumably diurnal like Weyns’s Duiker and Peters’s Duiker (C. callipygus).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C0370F751F685FC74.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C0370F751F685FC74.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under C. weynst). The speciesis believed to be common in Uganda, whereit is one of the dominant herbivores in forest patches. Its status elsewhere is unknown.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C0676FBBBF8B8F50E.taxon	materials_examined	Kuwingingi, Rugege Forest, near Astrida, Rwanda.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C0676FBBBF8B8F50E.taxon	discussion	Although treated as a full species here, it was formerly considered a subspecies of C. weynsi. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C0676FBBBF8B8F50E.taxon	distribution	Distribution. W Rwanda and W Burundi, and then S to W Tanzania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C0676FBBBF8B8F50E.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Very few specific measurements available, but head — body 93 cm and tail 10 - 5 cm (a single specimen); weight unknown. Based on skull size, Lestrade’s Duikeris intermediate in size between the closely related Johnstons Duiker (C. johnstoni) and Weyns’s Duiker (C. weynsi). Coloration of Lestrade’s Duikeris very dark, generally a dark gray-brown with varying reddish tones. Each hair has bands of color from tip to base (black, ocher, black, pale); the extent of each band determines the overall appearance of individuals. The belly is pale gray, with yellowish tints in the inguinal and axillary regions. The legs are darker than the body, becoming almost black at the hooves. The prominent black dorsal stripe lacks sharp borders; it begins diffusely on the neck and becomes more intense towards the rump where it widens, becoming a wash of dark on the hindquarters. The tail is completely dark except for the black and white terminal tuft. The hair on the neck is very short and the direction of hair growth is reversed along the dorsal midline. The forehead is very dark brown, and the well-developed frontal crest is rufous-chestnut in color. Both sexes bear horns; those of females are only one-half the length of those of males. Typical horn lengths are 9.9 - 10. 7 cm for males and 5 - 6 cm for females. The horn bases are swollen. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C0676FBBBF8B8F50E.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Montane forests.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C0676FBBBF8B8F50E.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but presumably frugivorous.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C0676FBBBF8B8F50E.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no information available for this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C0676FBBBF8B8F50E.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C0676FBBBF8B8F50E.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C0676FBBBF8B8F50E.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under C. weynst). Populations of Lestrade’s Duiker have been assessed as rare. It is threatened by uncontrolled hunting and habitat destruction.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C037FFE83FEEDF70C.taxon	materials_examined	near Stanley Falls, Zaire.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C037FFE83FEEDF70C.taxon	discussion	Sometimes considered to be a subspecies of C. callipygus. C. lestradei and C. johnston: were formerly classified as subspecies of C. weynsi. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C037FFE83FEEDF70C.taxon	distribution	Distribution. DR Congo and S Central African Republic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C037FFE83FEEDF70C.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 94 - 100. 3 cm, tail 12.7 - 20. 3 cm (both measurements based on three specimens from the Ituri Forest, DR Congo); weight 14 - 17. 5 kg. The coat of Weyns’s Duiker is short and smooth; a narrow strip of hair on the dorsal midline of the neck grows toward the head. The overall color is dull chestnut-brown or washed-out ocher. The belly is a paler version of the body color, and the groin is white. There is no distinct dorsal or ventral stripe, but there is a dark zone in the middle of the back. The tail has a black line down the center ofits upper surface. The legs are dark gray for most of their length (merging with the body color as high as the shoulder orstifle in some specimens), with a white streak on the inside of the forelimbs. The muzzle is chocolate brown or black, and the midline of the face is dark. The cheeks are pale brown, fading to white at the jaw line. The forehead has a mixture of black and red hairs, and the coronal tuft is red to deep maroon. The ears are short and rounded and have whitish margins. Horns are present in both sexes; those of females are significantly shorter. The bases of the horns are swollen. Horn length is 8: 7 - 11. 1 cm for males, 3.3 - 5. 5 cm for females. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C037FFE83FEEDF70C.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Mixed primary and secondary forest. Weyns’s Duiker is found principally in large continuous blocks of closed forest, and does not appear to use gallery forests or savanna / forest mosaics. Densities in the Ituri Forest, DR Congo, average 11 - 2 ind / km ® (range 8 - 3 - 15 - 6 ind / km?), and are highest in unhunted areas. Weyns’s Duiker is present only at very low densities in monodominant Gilbertiodendron dewevrei forest in Ituri Forest.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C037FFE83FEEDF70C.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Fruit is the principal component of the diet; foliage, flowers, fungi, and carrion are also consumed but have minor dietary importance.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C037FFE83FEEDF70C.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is little specific information available for this species. Infant coloration is browner than in adults, with a speckled appearance. A captive male lived for 15 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C037FFE83FEEDF70C.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Diurnal. No other specific information is available for this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C037FFE83FEEDF70C.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. An unusually social forest duiker, Weyns’s Duiker is sometimes observed in groups of three to five animals.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6C037FFE83FEEDF70C.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The total population (including Johnston's Duiker, C. johnstoni and Lestrades’s Duiker, C. lestradei) is estimated to be 188,000 individuals. Weyns’s Duiker is common throughout most of its distribution, but is generally declining as a result of overhunting.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6D064BF556FDE9F4FF.taxon	materials_examined	Zanzibar.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6D064BF556FDE9F4FF.taxon	discussion	A taxonomically distinct duiker with poorly resolved affinities. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6D064BF556FDE9F4FF.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Zanzibar I, Tanzania, and the Arabuko Sokoke Forest in SE Kenya; a second mainland population has very recently been confirmed in the Boni and Dodori National Rerserves in NE Kenya.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6D064BF556FDE9F4FF.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 63 - 78 cm, tail 6 - 13. 8 cm, shoulder height 37 - 5 — - 44 cm; weight 9 kg (range: 6.8 - 12. 4 kg). The pelage of Aders’s Duikeris soft, with a consistent texture across the neck and body. Overall color is tawny red, growing darker and more richly colored on the rump and becoming somewhat grayer on the neck. Specimens from southern Zanzibar (Jozani forest) are reportedly paler. The darker dorsum gradually pales on the flanks; the belly and inner surfaces of the upper limbs are white, and the underside of the neck is pale gray. There is no dorsal stripe. Leg coloration is reddish, darkening to blackish-brown at the hooves. All limbs, especially the front legs, are marked with distinctive irregular white spots on their lower halves. The rump and upper hindlegs are characteristically marked with a horizontal band of white hair (approximately 15 cm wide) that merges with the paler underparts at the stifle. The tail is slender and mostly tawny in color, with a terminal tuft of whitish hair. The face is grayish-fawn with a rufous forehead. Preorbital glands are present, but are quite small (the slits are never more than 1 - 8 cm long). A tuft of bright red hairs is present at the top of the forehead, forming a flat-topped crest; its hairs are approximately 4 cm long. Spike-like horns are present in both sexes, but they are much shorter and often hidden within the coronal tuft in females. Horn length averages 4 - 6 cm in males (range: 3.5 - 5. 3 cm) and 2 - 8 cm in females (range: 1.4 - 3. 5 cm). Dental formula is 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6D064BF556FDE9F4FF.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Undisturbed coastal thickets and forests. In Zanzibar, Aders’s Duiker is most common in tall thicket forest on coral rag substrates, a habitat with a relatively high canopy (at least 3 m) and an open understory. Population densities are highest in undisturbed older growth areas (averaging 11 - 4 ind / km?), but the speciesis also occasionally encountered at secondary thicket. The species is restricted to Cynometra manilkera forest in Arabuko Sokoke Forest, where it occurs in densities of approximately 2 - 8 ind / km? ®.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6D064BF556FDE9F4FF.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Aders’s Duikers feed primarily on fallen fruits, dicotyledoneus leaves (both fresh and fallen), and flowers, seeds, buds, and sprouts. Groups of Sykes’ Monkeys (Cercopithecus albogularis) or Zanzibar Red Colobus (Piliocolobus kirkii) are often followed: the items dropped, discarded, and dislodged by the primates are a principal food source. Most specific dietary information is anecdotal. Stomach contents of a single adult male contained the fruits of Tetracella littoralis, Diospyros consolatae, and Ficus sur. Other species reported to be consumed include Mystroxylon aethipicum, Cassine aethiopica, Canthium sp., Polyspheria sp., and Fuclea schimperi. Aders’s Duikers can apparently glean sufficient water from their diet to manage without drinking from pools (surface water is absent in the majority of coral rag forests).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6D064BF556FDE9F4FF.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is little specific information available for this species. Aders’s Duiker is reported to breed throughout the year; pregnant females have been captured in June-November, and a lactating female was observed in December.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6D064BF556FDE9F4FF.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Diurnal or crepuscular feeding occurs from dawn until around 11: 00 h, followed by a period of rest and rumination. At about 15: 00 h, Aders’s Duikers generally become active and continue foraging until nightfall.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6D064BF556FDE9F4FF.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There islittle specific information available for this species. Usually solitary, but sometimes observed in groups of two or three individuals. Regular pathways are commonly used. Aders’s Duikeris reported to defend territories. Although the preorbital glands are small, their secretions are used to mark prominent twigs; dung heaps may also help delineate territories. This species is very shy, alert, and has excellent senses of hearing and smell.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D7FF6D064BF556FDE9F4FF.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. There are no remaining natural predators on Zanzibar; pythons (Python sebae) are uncommon and generally small, and Leopards (Panthera pardus) are extremely rare and possibly extirpated. Humans have a major impact on the continued survival of Aders’s Duiker. Overhunting has led to long-term declines in Zanzibar. At Mtende, Aders’s Duikers were once estimated to comprise 70 % of hunters’ kills, although trapping success has decreased dramatically in recent decades. Habitat destruction and fragmentation threaten remaining populations, primarily as the result of collection of firewood (which is a principal source of income for many families). Dogs are known to have destroyed an introduced population of Aders’s Duiker on Funzi Island, where these antelopes had previously thrived. The last formal estimates of population size (. 1999) concluded that perhaps 600 Aders’s Duikers remain on Zanzibar and fewer than 300 - 420 live in Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, Kenya. Since these estimates, a third population has been discovered in north-eastern Kenya (Boni and Dodori National Reserves). Aders’s Duikers are commonly recorded in camera-traps in this area, and this population may prove to be a stronghold for the species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D6FF6D03CFF445F728F6D6.taxon	materials_examined	Gabon.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D6FF6D03CFF445F728F6D6.taxon	discussion	This species formerly included C. arrhenii as a subspecies. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D6FF6D03CFF445F728F6D6.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Cameroon S of Sanaga River, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, SW Central African Republic, and Republic of the Congo; restricted to the E by the Congo and Ubangi rivers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D6FF6D03CFF445F728F6D6.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 92 - 100 cm, tail 12 - 15 cm, shoulder height c ¢. 42 - 51 cm; weight 14 - 17. 5 kg. Females tend to be slightly heavier than males (c. 8 % difference). The pelage of the Western White-bellied Duikeris sleek, consistently short over the entire body, and generally pale-colored. Overall coloration is golden brown with reddish tones; the color is most intense along the back and toward the rump. The shoulders are grayish, and all four legs are brownish-gray, darkening toward the hooves. Black patches are present on the hocks. The undersides (including the throat, chest, belly, hind surfaces of buttocks, and insides of legs) are white. This pale coloration extends up the sides, where it gradually merges with the body color. A black dorsal stripe begins as a narrow streak at the nape of the neck or shoulders, widening in the middle of the back and then narrowing to a point at the base of the tail: it is characteristically widest in the middle of the back. The dorsal stripe is narrower than in the Uele White-bellied Duiker (C. arrhenii): its average maximum width is 3: 6 — 4 - 7 cm, occasionally up to 6 - 9 cm. Banded hairs border the dorsal stripe, producing an irregular or scalloped edge in some individuals. The tail is reddish on the upper surface and naked underneath; there is a very large and prominent “ powder puff ” terminal tuft of white-tipped black hairs. The cheeks are the same pale reddish-brown as the body; the forehead, bridge of nose, and muzzle are blackish-brown. The well-developed crest at the top of the head is bright rufous, sometimes mixed with black hairs. The chin is white. Very short, heavily ringed horns are found in both sexes; length averages 4 - 68 cm in males (sample of 14 skulls) and 2 - 35 cm in females (sample of 13 skulls). Maximum recorded horn length (from Sette Cama, Gabon) is 12 - 7 cm. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D6FF6D03CFF445F728F6D6.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Undisturbed primary forest. Based on plant species in the diet, mature forest is preferred, but secondary or edge forests and waterside forests are also used for foraging. Some reports indicate this species uses secondary forest edges adjacent to savannas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D6FF6D03CFF445F728F6D6.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Frugivorous. From nine samples in Gabon, stomach contents contained, on average, 72: 9 % fruit and seeds, 24 - 7 % leaves, petioles, and stems, and 2: 24 % flowers. Trace amounts (less than 1 %) of fungi and animal matter were also identified. Important plants in the diet include Artabotrys rhopalocarpus, Cylindropsis parvifolia, Plagiostyles africana, Irvingia grandifolia, Ongokea gore, and Nauclea diderrichu.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D6FF6D03CFF445F728F6D6.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is very little specific information available on the reproductive habits of the Western White-bellied Duiker. One well-developed fetus weighed 1 - 5 kg. Pelage of infants is pale gray; the dorsal stripe is less prominent than in mature animals. Adult coloration is achieved prior to weaning.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D6FF6D03CFF445F728F6D6.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Diurnal, butlittle other specific information available for this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D6FF6D03CFF445F728F6D6.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is very little specific information available for this species. The Western White-bellied Duiker occupies large home ranges and is presumably similar to the Uele White-bellied Duiker in this regard. When disturbed, these duikers will freeze in position and attempt to locate the source of noise or movement, and then seek safety by bounding away in a zig-zag pattern. Both sexes will approach a nasal bleating call, a behavior that hunters exploit by “ calling ” duikers towards them.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D6FF6D03CFF445F728F6D6.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Western White-bellied Duikeris one of the rarest duiker species, especially in western parts of its range. The readiness with which it approaches hunters that “ call ” has resulted in its being one of the first duikers eliminated from areas with heavy hunting. Numbers are generally stable in remote forests with minimal human disturbance.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D6FF6E06C6F619FE77F828.taxon	materials_examined	Beni, Semliki Valley, Zaire.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D6FF6E06C6F619FE77F828.taxon	discussion	Although initially described as a subspecies of C. castaneus, C. arrhenu 1 s most closely related to C. leucogaster, of which it was formerly considered a subspecies. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D6FF6E06C6F619FE77F828.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S Central African Republic and DR Congo NE of the Congo River.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D6FF6E06C6F619FE77F828.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 105 cm, tail 10 - 5 cm (from a single male from Ituri Forest, DR Congo), shoulder height c. 42 - 51 cm; weight 14.7 - 21 kg. Females weigh approximately 11 % more than males (averaging 18 - 9 kg vs. 16 - 8 kg, respectively). The Uele White-bellied Duikeris slightly larger than the Western White-bellied Duiker (C. leucogaster). Overall color is sandy brown, tending to be both paler and browner than its western sister species. The belly is white, blending gradually with the color of the flanks; the throat and rear surfaces of the rump are also whitish in color. The shoulders and front limbs are grayish, and the hocks of the hindlimbs are marked with black. As in the Western White-bellied Duiker, a black dorsal stripe is present from the shoulders (or occasionally from the back of the head) to the base of the tail; it is narrow at the ends and widest in the middle of the back. The dorsal stripe is broader than that of the Western White-bellied Duiker; the minimum width at its widest point is 6 - 7 cm and the average width is 10 - 9 cm. The edges tend to be diffuse, sometimes appearing scalloped. The dorsal stripe may continue as a thin line to the tip of the otherwise sandy-colored tail. There is a pronounced tuft of black and white hairs at the tail tip. The face is generally reddish, with a dark blaze along the bridge of the nose that expands over the forehead. The coronal tuft is reddish. Horns are present in both sexes; they are short and pointed, with heavily ridged bases. In males, they measure 2.1 - 6. 9 cm in length; those of females are shorter, 1 -: 8.2 - 9 cm. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D6FF6E06C6F619FE77F828.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. L. owland primary forest with an open understory. The Uele White-bellied Duiker tends to avoid dense thickets. Population densities are c. 6 ind / km ® in open forests dominated by Gilbertiodendron dewevrei (higher than other sympatric duiker species). In mature mixed forest, density decreases to 4 - 5 ind / km?, likely due to competition with other duikers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D6FF6E06C6F619FE77F828.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Highly frugivorous, with fruits and seeds comprising 80 - 100 % of examined stomach contents throughout most of the year. Seasonally dominant dietary items include seeds of Landolphia spp., Donella pruniformis, and the unripe (still soft) fruits of Klainedoxa gabonensis and Irvingia grandifolia. In captive feeding trials in the Ituri Forest, DR Congo, the fruits of Ficus exasperata, Maesopis schweinfurthu, Blighia welwitschii, Cleistanthus michelsonii, Klainedoxa gabonensis, and the opening flower buds of Gulbertiodendron dewevret were preferred. Fruits from Aidia micrantha and Musanga cecropioides were also consumed, but those from Dacryodes yangambiensis were never eaten. Fallen flowers and fungi are principal dietary components when fruit availability is low. The Uele White-bellied Duiker ranges widely searching for fruiting trees. This species will actively seek out groups of primates to feed on dropped material; individuals have also been documented selectively foraging through primate feces for edible seeds.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D6FF6E06C6F619FE77F828.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Breeding likely occurs throughout the year, although a peak in births has been noted in August-November (the rainy season). Litter size is one. Two full-term fetuses weighed 1 - 3 kg and 1 - 5 kg.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D6FF6E06C6F619FE77F828.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Diurnal, butlittle other specific information available forthis species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D6FF6E06C6F619FE77F828.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Group size of the Uele White-bellied Duiker is one or two individuals: pairs are generally a juvenile traveling with its mother. Both sexes disperse from the home range of their mother upon reaching sexual maturity. Home ranges of males and females overlap, and average 0 - 63 km? in mixed forest and 0 - 58 km? ® in Gilbertiodendron forests.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D6FF6E06C6F619FE77F828.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under C. leucogaster). The large home ranges of Uele White-bellied Duikers may increase the risk associated with snareand net-hunting when compared to more sedentary species; it is one ofthe first duiker species to be locally eliminated when high-intensity hunting occurs.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D5FF6E037FF86DF845F68C.taxon	materials_examined	Gambia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D5FF6E037FF86DF845F68C.taxon	discussion	Two subspecies have been described but are considered invalid here. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D5FF6E037FF86DF845F68C.taxon	distribution	Distribution. From Senegal to SW Sudan and NW Uganda.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D5FF6E037FF86DF845F68C.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 60 - 70 cm, tail 7 - 10 cm, shoulder height 30 - 38 cm; weight 9 - 12 kg. The Red-flanked Duiker is a small duiker with a hunched back and relatively short legs. Unusual for duikers, males tend to be larger than females. Overall color is orange-rufous; the underparts are slightly less red but not significantly paler. A broad bluish-gray band runs along the mid-dorsal line from the neck to the rump and may extend onto the tail in some individuals. The lateral borders of the dorsal stripe show individual variation from sharp to indistinct; the stripe tends to be darker in eastern parts of the species’ range. All four legs are dark blue-gray in color below the line of the belly. The tail is narrow and ends with a black tuft. There is a dark blaze down the middle of the face. The muzzle, including the chin, is black, and the upper lip and underside of the jaw are white. Large preorbital glands are present in front of the eyes. The ears are wide and relatively large; the backs are dark brown to black, and the interior is similarly dark but with several white patches around the borders. The coronal tuft is black, and varies markedly in length between individuals. Horns are always present in males but are regularly lacking in females. The horns are simple smooth spikes that point backward in the same plane as the forehead; in individuals with short horns, they may be hidden within the coronal tuft. Horn lengths are typically 6.9 - 5 cm for males and 3 - 4 cm for females (when present). Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D5FF6E037FF86DF845F68C.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Savanna woodlands in West and Central Africa. The Red-flanked Duiker typically remains in the vicinity of dense vegetative growth, and may thus inhabit savannas with relic patches of forest or riverine / riparian woodlands far from true forests. It is often found near water. Population densities in suitable habitat may be 3 — 4 ind / km?; where the species is less common, densities may be 0 - 5 - 2 ind / km? or even as low as 0 - 1 ind / km?. This species does not occur in high forest.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D5FF6E037FF86DF845F68C.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Primarily a browser; leaves compose 60 % of the diet in Nigeria. Twigs, flowers, and fruits are also consumed. Preferred plant food species in Nigeria include Piliostigma thonningii (leaf tips), Combretum sp. (twigs and leaves), Mucuna flagellipes (twigs and leaves, especially in March), and Spondias mombin (fruit). In Ghana, Ficus capensis, Nauclea latifolia, and Phoenix reclinata are most commonly consumed. A study of stomach contents in Ivory Coast revealed frequent foraging on Anthocleista djalonensis, Ficus capensis, Nauclea latifolia, and Blighia sapida. Cultivated crops may be consumed if available. Roots, tree bark, and grasses have not been observed in the diet. Minerallicks are seldom visited. The general feeding pattern is to move slowly from plant to plant while nibbling small leaves, then to move about one meter and resume browsing. Tall browse may be reaches by standing upright on the hindlegs. In Ghana, Red-flanked Duikers have been frequently observed foraging beneath trees in which Tantalus Monkeys (Chlorocebus tantalus) or Olive Baboons (Papio anubis) are feeding.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D5FF6E037FF86DF845F68C.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Reproduction in the Red-flanked Duiker is thought to be seasonal; infants have been reported in the dry season or early wet season. Estrus lasts for less than 1 - 5 days. During courtship, a male chases after an estrous female, smelling and licking her rump and anogentital region. When approaching full estrus, the female will stop and urinate; the male will test the urinary hormones using the flehmen response. Copulation attempts (each lasting a couple of seconds) may occur frequently: four successful intromissions were observed in a 40 minute span. Gestation is 223 - 245 days, with two of three reported values being 240 - 245 days. Litter size is one. After birth, the infant lies concealed in dense vegetation, where it remainsstill even if approached closely. Weight at birth averages 1 - 01 kg (range 0 - 84 — 1 - 17 kg, sample size 17). Weaning occurs at approximately three months of age. Females may give birth for the first time at 26 months, and thus reach sexual maturity by 18 months. Longevity, as measured in captive individuals, may exceed 15 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D5FF6E037FF86DF845F68C.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Primarily diurnal, with increased levels of activity during early morning and late afternoon. While moving, the head is usually stretched out in front of the body and is rarely held above the line of the back; the tail is constantly swished from side to side. Red-flanked Duikers retire to the shade of a tree or termite mound at midday to rest and ruminate, although individuals have also been observed foraging in the open at this time. Favored resting areas are regularly used. This species is rarely active at night.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D5FF6E037FF86DF845F68C.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Principally solitary, although seen in pairs in approximately 15 % of observations. Associated individuals are typically an adult male and female or a female and her offspring. Groups of three are rarely seen, but are consistently an adult male and female and one offspring. Individuals tend to stay within small home ranges; these may be maintained for many months provided there is no disturbance. Home ranges of the Red-flanked Duiker are marked with secretions from the preorbital gland, but it is not clear whetherterritoriality is involved. Feces are deposited over an area of 15 - 50 m * in loose middens, generally in the open away from dense vegetation. In general, this species is shy and wary, bounding into the nearest cover when disturbed. The alarm call is a shrill bark.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D5FF6E037FF86DF845F68C.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Redflanked Duiker is common in many parts of its range. Its preferred habitat ofwoodland and open bush minimizes the effect of forest-clearing for agriculture on its potential distribution. Nevertheless, this speciesis threatened outside of protected areas due to encroachment of agricultural lands and increased hunting pressure. The total population is estimated at 170,000 individuals; approximately 50 % live in protected areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D5FF6F0677F6D1FDEBF5EF.taxon	materials_examined	Port Natal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D5FF6F0677F6D1FDEBF5EF.taxon	discussion	Sometimes includes C. harveyi as a subspecies, but this is considered a distinct species here. Other named subspecies are considered not well founded. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D5FF6F0677F6D1FDEBF5EF.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S Tanzania, Mozambique, SE Malawi, Swaziland, and E South Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D5FF6F0677F6D1FDEBF5EF.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 75 - 87 cm, tail 9 - 14 cm, shoulder height 38 - 47 cm; weight 9.2 - 13. 6 kg. The Natal Red Duiker is a relatively small, monochromatic duiker. It has a bright red, rufous, or chestnut coat; the back and rump tend to be richer in color than the sides. The underparts are only slightly paler than the rest of the body; they are occasionally yellowish-gray, particularly in the axillary and inguinal regions. There is no dorsal stripe. The legs are the same color as the body or slightly grayer. The tail is thin, darkening from red at the base to black at the tip; the underside is white. There is a tuft of dark hair at the tail tip. The hair on the neck is the same length as that of the body, and may have a wash of gray color. The face is generally red. The muzzle is dark gray or blackish, and the midline of the face is darker and often grayer than the cheeks. The forehead is chestnut-colored; a prominent tuft of hair on the forehead is also chestnut or deep red, and may have interspersed black hairs. The underside of the jaw is white. Preorbital glands form a long slit in front of each eye; this region tends to be swollen in mature males. The ears are short, rounded, and edged with black. Both sexes bear horns; they are significantly longer in males and may be completely hidden in the coronal tuft in females. Distinct rings are present at the bases of the horns. The tips are always smooth. Hornsare typically 4.5 - 8 cm long in males and 2.4 - 4 cm in females. The longest recorded horns in this species were 10 - 1 cm. Dental formula is 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 232.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D5FF6F0677F6D1FDEBF5EF.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Tropical and riverine forests and thickets. Population densities of Natal Red Duiker are higher in evergreen forests than in deciduous forests. Average densities are 10 - 47 ind / km?, but in some areas density has been estimated to be as high as 258 ind / km?.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D5FF6F0677F6D1FDEBF5EF.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Natal Red Duikers feed primarily on leaves and fruit. Based on stomach-content analyses, leaves comprise an average of 65: 7 % of the diet; the remainder is principally fruits and seeds. This species is a generalist feeder: 80 plant species have been identified in the annual diet in southern Mozambique. During the dry season (August-September), Combretum sp., Salacia kraussii, and Sapium ellipticum are utilized heavily. Strychnos innocua is preferred during the early wet season (November), and Sesuvium portulacastrum is highly preferred during the late wet season (March). Other commonly consumed plant species (determined by stomach content analyses) include Afzelia quanzensis, Antidesma venosum, Bridelia micrantha, Capparis tomentosa, Carissa macrocarpa, Commelina africana, Commiphora neglecta, Dichrostachys cinerea, Ekebergia capensis, Euphorbia tirucalli, Ficus natalensis, Grewia sp., Indigofera podophylla, Justicia sp., and Ziziphus mucronata. Natal Red Duikers have also been observed feeding on Asparagus falcatus, Gardenia cornuta, and Azima tetracantha. In feeding trials in South Africa, fresh leaves were preferred over dried leaves. The forehead may be used to crack open hard-shelled fruits. Foraging is not limited to forested areas, and this speciesis often seen in adjacent grasslands feeding on broad-leaved plants. Free (drinking) water is not required over much ofits range. Foraging may occur alongside primates, including Vervet Monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) and Blue Monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis); grooming of the duikers by primates has been observed on several occasions.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D5FF6F0677F6D1FDEBF5EF.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The Natal Red Duiker is not a seasonal breeder. Gestation is approximately 210 days; litter size is one. The interbirth interval is ¢. 235 days. At birth, infants are almost black in color and weigh c. 1 kg. Infants will typically stay in a secluded spotfor at least two weeks before regularly following their mothers. Life span in captivity is up to 15 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D5FF6F0677F6D1FDEBF5EF.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Diurnal. Most active around dawn and dusk, although potentially active at any time of the day. Depending on habitat quality and food availability, Natal Red Duikers may be active for 30 - 7 - 75 - 8 % of daylight hours. This species is rarely active at night.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D5FF6F0677F6D1FDEBF5EF.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Both sexes are solitary; the only lasting association is between a mother and infant until maturity. In the absence of females, males will tolerate other males; aggregations of three males foraging together have been observed. However, the presence of a female usually incites aggression or chasing among males. Home ranges of individuals are typically 0 - 02 - 0 - 15 km?, with a defined core area that tends to be based around bed sites. These areas of denser cover are used as refuges from predators; they are also principalsites of rumination. Home range size decreases with an increase in resource availability (and thus population density). There is extensive home range overlap between individuals, even in core areas, indicating a lack of territoriality. A hierarchy is believed to exist among Natal Red Duikers living in the same location, formed and maintained through interactions and scent marking with the preorbital glands. Dung middens are used for defecation. When approached, a Natal Red Duiker will stand in place for only a few seconds before bounding away. The jumping ability of this species is remarkable; obstacles 1 - 6 m high may be cleared with ease, and there are records of individuals jumping / climbing over fences 2 - 3 m tall.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D5FF6F0677F6D1FDEBF5EF.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The species is locally common in blocks of appropriate habitat, especially in South Africa, but it is impacted by habitat loss (principally for agricultural development) and hunting for meat. The total population has been estimated at 42,000 animals; more than one-half are believed to live in Mozambique.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D4FF6F03C5F530F989F829.taxon	materials_examined	Kilimanjaro.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D4FF6F03C5F530F989F829.taxon	discussion	The species status of C. harvey: has been debated frequently; it is sometimes considered to be a subspecies of C. natalensis, but is treated as a full species here. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D4FF6F03C5F530F989F829.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S Somalia and C & E Kenya through Tanzania to N Zambia and Malawi; an isolated population from C Ethiopia has been tentatively identified as C. harvey.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D4FF6F03C5F530F989F829.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 85 - 95 cm, tail 8 - 11 cm, shoulder height 38.5 - 47 cm; weight 9.4 - 13. 6 kg. Harvey's Duiker is generally larger than the Natal Red Duiker (C. natalensis). The coat is a rich rufous-chestnut color with paler underparts; the overall coloration is brighter and deeper than that of the Natal Red Duiker. There is no dorsalstripe, although the back may be slightly darker than the rest of the body. The legs tend to be dark gray or brownish-black, but there is considerable variation in the degree of darkening, even among individuals in the same region. A dark patch at the back of the head may extend down the neck as far as the shoulders in some individuals (especially those from southern parts of the species’ range). The face is generally reddish, with a distinctly dark brown or blackish blaze from the nose to the top of the head. The forehead is usually black. The muzzle, including the lower lip and chin, is black; the rest of the underside of the jaw is white. The ears are white-lined and tipped with black. The coronal tuft of Harvey's Duiker is darker than in the Natal Red Duiker; the middle of the crest is typically black and the sides reddish. Horns are present in both sexes; they are 6 - 9 cm long in males and shorter in females (no measurements are available). The bases of the horns are ringed and are very thick; horn length may be only 2 - 5 times the basal circumference. Dental formula is 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D4FF6F03C5F530F989F829.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Forests with dense vegetation, including coastal thickets, secondary forests, riverine galleries, and montane forests. Harvey's Duikeris present from sea level to elevations above 2400 m. Densities in the Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania are 2 - 07 - 13 - 32 ind / km?. Based on camera-trapping rates, this species prefers habitats with a high diversity of small plant stems (less than 5 cm in diameter) and low visibility.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D4FF6F03C5F530F989F829.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Anecdotal evidence suggests a diet of fruits, blossoms, and leaves. One stomach examined from northern Malawi contained green moss, fruits of Diospyros whyteana, Olinia usambarensis, and Uapaca kirkiana, dry leaves of Podocarpus milan-Jianus, and Kiggelaria africana, and buds of Protea sp. Harvey’s Duikers have been observed standing on their hindlegs to reach hanging lichens.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D4FF6F03C5F530F989F829.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Harvey's Duiker breeds year-round in northern Malawi. Reproductive habits are presumably similar to the Natal Red Duiker.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D4FF6F03C5F530F989F829.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Diurnal. Of 42 camera-trapping observations of Harvey's Duiker in the Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania, 71 % were during daylight (07: 00 - 18: 00 h); another 21 % were during the periods of dawn and dusk (06: 00 - 07: 00 h and 18: 00 - 19: 00 h). In northern Malawi, two distinct periods of activity (early morning and late afternoon) have been observed; at these times, individuals are often seen foraging in open areas adjacentto forest.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D4FF6F03C5F530F989F829.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Generally solitary. A pair of Harvey's Duikers observed foraging together in Tanzania used soft barks as contact calls.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D4FF6F03C5F530F989F829.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The total population has been estimated conservatively at 20,000 individuals. Harvey’s Duiker is common in several protected areas. Principal threats include hunting (both with dogs and snares) and habitat loss, especially in coastal forests. Montane populations are affected by deforestation and human settlement.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D4FF5006DCF872FAFCF891.taxon	materials_examined	Gabon.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D4FF5006DCF872FAFCF891.taxon	discussion	C. hypoxanthus, C. rubidus, C. foster, and C. hooki, which were formerly classified as subspecies of C. nigrifons, are here considered full species. Two subspecies recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D4FF5006DCF872FAFCF891.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. C. n. nigrifronsGray, 1871 — SENigeriaandfromSCameroontoNAngola, EtoEDRCongo. C. n. kivuensis Lonnberg, 1919 — Virunga Volcanoes in Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, and E DR Congo.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D4FF5006DCF872FAFCF891.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 85 - 107 cm, tail 10 - 16 cm, shoulder height 53.5 - 57. 8 cm; weight 13 - 16 kg. Females are slightly larger than males. Subspecies nigrifrons is generally larger than kivuensis. Overall color is a deep, glossy chestnut; each hair has a brown base and reddish tip. The pelage is thick, especially in kivuensis. Underparts are scarcely paler than the back in some individuals, but are significantly paler in some populations (e. g. in Republic of the Congo). There is no dark dorsal stripe as seen in many duikers, but a large dark spot or line is present on the chest. The legs are noticeably long; their coloration is dark, becoming almost black at the hooves. In subspecies nigrifrons, the blackish coloration begins at the carpal and tarsal joints; in kivuensis, the entire leg is grayish-black. The shoulders may be darker in some animals. Hooves are elongated and narrow. The tail is long, blackish in color, and has a tuft of dark hair with scattered white hairs at the tip. The face is colored similarly to the body, with a distinctive black blaze that runs continuously from nose to crest, expanding to encompass the entire forehead. The forehead is very black in kivuensis, but is occasionally mixed with chestnut in nigrifrons. A rufousstripe borders each side of the blaze as it passes the eyes. The chin varies from pale reddish or yellow to white, being paler in animals from higher elevations. The well-developed coronal crest is black or reddish. The ears are black, with a white spot on the inside. The horns are 6.5 - 9. 5 cm long in males (record length is 11 - 5 cm) and 1: 3.5 - 2 cm in females. Dental formula is 1 0 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 5 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D4FF5006DCF872FAFCF891.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. [Lowland swampy forests, marshy areas, or forests nearrivers or streams. Long legs and elongated hooves likely adaptations to moving through wet terrain. This species’ range expands during wet seasons when seasonally inundated forests become flooded. Refuge is sought in marshy areas, which may reduce depredation by Leopards (Panthera pardus). Densities of the Black-fronted Duikerin the Ituri Forest, DR Congo, are approximately 1 - 6 ind / km?.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D4FF5006DCF872FAFCF891.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Primarily frugivorous, but consumes more vegetation (leaves and stems) than other sympatric duikers. Stomach content analyses in Gabon revealed a dietary composition of 71 - 6 % fruit, 27 - 8 % leaves and stems, 0 - 62 % fungi, and trace amounts of flowers and animal matter. Most fruits consumed are 1 - 3 cm in diameter; these are typically eaten whole. Preferred fruit species include Plagiostyles africana, Klainedoxa gabonensis, and Ongokea gore. Leaf stems and animal matter are eaten at greater frequency during wet seasons. In the mountains of Rwanda, preferred food species include Impatiens spp., Cerastium spp., Stellaria sennii, Geranium spp., Droguetia iners, Mentha aquatica, Viola eminii, Tylophoropsis heterophylla, Trifolium spp., and Plantago lanceolata. Lichens such as Usnea sp. and mosses are also consumed; the duikers may stand on their hindlegs to pull down hanging lichens. Black-fronted Duikers have been observed consuming ants by licking the ground crossed by ant columns. This species rarely enters agricultural areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D4FF5006DCF872FAFCF891.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is very little specific information available for this species. Maximum life span (as recorded in captivity) is over 17 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D4FF5006DCF872FAFCF891.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Diurnal, butlittle other specific information available for this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D4FF5006DCF872FAFCF891.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Black-fronted Duikers frequently use pathways in dense vegetation alongside marshy areas. They may disperse far into swamps during the day to forage, especially in the dry seasons (January-February and June-July), and return to the shelter of forests at night. When startled into flight, they make loud thumping noises (it is not known whether these are vocalizations or from the large inguinal glands). The Black-fronted Duiker has been observed swimming across rivers. This species is typically solitary, but is occasionally seen in pairs (suggested to be stable associations). Home ranges are marked with preorbital gland secretions and loud whistle-like calls; it is not known whether territoriality is involved.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399D4FF5006DCF872FAFCF891.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Blackfronted Duiker continues to thrive in remote and inaccessible areas, but is threatened by bushmeat hunting in regions of human habitation. The total number of Blackfronted Duikers (including populations of the Mount Kenya Duiker, C. hooki, the Itombwe Duiker, C. hypoxanthus, the Mount Elgon Duiker, C. foster, and the Rwenzori Duiker, C. rubidus) is estimated at 300,000 animals.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF500367F8D7FBFFF3F1.taxon	materials_examined	Mianga, Itombwe Mts., DR Congo.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF500367F8D7FBFFF3F1.taxon	discussion	Recently named as a subspecies of C. nigrifrons; itis treated here as a distinct species. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF500367F8D7FBFFF3F1.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Itombwe Mountains in DR Congo, W of Lake Tanganyika.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF500367F8D7FBFFF3F1.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. No specific measurements available, but likely similar to the Black-fronted Duiker (C. mnigrifrons): head-body ¢. 85 - 95 cm, tail c. 11 - 15 cm; weight c. 13 - 16 kg. Overall color is a pale yellowish-chestnut, distinctly paler than the Black-fronted Duiker. Hair is long and relatively soft; the hair bases are pale gray. There is no mid-dorsal stripe, but the hair bases darken in this region. The limbs are only slightly darker than the body, with faint gray-brown shading below the elbow on the forelimbs; the shading is only barely visible on the shanks of the hindlimbs. Some individuals also show faint darkening on the shoulders. The chin is white. Horns are presumably present in both males and females. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF500367F8D7FBFFF3F1.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Montane forest.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF500367F8D7FBFFF3F1.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but presumably frugivorous / folivorous like the Black-fronted Duiker.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF500367F8D7FBFFF3F1.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no information available for this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF500367F8D7FBFFF3F1.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely diurnal like the Black-fronted Duiker.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF500367F8D7FBFFF3F1.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species, but presumably solitary.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF500367F8D7FBFFF3F1.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under C. nigrifrons). No other information is available.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF500364F334F87FF71B.taxon	materials_examined	Ruwenzori district, E. Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF500364F334F87FF71B.taxon	discussion	Treated by some authors as a subspecies of C. mgrifrons (and formerly of C. natalensis). This affinity with C. nigrifrons is generally accepted, although genetic material extracted from a museum specimen tooth indicates an affinity with C. ogilbyi, C. weynsi, and C. callipygus. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF500364F334F87FF71B.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Endemic to the Rwenzori Mountains in W Uganda. Distribution is not believed to overlap with other duikers in the C. nigrifrons group as once thought; records of C. rubidus from Rwanda likely refer to the Black-fronted Duiker subspecies (C. maigrifrons kivuensis); this latter species is absent from the Rwenzoris.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF500364F334F87FF71B.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 75 cm, tail 10 cm, shoulder height 45 cm; weight 15 kg. The rich rufous fur is thick, dense, and “ slightly woolly ” over most of the body; the hair on the neck is long and coarse. The underparts are much paler than the back, with a zone of gradual transition between the colors; the axillary and inguinal regions are white. An indistinct grayish-brown dorsal stripe is present from the neck to the base of the tail, created by a zone of red-tipped but basally gray hairs. Elsewhere on the body the underfur is white. The sides of the neck are particularly bright rufous, and the hairs on the neck do not show any reversal in growth patterns. The hindlegs are almost black in color (including the hocks); the forelegs are the same reddish color as the body, but possess dark brown markings at the joints, giving them a similar dark appearance. The tail is bushy and mostly black on the dorsal surface; the underside and tip are white. The head color is not significantly different from the rufous of the body, except for a black or dark brown blaze that stretches from muzzle to crown. The chin is bright white. The horns, presumably present in both sexes, measure 8 - 9 cm in length. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF500364F334F87FF71B.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Afro-alpine and subalpine zones in the Rwenzori Mountains, recorded at elevations of 1300 - 4200 m. The montane forest habitat is characterized by Hagenia woodland and bamboo zones at lower elevations. Dense herbaceous vegetation is avoided. The Rwenzori Duiker is reported to feed in boggy, densely overgrown, or wooded areas, but is sometimes seen in open meadows or on rocky slopes. It is often seen close to the snow line. Densities have been estimated at 5 - 22 ind / km ®.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF500364F334F87FF71B.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species. Diet likely resembles that of the Black-fronted Duiker in the Rwandan mountains.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF500364F334F87FF71B.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no information available for this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF500364F334F87FF71B.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Reported as primarily diurnal, but weather conditions (especially rain) may cause activity to shift to night. Activity patterns may thus vary with seasons. Foraging forays into open meadows typically occur around dawn and dusk.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF500364F334F87FF71B.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is little specific information available for this species. Believed to be territorial, with boundaries marked with feces. Presumably solitary like other similar duikers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF500364F334F87FF71B.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List (as C. nignfrons rubidus). The Rwenzori Duiker was subjected to extreme hunting pressure from the 1960 s to the 1990 s, but now receives some protection within Rwenzori Mountains National Park. The total population is estimated to be a few thousand individuals.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF51067CF75CFD2CFE78.taxon	materials_examined	Mt Elgon, 9300 ft.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF51067CF75CFD2CFE78.taxon	discussion	Until recently considered to be an isolated subspecies of C. nigrifrons. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF51067CF75CFD2CFE78.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Mt Elgon in E Uganda and W Kenya.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF51067CF75CFD2CFE78.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body ¢. 85 - 95 cm, tail c. 11 - 15 cm; weight ¢. 13 - 16 kg. No specific measurements have been reported; those given above are for the former C. nigrifrons cluster in East Africa. Mount Elgon Duiker is somewhat smaller than the Black-fronted Duiker (C. nigrifrons). The pelage is thick and coarse. The body is brownish, and the individual hairs have pinkish-white bases. There is no dorsal stripe. The face and sides of the neck are reddish; these regions are much brighter in color than in the Black-fronted Duiker. The chin and underside of the jaw are white. A dark facial blaze runs from the nose to the very short coronal tuft, which is entirely black. Thetail is very bushy; the hooves are relatively long. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF51067CF75CFD2CFE78.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Bamboo forests and moorlands at 2400 - 3500 m; the species is most common around 3000 m.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF51067CF75CFD2CFE78.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but presumably frugivorous / folivorous based on similar species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF51067CF75CFD2CFE78.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no information available for this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF51067CF75CFD2CFE78.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but likely diurnal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF51067CF75CFD2CFE78.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EBFF51067CF75CFD2CFE78.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under C. nigrifrons). There are no recent estimates of population size. This species is protected within Mount Elgon National Park in Kenya, but is under heavy hunting pressure in the Ugandan portion of its range.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EAFF5103D8FDC2F899FA8A.taxon	materials_examined	Southwest face of Mt Kenya, 8500 10,000 ft.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EAFF5103D8FDC2F899FA8A.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered to be a subspecies of C. nigrifrons. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EAFF5103D8FDC2F899FA8A.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Mountains of C Kenya.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EAFF5103D8FDC2F899FA8A.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body ¢. 85 - 95 cm, tail c. 11 - 15 cm; weight c. 13 - 16 kg. No specific measurements of the Mount Kenya Duiker have been reported; those given above are for the former C. nigrifrons cluster in East Africa. This is a small duiker; skull measurements are only slightly larger than for the Mount Elgon Duiker (C. foster). Overall coloration is dull chestnut or reddish-gray; individual hairs are banded, with pinkish-gray bases and dark brown subterminal bands. The Mount Kenya Duikeris duller in color than the Black-fronted Duiker (C. nigrifrons) and has longer, softer, and thicker pelage. The tail has a very large terminal tuft. The hooves are long (front hooves are 2: 8 — - 4 - 4 cm in length), resembling those of the Mount Elgon Duiker and the Black-fronted Duiker. The face and sides of the neck of the Mount Kenya Duiker are grayer than the body. A dark blaze from muzzle to forehead is bordered by red stripes. The chin (and often the underside of the jaw) is reddish-white. The coronal tuft is short and completely black. Dental formulais 10 / 3, C 0 / 1, P 3 / 3, M 3 / 3 (x 2) = 32.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EAFF5103D8FDC2F899FA8A.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. High-elevation bamboo forests and moorlands; highest elevation recorded is around 3500 m. The Mount Kenya Duikeris rarely found below 2600 - 3000 m. Dense thickets, riverside forests, and marshy terrain are used as refugia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EAFF5103D8FDC2F899FA8A.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but presumably frugivorous / folivorous like similar species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EAFF5103D8FDC2F899FA8A.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no information available for this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EAFF5103D8FDC2F899FA8A.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but presumably diurnal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EAFF5103D8FDC2F899FA8A.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is very little specific information available for this species. Field observations indicate that the Mount Kenya Duiker produces a loud thumping noise when fleeing, as does the Black-fronted Duiker. It is not known whether these noises are vocalizations or from the large inguinal glands.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EAFF5103D8FDC2F899FA8A.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under C. nigrifrons). The Mount Kenya Duiker is rare due to its highly restricted range, but it can be locally common. It is protected within Mount Kenya National Park. It is known to have inhabited the Aberdare Mountains, but there are very few recent records from this locale and the species may now be locally extinct.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540360FE74FB73F5EE.taxon	materials_examined	Cape of Good Hope.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540360FE74FB73F5EE.taxon	discussion	Previously all klipspringers were considered to belong to this species. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540360FE74FB73F5EE.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S of Northern, Western, and Eastern Cape provinces, South Africa.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540360FE74FB73F5EE.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 83 cm, shoulder height 41 - 9 cm, ear 2 - 7 cm. Skull length is 13.8 - 15. 1 cm, horn length is 7: 5.9 - 1 cm. The Cape Klipspringer is the largest of the Kklipspringer species. Thereislittle sexual dimorphism, the females being much the same size as the males. It has particularly short horns. It has very large, slit-like preorbital glands, especially in males, with bare black skin surrounding them; there are no hoof glands; the male has a preputial gland. The hairs are white, with dark brown bands near the end, and the tips are yellow, so that the overall color is speckled. The midline of the underside is pale, and the chin and throat are pale yellowish. There is a large dark brown patch above each hoof. The ears are relatively short; they are whitish, with a thick black line along the rim. The forehead and occiput are reddish-brown.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540360FE74FB73F5EE.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Rocky areas: mountainous regions, rocky hills, kopjes, gorges. The Cape Klipspringer moves between quite widely spaced rocky areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540360FE74FB73F5EE.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. More time is spent feeding during the dry season than in the wet. Cape Klipspringers are overwhelmingly browsers, and are concentrate selectors, but with a very wide dietary range. In a study in the Western Cape, 41 species of shrubs and herbs were identified in the diet, and as many as 62 species in the Northern Cape. They eat flowers, fruits, young shoots, and leaves. They stand on their hindlegs to reach higher. They also eat bones and the soil from termite mounds.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540360FE74FB73F5EE.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The degree of breeding seasonality of the Cape Klipspringer varies according to local conditions. Gestation (perhaps this species, but itis unclear) is traditionally given as 210 - 225 days, but as little as 150 days has recently been considered to be more probable. Young are kept hidden for the first 2 - 3 months; weaning is at 4 - 5 months.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540360FE74FB73F5EE.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. All klipspringers run with ajerky, bounding gait, and jump from rock to rock. They stand motionless for long periods of time on top of rocks, scanning the surroundings, their four feet together. They frequently leave the rocks to feed on the surrounding lowlands. They are active in the early morning and more especially in the late afternoon.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540360FE74FB73F5EE.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Klipspringers are territorial; the territories are occupied by a male and a female (and their young), but it is the male who chases off trespassers. Territories are marked by dung piles, especially around the borders, and both sexes mark with preorbital glands. The female marks first, pushing the end of a twig into her gland, followed by the male, who overmarks the twig. Preorbital marks last for about seven days, and this is the average length of time between their visits to scent-mark locations. A population in the Karoo had territories averaging 15 ha, and one in the North West Cape averaged 49 ha. Territories appear to be occupied permanently, but the owners do wander outside the boundaries to specific feeding sites, including salt licks. The fact that females initiate most scent marking, even outside the mating season, and the males overmark them, suggests that females are defending territories, whereas males are defending their mates.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540360FE74FB73F5EE.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under O. oreotragus). Oreotragus taxa, except the Nigerian Klipspringer (O. o. porteousi), are not considered separately by IUCN.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540679FA88F678F453.taxon	materials_examined	Matopo Hills, S of Bulawayo, WS Rhodesia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540679FA88F678F453.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered a subspecies of O. oreotragus. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540679FA88F678F453.taxon	distribution	Distribution. The dry country of W Zimbabwe and N & E Botswana.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540679FA88F678F453.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Total length 82 - 92 cm (males) and 88: 3 - 100 cm (females), tail 6: 5 - 10. 3 cm (both sexes), shoulder height 49 - 52 cm (males) and 50 - 53. 5 cm (females), ear 8: - 5 - 10 cm, hindfoot 21.5 - 24 cm; weight 9 - 11 - 11. 6 kg (males) and 5 - 15. 9 kg (females). Stevenson’s Klipspringer is one of the smallest species; the sexes are apparently much the same size or the female is slightly larger. Skull length (both sexes) is 134 - 14 cm. Like the Transvaal Klipspringer (O. transvaalensis), this species has particularly long horns: length 8: 8 - 11. 5 cm. The color is much duller than the Transvaal Klipspringer, being strongly grizzled, with black on the dorsum but not on the flanks, and the head is much darker, but it is similar to the Transvaal Klipspringer in that the underparts are extensively white.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540679FA88F678F453.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. As in other species of klipspringer, rocky areas including mountainous regions, rocky hills, kopjes, and gorges are preferred habitats.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540679FA88F678F453.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Stevenson's Klipspringer eats leaves, new shoots, berries, fruits, seed pods, flowers of woody plants, forbs, and some new grass. Generally all the moisture they need is obtained from their food. Diet is much the same as the Zambian Klipspringer (O. centralis), with perhaps more fruits and berries.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540679FA88F678F453.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The male follows the female closely, with “ laufschlag, ” and blocks her movement, standing with arched neck; she may bite him, and they circle tightly before mating. Gestation is five months. Birth occurs in dense vegetation or among rocks; the infants lie quietly for 2 - 3 months, and walk unsteadily. Weaning occurs at 4 - 5 months.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540679FA88F678F453.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Stevenson's Klipspringers are very vigilant, and react to the alarm calls of other species. They give alarm whistles or flee silently, usually to a higher vantage point, where they begin continuous trumpeting alarm calls, made through the nose — the females’ calls coming just after the males’.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540679FA88F678F453.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. A population of Stevenson’s Klipspringers at Matobo Hills had a mean territory size of only 5 - 5 ha. They may leave their territories to forage. There may be more than one female in the territory. In Botswana, a long-established territory had dung piles up to 90 cm diameter and 10 cm high.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540679FA88F678F453.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under O. oreotragus). Oreotragus taxa, except the Nigerian Klipspringer (O. o. porteousi), are not considered separately by [UCN.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540363F53BF712FB40.taxon	materials_examined	Rooikrans, Rustenburg district, Transvaal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540363F53BF712FB40.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered a synonym of O. oreotragus. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540363F53BF712FB40.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Known from KwaZulu-Natal and Transvaal, South Africa, Swaziland, SE Zimbabwe, and probably occurs in neighboring districts of Botswana and Mozambique, but this has to be verified.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540363F53BF712FB40.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 80 - 87. 5 cm, ear 8: 1.8 - 4 cm, hindfoot 18: 5 - 21 cm. Overall, this species is fairly large in size. The female is somewhat larger than the male. Male skull length is 13.8 - 14. 7 cm and female is 14.2 - 15. 7 cm. Horn length is 8: 7 - 12. 7 cm. The color of the Transvaal Klipspringer is bright golden-yellow, with strongly contrasting white underparts. The feet above the hooves are brown. The ears are short, 80 - 84 mm. The horns are very long, among the largest of all klipspringers, contrasting strongly with the Cape Klipspringer (O. oreotragus).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540363F53BF712FB40.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Transvaal Klipspringer occupies rocky areas, like other klipspringers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540363F53BF712FB40.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. A concentrate selector, like other klipspringers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540363F53BF712FB40.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Courtship and mating of the Transvaal Klipspringer have been observed during just three weeks in July, suggesting much stronger seasonality than some other species. This would mean that births occur during the rains in November-December.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540363F53BF712FB40.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available on the activity patterns of the Transvaal Klipspringer. All klipspringers run with ajerky, bounding gait, and jump from rock to rock.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540363F53BF712FB40.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Populations of the Transvaal Klipspringer studied in the Drakensberg range, at Gamka, at Springbok, and at Sentinel (south-eastern Zimbabwe) had territory sizes of 10 - 49 ha. The territories appear to be permanent, and like other species are based on kopjes.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF540363F53BF712FB40.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under O. oreotragus). Oreotragus taxa, except the Nigerian Klipspringer (O. o. porteousi), are not considered separately by IUCN.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF55067BF399FBB4FA77.taxon	materials_examined	Esquimina, south of Benguela, Angola.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF55067BF399FBB4FA77.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered a subspecies of O. oreotragus. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF55067BF399FBB4FA77.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Known from the Kaokoveld in S Angola and Namibia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF55067BF399FBB4FA77.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 77 - 91 cm, shoulder height 49.5 - 57 cm, ear length 10 - 12 cm, hindfoot 21 - 24 cm. The Angolan Klipspringer is a medium-sized species. The female is larger than the male. Mean skull length is 13 - 9 cm (13.3 - 14. 5 cm) in males and 14 - 4 cm (13.9 - 15. 1 cm) in females. Horn length is about 8: 5 - 10. 1 cm. The general color is weakly speckled pale sandy ocher, but the legs have no noticeable speckling at all, and may be gray. Like the Transvaal Klipspringer (O. transvaalensis) and Stevenson's Klipspringer (O. stevensoni), the underparts of the Angolian Klipspringer are extensively white. The region above the hooves is conspicuously dark brown. The ears are yellow inside and out and are longer than in the species to the south and east. The limbs are also elongated.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF55067BF399FBB4FA77.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Angolan Klipspringer uses rocky areas, like other klipspringers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF55067BF399FBB4FA77.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The primary food is Acacia albida, and they may climb into these trees and browse at up to 5 - 4 m.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF55067BF399FBB4FA77.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but it is likely to have a gestation length of around five months, like other klipspringers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF55067BF399FBB4FA77.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species. Klipspringers stand motionless for long periods of time on top of rocks, scanning the surroundings, their four feet together.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF55067BF399FBB4FA77.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. A population of this species studied by S. C. Roberts has the largest known territories, averaging 100 ha. They live in mated pairs, and mean group size is 2 - 6.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EFFF55067BF399FBB4FA77.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under O. oreotragus). Oreotragus taxa, except the Nigerian Klipspringer (O. o. porteousi), are not considered separately by IUCN.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5503DCF423F6ACFB9F.taxon	materials_examined	West of Lindi, Bwemkuru, southern Tanzania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5503DCF423F6ACFB9F.taxon	discussion	This species is monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5503DCF423F6ACFB9F.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S Tanzania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5503DCF423F6ACFB9F.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. No specific measurements available. The sexes of Noack’s Klipspringer are apparently the samesize: skull length is 14 - 14. 4 cm and horn length is ¢. 9 - 2 cm. There is some contrast between the forequarters and hindquarters in color; the forequarters are more yellowish or ocher, the hindquarters olive, much less yellow; the legs are gray. The teeth of Noack’s Klipspringer are relatively larger than in other species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5503DCF423F6ACFB9F.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Rocky areas, like other Kklipspringers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5503DCF423F6ACFB9F.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Noack’s Klipspringer 1 s a concentrate selector, like other klipspringers. They eat flowers, fruits, young shoots, and leaves.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5503DCF423F6ACFB9F.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species. In other klipspringers young are kept hidden for the frst 2 - 3 months.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5503DCF423F6ACFB9F.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species. Other klipspringers are active in the early morning and more especially in the late afternoon.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5503DCF423F6ACFB9F.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species. Other klipspringers are territorial, with territories marked by dung piles, especially around the borders, and both sexes mark with preorbital glands.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5503DCF423F6ACFB9F.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under O. oreotragus). Oreotragus taxa, except the Nigerian Klipspringer (O. o. porteoust), are not considered separately by IUCN.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5503DEF9C2FBB7F4D6.taxon	materials_examined	South Chinsali district, eastern Zambia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5503DEF9C2FBB7F4D6.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered a synonym of O. aceratos. Monotypic. Distribution. Zambia, including the Luangwa Valley; probably also SE DR Congo (Katanga) and Malawi.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5503DEF9C2FBB7F4D6.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. No specific measurements available. The female is larger than the male, but both sexes are very variable in size. Mean skull length is 14 - 1 cm (13.2 - 15. 4 cm) in males and 14 - 7 cm (14.1 - 15. 1 cm) in females. Mean horn length is 9 - 8 cm (7 -: 4 - 12. 5 cm). General color is deep reddish to orange to yellow-gray, with some individuals exhibiting a dazzling blackand-yellow effect. The legs are gray, contrasting with the body color. There is no black above the hooves.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5503DEF9C2FBB7F4D6.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Zambian Klipspringer uses rocky areas, like other klipspringers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5503DEF9C2FBB7F4D6.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Diet consists of leaves, berries, fruit, seed pods, and flowers, seasonally favoring Euphorbia tirucalli and Vellozia equisetifolia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5503DEF9C2FBB7F4D6.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Non-seasonal breeder; pregnant females have been recorded in all months except in December — January.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5503DEF9C2FBB7F4D6.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but Klipspringers frequently leave the rocks to feed on the surrounding lowlands.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5503DEF9C2FBB7F4D6.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species. Klipspringers are territorial; the territories are occupied by a male and a female (and their young), but it is the male who chases off trespassers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5503DEF9C2FBB7F4D6.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under O. oreotragus). Oreotragus taxa, except the Nigerian Klipspringer (O. o. porteousi), are not considered separately by IUCN.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5506D7FBE5F9E4F4D6.taxon	materials_examined	Dunje Ngaptuk, north-west of Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5506D7FBE5F9E4F4D6.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered a synonym of O. saltatrixoides. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5506D7FBE5F9E4F4D6.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Kenya, S of Mt Kenya, W to the Dodoth Hills (Uganda), and S to Lake Rukwa, Tanzania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5506D7FBE5F9E4F4D6.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 77 - 84 cm (males), tail 6.9 - 8 cm (both sexes), ear 8 - 5 — 8 - 7 cm (males) and 9 - 3 cm (females), hindfoot 22 - 22. 8 cm (males) and 23 - 8 cm (females). Sexual dimorphism in this species is extreme among klipspringers; the female is much larger than the male. Skull length is 13.5 - 13. 9 cm in males and 14.6 - 14. 7 cm in females. The Masai Klipspringer is also unique in that the female has horns; horn length is 8: 2.8 - 7 cm in males and 6.7 - 9. 5 cm in females. J. Kingdon stated that the possession of hornsis not constant in this form, but T. Roosevelt and E. Heller were quite clear that itis: “ none of the females show rudimentary horns or any evidence of transition to the hornless condition of the races inhabiting the country north or south of them. ” General color very rich, bright orange, with contrasting gray legs and dark pasterns; the mid-back region is darker. There is some variation in color; some individuals are a pale yellow on the foreparts.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5506D7FBE5F9E4F4D6.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Masai Klipspringers occupy rocky areas, like other klipspringers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5506D7FBE5F9E4F4D6.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. A concentrate selector, like other klipspringers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5506D7FBE5F9E4F4D6.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species. In other klipspringers, weaning is at 4 - 5 months.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5506D7FBE5F9E4F4D6.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species. Other klipspringers are diurnal and crepuscular, with more activity in the mornings and evenings than at midday.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5506D7FBE5F9E4F4D6.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The territories of this species, which has been studied in two Kenyan localities, Tsavo National Park and Gilgil, average less than 2 ha, whereas in all other species territories are much greater than this, suggesting that the females, being large and having horns, are as competitive as the males or more so. This supports the Female Competition Hypothesis: the rate of aggressive contests between females selects for having horns, rather than the size of the groups. In the Serengeti, Tanzania, the territories may be seasonal; during the dry season, a group of kopjes was unoccupied, but three pairs of klipspringers arrived after the rains had begun and reestablished themselves there.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5506D7FBE5F9E4F4D6.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under O. oreotragus). Oreotragus taxa, except the Nigerian Klipspringer (O. o. porteousi), are not considered separately by IUCN.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5606D4F422FC1EFB17.taxon	materials_examined	Mt Lololokwi, north of Northern Guaso-nyiro, Kenya.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5606D4F422FC1EFB17.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered a synonym of O. schillingsi. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5606D4F422FC1EFB17.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Kenyan Highlands and N Ewaso Ng’iro, W through N Kenya and also known from the Ankole region in SW Uganda.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5606D4F422FC1EFB17.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 79 cm (males) and 75 - 84 cm (females), tail 6 cm (males) and 7.5 - 9. 5 cm (females), ear 9.9 - 3 cm (both sexes), hindfoot 22 - 3 cm (males) and 22.5 - 23. 5 cm (females). Males are very slightly larger than females, and both sexes are fairly small. Mean skull length is 14 cm (13.2 - 14. 7 cm) in males and 13 - 7 cm (13.3 - 14. 1 cm) in females. Horn length is 8: 3 - 10. 4 cm. General color is golden yellow, with a very slight difference between the body and the legs. The crown of the head is reddish, in marked contrast to the body color.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5606D4F422FC1EFB17.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Golden Klipspringer prefers rocky areas, like all klipspringers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5606D4F422FC1EFB17.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. A concentrate selector, like all klipspringers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5606D4F422FC1EFB17.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species. The gestation length is around five months in other klipspringers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5606D4F422FC1EFB17.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species. Other klipspringers are active in the early morning and more especially in the late afternoon.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5606D4F422FC1EFB17.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species. Most klipspringers are strongly territorial, marking the boundaries of their territories with dung piles and secretions from the preorbital glands.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EEFF5606D4F422FC1EFB17.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under O. oreotragus). Oreotragus taxa, except the Nigerian Klipspringer (O. o. porteoust), are not considered separately by IUCN.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF56067DF8FEF706F289.taxon	materials_examined	Duchi n’Wai Range, Zaria district, northern Nigeria.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF56067DF8FEF706F289.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered a synonym of O. saltatrixoides. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF56067DF8FEF706F289.taxon	distribution	Distribution. The Jos Plateau, in C Nigeria; a population of klipspringers in the Central African Republic may or may not belong to this species.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF56067DF8FEF706F289.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. No specific measurements available. From male specimens, this species seems small in size, with small teeth, but the degree of sexual dimorphism is unknown because no female skulls are available. Male skull length is 13.1 - 13. 9 cm. It has particularly long horns, 8: 9 - 10. 9 cm. In color, this species is, unexpectedly, very like the Masai Klipspringer (O. schillingsi) from East Africa. It varies from dull yellowish to darker, more golden; the dorsal stripe is broad and gray, but it may be reduced to speckling down the midline of the back; the crown and upper muzzle are golden, the ears gray, the upper part of the forelegs are paler, the lower part gray; thigh and legs are grayish.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF56067DF8FEF706F289.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Nigerian Klipspringer uses rocky areas, like all klipspringers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF56067DF8FEF706F289.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. A concentrate selector, like all klipspringers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF56067DF8FEF706F289.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species. Other klipspringers run the gamut from seasonal to non-seasonal breeders.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF56067DF8FEF706F289.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but probably crepuscular with most activity in early morning and late afternoon.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF56067DF8FEF706F289.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species. Other klipspringers are strongly territorial, with boundaries marked by dung piles and secretions from preorbital glands.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF56067DF8FEF706F289.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List (as O. oreotragus porteousi). The Nigerian Klipspringer is endangered because the total population size in Nigeria and including the Central African Republic is estimated at fewer than 2500 mature individuals and declining.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF560364FB5EF669FE2B.taxon	materials_examined	Abyssinia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF560364FB5EF669FE2B.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered a subspecies of O. oreotragus. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF560364FB5EF669FE2B.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Ethiopia, S to Lake Turkana and E to Harar.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF560364FB5EF669FE2B.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. No specific measurements available. Both sexes are fairly small; skull length is 13.5 - 14. 2 cm and horn length is 7.2 - 10 cm. General color of the Ethiopian Klipspringer is golden, more deeply colored on neck; it is well speckled, but speckling less extensive on rump. Teeth are relatively small.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF560364FB5EF669FE2B.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Ethiopian Klipspringer may live up to 3300 m above sea level, where temperatures fall to freezing at night.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF560364FB5EF669FE2B.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. They are concentrate selectors, like all klipspringers, and basically browsers, because shrubs are much more common than grasses in their habitat.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF560364FB5EF669FE2B.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The Ethiopian Klipspringeris a seasonal breeder, and the degree of seasonality varies according to local conditions.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF560364FB5EF669FE2B.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Males spend 16 - 18 % of the day feeding during the wet season and only 6 - 10 % during the dry season, whereas females feed for 26 - 31 % of the day during the wet season, 12 - 24 % in the dry season. Males are much more vigilant, standing like statues for up to half an hour. On one occasion, a male stood for nearly four hours without moving, except for occasionally turning his head. A pair are usually only 2 m apart. The female is usually the first to begin moving; the male stays close to her, but actual contact between them is rare, usually just an approach and a sniff of the face and rump, or rubbing the muzzles together. They make alarm calls in duet. A comparison in the Simien Mountains, Ethiopia, between those living on the escarpment and those living on the sides of the gorge found differences in activity patterns. Those in the gorge began moving and feeding an hour earlier in the morning, when the sun reached them. The escarpment wasstill in deep shadow at this time, and here they remained in shelter, out of the wind, until the sun reached them. Toward midday, those in the gorge began to go behind the rocks and bushes out of the sun, whereas those on the escarpment remained active until late afternoon. In all, those in the gorge spent more time resting, less time feeding than those on the escarpment.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF560364FB5EF669FE2B.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. A population of the Ethiopian Klipspringer at Sankaber in the Ethiopian Highlands had a mean territory size of 8 - 1 ha (7 - 5 - 9 - 4 ha). In the Simien Mountains, the population density is 4: 67 ind / km? ®. They occasionally live singly, but are seen in mated pairs most of the time. Up to 80 % of groups are mated pairs, but 10 - 20 % of the groups are of one male and two females. The second female is probably the young of the previous year, but occasionally these second females do breed. About 50 % of the pairs are accompanied by young of the year. Male offspring disperse earlier than female. A territory contains dung piles up to 3 m in diameter, 10 cm high, usually on flat ground 10 - 100 m apart, with smaller piles between. Urination and defecation are not ritualized, although defecation is done in a distinctive crouch. Twigs are often marked with the preorbital secretion, including after defecation; the secretion is thick and tarry. Most marking is done by the male, who often overmarks the female’s marks. Intruding males are chased by the territorial male, and there may be a fight, with slow approaches followed by head butting and occasional wounding.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF560364FB5EF669FE2B.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under O. oreotragus). Oreotragus taxa, except the Nigerian Klipspringer (O. o. porteoust), are not considered separately by IUCN.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF56067DFE76F669F8B2.taxon	materials_examined	Sheikh, Golis Mountains, northern Somalia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF56067DFE76F669F8B2.taxon	discussion	Formerly considered a synonym of O. saltatrixoides. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF56067DFE76F669F8B2.taxon	distribution	Distribution. N Sudan through Eritrea and N Somalia to N Ethiopia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF56067DFE76F669F8B2.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 74 - 77 cm, tail 7 - 6 cm, shoulder height 51 - 53 cm. Skull length is 13 cm in males (only one skull is available) and 14.1 - 14. 6 cm in females. The male Somali Klipspringer is the smallest of the klipspringers, but females are much larger than males, and in the middle range of klipspringer size. Horns are particularly long, about 9 - 5 cm. General color of the Somali Klipspringeris grayish or yellow-olive, with little or no differentiation of color between foreparts and hindparts; brown on the crown, legs contrastingly gray in front; underside white. The teeth are relatively small.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF56067DFE76F669F8B2.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. The Somali Klipspringer uses rocky areas, like all klipspringers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF56067DFE76F669F8B2.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. A concentrate selector, like all klipspringers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF56067DFE76F669F8B2.taxon	breeding	Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but given the habitat and climate ofits range, breeding is likely to be seasonal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF56067DFE76F669F8B2.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species. Other klipspringers are crepuscular, with most activity in early morning and especially in late afternoon.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF56067DFE76F669F8B2.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information available for this species. Other klipspringers are territorial, marking boundaries of territories with dung piles and secretions from preorbital glands.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
03F5071399EDFF56067DFE76F669F8B2.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under O. oreotragus). Oreotragus taxa, except the Nigerian Klipspringer (O. o. porteoust), are not considered separately by IUCN.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Bovidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 444-779, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6512484
