taxonID	type	description	language	source
03F88790FFD67663CED7FD66FDF4347F.taxon	description	Hippotragini Hippotragus niger Hippotragus equinus	en	Brophy, Juliet K., de Ruiter, Darryl J., Fortelius, Mikael, Bamford, Marion, Berger, Lee R. (2016): Pleistocene Bovidae (Mammalia) from Malapa, Gauteng Province, South Africa. Palaeontologia Electronica 35 (8): 1-22, DOI: 10.26879/618, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.26879/618
03F88790FFD67662CED7FCF1FC1E36B0.taxon	description	Oreotragus oreotragus Pelea capreolus Ourebia ourebi Antilopini Antidorcas marsupialis bovid teeth. The program quantifies the occlusal surface of the tooth and allows it to be compared with the reference database. While the tooth might represent an extinct species, similarities exist in teeth that are in the same tribe; therefore, EFFA can be used to help identify a tooth at the tribe and genus / species level. Analyses of the phytoliths were performed on a sample of bovid teeth in order to determine if phytoliths could be recovered and used to aid in identifications and to obtain information on their feeding ecology. Plants produce silica bodies, or phytoliths, that maintain morphology specific to taxa. With good preservation, these biogenic silica bodies can be recovered from the dental calculus of bovid teeth and used to assess diet (see Piperno, 2006; Henry et al., 2012). In the palynology laboratory at the University of Witwatersrand, phytoliths were extracted from the calculus using the following method: a 10 % solution of sodium hexameta- phosphate (Calgon) was added to each sample to deflocculate the calculus and assist diffusion. After 24 hours, the sample was sonicated for 5 minutes, centrifuged at 2000 rpm for 2 minutes, and the supernatant removed. Next, the sample was rinsed twice with distilled water. To dissolve the calculus, a 10 % solution of hydrochloric acid was added and left for approximately 12 hours, and then rinsed twice in distilled water (see Henry et al., 2012). The remaining sample was mounted on a microscope slide in a 1: 4 glycerine / water solution and examined under a light microscope at 400 x magnification. Identified phytoliths are described using the terms recognized by the International code for phytolith nomenclature by using their geometric shapes and, when possible, texture / ornamentation and anatomical origin (see Madella et al., 2005 for full list). While proper analysis of the mesowear is excluded by the small sample size, qualitative analyses of palaeodiet based on the mesowear approach were performed on the bovid teeth. These analyses rely on occlusal relief and cusp shape as reflections of the amount of attrition and abrasion that occurred on the occlusal surfaces of the tooth due to diet. Mesowear was recorded by examining the buccal (maxillary) and lingual (mandibular) apices of molar tooth cusps and scoring them as being sharp, rounded, or blunt depending on the degree of facet development. Sharp cusps usually indicate browsers, rounded cusps suggest mixed feeders, and blunt cusps tend to represent grazers. The space between the cusps is recorded as being either high or low and indicates a browser or grazer, respectively (Fortelius and Solunias, 2000). Postcranium The age, side, body size class (BSC), and degree of completeness were documented for each bovid element. The body mass of a BSC I bovid is <23 kg., BSC II 23 - 84 kg., BSC III 84 - 296 kg., and BSC IV> 296 kg (Brain, 1981). The skeletal part representation was determined by analyzing the number of identified specimens (NISP) for each element, the minimum number of elements (MNE) those specimens comprise, and the comprehensive minimum number of individuals (cMNI) they encompass while considering factors such as age, side, size, and sex, a method outlined by Bunn (1982). The postcranial elements were compared with bovid long bone data presented in Scott (1985) and Swanepoel and Steyn (2011). The limb bones were examined systematically for the identification of any pre, peri, or postmortem taphonomic processes. Specifically, the surface modification and fracture pattern were documented for each bone. The surface modification options outlined by Behrensmeyer (1978) and White (1992) include: cut marks, hammerstone percussion, cortical peeling, pathology, punctuate depressions, root etching, scooping or hollowing, gastric etching, tooth notches, tooth pitting, tooth scoring, carnivore damage, cracks, trowel damage, sedimentary abrasion, and evidence of being scooped / hollowed, eroded, chewed, crushed, flattened, rotted, burnt, or gnawed by rodents or porcupines. This analysis aids in identifying what, if any, biotic or abiotic agents played a role in the accumulation of the assemblage. Finally, the breakage patterns of the bones as defined by Villa and Mahieu (1991) were recorded for each specimen. These patterns include the fracture angle, fracture outline, shaft circumference, and degree of shaft fragment completeness. Villa and Mahieu (1991) describe the fracture angle as the angle exhibited by the fracture surface and the bone cortical surface. These breakages fall into one of three descriptive categories: oblique, right, and intermediate. Oblique fracture angles, defined as obtuse or acute, are indicative of green, perimortem fractures while right angled fractures suggest dry, post depositional breakages. The fracture outline involves the shape of the broken bone edge and also includes three separate categories: transverse, curved, and intermediate. Transverse breakages are perpendicular to the shaft of the bone and associated with post depositional processes. Curved breakages refer to spiral or partially spiral fractures, represent “ complex, multidimensional morphologies, ” and usually associated with perimortem fractures with some exceptions (Villa and Mahieu, 1991). Specifically, several analysts highlight how postmortem spiral fractures can result from weathering, carnivore damage, and hominin percussion (Haynes, 1983; Villa and Mahieu, 1991; White, 1992). The shaft circumference involves diagnosing how complete the bone circumference is (¼, ½, ¾, or 1) at any point along that bone fragment. Complete circumferences suggest in situ, postmortem breakages while less complete shaft circumferences tend to signify perimortem fractures. These fractures help identify whether carnivores manipulated the assemblage by attacking limb bone epiphyses and by leaving behind the diaphyses with complete circumferences. Less complete shaft circumferences can be indicative of fractures at the time of death, hominin manipulation, and / or abiotic processes such as sediment compaction. The degree of shaft completeness refers to what percentage of the entire bone remains. Complete or mostly complete bones suggest that little to no modification affected the bone prior to deposition. This research expands on Val et al. (2015), which included a taphonomic analysis of the entire vertebrate assemblage of Malapa. This paper provides complimentary taphonomic analyses that focus solely on specimens in the Family Bovidae. The specific results provided in this paper provide a more in depth analysis of the bovids, which are comparable with the more general results of the entire assemblage from Val et al. (2015).	en	Brophy, Juliet K., de Ruiter, Darryl J., Fortelius, Mikael, Bamford, Marion, Berger, Lee R. (2016): Pleistocene Bovidae (Mammalia) from Malapa, Gauteng Province, South Africa. Palaeontologia Electronica 35 (8): 1-22, DOI: 10.26879/618, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.26879/618
03F88790FFD77664CC1DFCB6FD713387.taxon	materials_examined	Material. Two specimens represent Makapania broomi at Malapa. UW 88 - 929 from Block B 025 consists of a distorted partial skull with complete left and right maxillary dentition and right mandibular dentition (Figure 1). Specimen UW 88 - 797 is a maxillary fragment with a right M 1 and M 2 (Figure 2).	en	Brophy, Juliet K., de Ruiter, Darryl J., Fortelius, Mikael, Bamford, Marion, Berger, Lee R. (2016): Pleistocene Bovidae (Mammalia) from Malapa, Gauteng Province, South Africa. Palaeontologia Electronica 35 (8): 1-22, DOI: 10.26879/618, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.26879/618
03F88790FFD77664CC1DFCB6FD713387.taxon	description	Description. Both specimens are hypsodont, demonstrate simple central cavities where exposed, and v-shaped mesial lobes characteristic of Makapania broomi (Table 3) (Wells and Cooke, 1956). The maxillary teeth also possess large central infundibula and lack basal pillars. The right mandibular dentition of UW 88 - 929 consists of broken enamel outline and roots of P 2, and P 3, P 4, M 1, M 2, and M 3. No goat fold or basal pillars are evident though Brink (1999) states that the absence of goat folds is not unusual. Results of the typicality probability from EFFA were too low to help identify this specimen to a taxonomic group; this result is likely due to the fact that no Ovibovini tribe members are in the reference sample (Brophy, 2011). Comparisons. The Malapa specimens were compared with the type specimen, M 162, and specimen M 8227 of Makapania broomi from Makapansgat housed at the University of Witwatersrand. Makapania cf. broomi specimens from Sterkfontein Member 4 including STS 1721, STS 2059, and STS 1564 were also studied at the Ditsong National Museum of Natural History. The Malapa specimens overlap in size and shape with the Makapansgat and Sterkfontein materials. The Malapa specimens were also compared to Makapania sp. specimens from the Gladysvale Extension Site (GVED) (e. g., GV 5288, GV 8266, GV 8410) and via photographs and measurements to the cf. Makapania sp. fossils from Swartkrans (SK) Members 1 including SK 3005, SK 3123, and 3150 (Vrba, 1976; Brain, 1981; Lacruz et al., 2002). The SK and GVED fossils are slightly BROPHY: BOVIDAE FROM MALAPA smaller than M. broomi but maintain the morphological characteristics outlined in Wells and Cooke (1956). The Malapa bovid specimens are bigger than the SK and GVED specimens and consistent in size and shape with Makapansgat M. broomi.	en	Brophy, Juliet K., de Ruiter, Darryl J., Fortelius, Mikael, Bamford, Marion, Berger, Lee R. (2016): Pleistocene Bovidae (Mammalia) from Malapa, Gauteng Province, South Africa. Palaeontologia Electronica 35 (8): 1-22, DOI: 10.26879/618, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.26879/618
03F88790FFD17667CE40FA88FA0733F3.taxon	materials_examined	Material. Tragelaphus scriptus is represented by a right mandible that was refit from three broken pieces: UW 88 - 519, UW 88 - 518, and UW 1015 (Figure 3). UW 88 - 519 is a right mandibular fragment with an M 3. UW 88 - 518 consists of a mandible with right M 1 and M 2 while UW 88 - 1015 is a mandibular fragment with the roots of P 3 and P 4.	en	Brophy, Juliet K., de Ruiter, Darryl J., Fortelius, Mikael, Bamford, Marion, Berger, Lee R. (2016): Pleistocene Bovidae (Mammalia) from Malapa, Gauteng Province, South Africa. Palaeontologia Electronica 35 (8): 1-22, DOI: 10.26879/618, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.26879/618
03F88790FFD17667CE40FA88FA0733F3.taxon	description	Description. The mandibular teeth are brachydont and reveal simple central cavities (Table 4). No basal pillars are present on the specimens. All of the teeth are in full eruption and exhibit narrowly pointed mesial and distal lobes on the buccal side. The third molar of UW 88 - 519 was complete enough to perform EFFA. DFA classified the third molar as T. scriptus with a 0.656 typicality probability. The distal M 2 lobe of UW 88 - 518 is broken, and PALAEO- ELECTRONICA. ORG only part of the root and infundibulum remain. The mesial lobe is complete and demonstrates a strong parastylid, mesostylid, and paraconid making a distinct rib, which is consistent with T. scriptus (Figure 3). The mesial and distal lobes of the M 1 are broken; the lingual enamel face is missing. Both lobes retain buccal enamel, dentin, and infundibula. Comparisons. The Malapa T. scriptus mandible and dentition were compared with the holotype, M 18, and paratype, M 19, of the extinct T. pricei from Makapansgat Member 3 (Figure 4) (Wells and Cooke, 1956). The Malapa specimens resemble both T. pricei and T. scriptus. The depth of the mandible at M 2 / M 3 / lower molar row (MD / MR) was compared with T. scriptus and T. pricei indices from Sponheimer et al. (1999). The Malapa MD / MR is approximately 0.54, which overlaps with the range of both T. pricei (0.52 ± 0.06) and T. scriptus (0.51 ± 0.053). In fact, the two species overlapped within two standard deviations on every index in Sponheimer et al. (1999). In the absence of a method for clearly differentiating between the two species, the Malapa specimens are conservatively identified to T. scriptus. In addition, the Malapa specimens are comparable to SK 14205 and SK 2329 from Swartkrans Member 2 which Vrba (1976) suggests is Tragelaphus cf. scriptus and describes as indistinguishable from T. scriptus. de Ruiter (2003) reclassified the Swartkrans specimens as T. scriptus. Therefore, the Malapa specimens are conservatively identified as T. scriptus.	en	Brophy, Juliet K., de Ruiter, Darryl J., Fortelius, Mikael, Bamford, Marion, Berger, Lee R. (2016): Pleistocene Bovidae (Mammalia) from Malapa, Gauteng Province, South Africa. Palaeontologia Electronica 35 (8): 1-22, DOI: 10.26879/618, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.26879/618
03F88790FFDC7669CF94FC26FC4034C1.taxon	materials_examined	Material. UW 88 - 877 includes the anterior portion and diastema of a mandibular fragment of a bovid BSC III.	en	Brophy, Juliet K., de Ruiter, Darryl J., Fortelius, Mikael, Bamford, Marion, Berger, Lee R. (2016): Pleistocene Bovidae (Mammalia) from Malapa, Gauteng Province, South Africa. Palaeontologia Electronica 35 (8): 1-22, DOI: 10.26879/618, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.26879/618
03F88790FFDC7669CF94FC26FC4034C1.taxon	description	Description. The size, elongated diastema, and relatively straight morphology of UW 88 - 877 suggest this specimen belongs in the tribe Alcelaphini (Figure 8).	en	Brophy, Juliet K., de Ruiter, Darryl J., Fortelius, Mikael, Bamford, Marion, Berger, Lee R. (2016): Pleistocene Bovidae (Mammalia) from Malapa, Gauteng Province, South Africa. Palaeontologia Electronica 35 (8): 1-22, DOI: 10.26879/618, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.26879/618
03F88790FFDC7668CCDDFBCAFC0F34E5.taxon	materials_examined	Material. UW 88 - 1298 is a right mandible with P 4, M 1, M 2, and M 3 (Figure 9).	en	Brophy, Juliet K., de Ruiter, Darryl J., Fortelius, Mikael, Bamford, Marion, Berger, Lee R. (2016): Pleistocene Bovidae (Mammalia) from Malapa, Gauteng Province, South Africa. Palaeontologia Electronica 35 (8): 1-22, DOI: 10.26879/618, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.26879/618
03F88790FFDC7668CCDDFBCAFC0F34E5.taxon	description	Description. The teeth of UW 88 - 1298 are heavily worn and have moderately hypsodont teeth. The mandible retains evidence of a P 2. The central cavities of the M 3, while nearly obliterated, are relatively straight. EFFA classified the M 1 and M 2 of UW 88 - 1298 to the tribe Antilopini with a 0.65 and 0.74 typicality probability, respectively, and to the genus / species Antidorcas marsupialis, the extant springbok, but at an extremely low probability (<0.05) suggesting that these teeth have characteristics similar to extant springboks but are not consistent with A. marsupialis. Comparisons. This specimen is consistent with the attribution to Antidorcas recki. According to Vrba (1976), unbent central cavities and a straight mandibular lingual molar face are characteristics of A. recki. The teeth of UW 88 - 1298 are not extremely hypsodont as seen in A. bondi specimens from Swartkrans. Also, the retention of a P 2 is atypical for A. marsupialis (Vrba, 1976). Finally, the buccal lophs are more v-shaped than A. marsupialis.	en	Brophy, Juliet K., de Ruiter, Darryl J., Fortelius, Mikael, Bamford, Marion, Berger, Lee R. (2016): Pleistocene Bovidae (Mammalia) from Malapa, Gauteng Province, South Africa. Palaeontologia Electronica 35 (8): 1-22, DOI: 10.26879/618, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.26879/618
03F88790FFDE766BCE34FCBAFE72330E.taxon	materials_examined	Material. Specimen UW 88 - 562 is a right maxillary fragment with M 1 and M 2 (Figure 11). The teeth are too incomplete to make a genus / species taxonomic diagnosis. While broken, the size and relative shape appear to overlap with multiple species in the subfamily Antilopinae.	en	Brophy, Juliet K., de Ruiter, Darryl J., Fortelius, Mikael, Bamford, Marion, Berger, Lee R. (2016): Pleistocene Bovidae (Mammalia) from Malapa, Gauteng Province, South Africa. Palaeontologia Electronica 35 (8): 1-22, DOI: 10.26879/618, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.26879/618
03F88790FFDE766ECE32FBA2FBE13110.taxon	materials_examined	Material. Cranial Specimens UW 88 - 796 is a maxilla with right P 3, P 4, and M 1. The teeth are too heavily worn to identify them to the level of tribe with confidence, though the general morphology and lack of a basal pillar suggests this individual possibly belongs to the tribe Alcelaphini. UW 88 - 1314 is a partial mandible of a BSC II bovid consisting of the anterior portion with a broken incisor and the diastema of a mandible. A partial horn core, UW 88 - 555, was recovered from the site (Figure 12). The width of the base is 27.35 mm and the height is 37.33. The horn core size identifies it as a bovid BSC II. UW 88 - 734 consists of a partial horn core of a BSC III bovid with a proximal width of 34.13 mm and height or 151.63 mm (Figure 13). The morphology of this specimen, including slight torsion and a transverse ridge, is not inconsistent with Megalotragus though the specimen is not well enough preserved for taxonomic identification. Material. Postcranial Specimens The Malapa postcranial assemblage is noteworthy due to the extraordinary preservation, exemplified by the numerous complete skeletal FIGURE 10. UW 88 - 869 right mandibular M 1. elements and partially articulated limbs. This preservation contrasts with the long bone fragments more commonly seen at sites such as Swartkrans and Kromdraai. The best example of this postcranial preservation is seen in Malapa Block 848 (Figure 13). This Block consists of portions of articulated / associated limbs including a diaphysis and epiphysis of a left femur (UW 88 - 1181), right and left complete tibiae (UW 88 - 1223 a, b), right proximal metatarsal (UW 88 - 1224), complete astragalus (UW 88 - 1225), complete naviculo-cuboid (UW 88 - 1226), and two complete distal phalanges (UW 88 - 1221 a, b) (Figure 13). While not in articulation or encased in the same rock, a complementary right femur (UW 88 - 748) matching the size and approximate age of the one in Block 848 was recovered. UW 88 - 748 consists of a distal epiphysis, diaphysis, and proximal epiphysis that refit making a complete specimen (210.3 mm). The incomplete left femur, UW 88 - 1181, measures 203 mm; estimates of a complete left femur overlap with the right femur, UW 88 - 748. The specimens in Block 848 and UW 88 - 748 represent an adult based on epiphyseal fusion. The estimated age for the individual in Block 848 is 12 - 18 months due to the fact that the proximal tibiae are fused while UW 88 - 748 is at least 10 - 18 months (Davis, 1980). These fossils are consistent in size with a BSC II. According to Swanepoel and Steyn’s (2011) study on robusticity of Bovidae hindlimbs, a total femoral length of approximately 210 mm from UW 88 - 748 and UW 88 - 1181 (estimated) overlaps most closely with the femora of Antidorcas marsupialis (204.2 ± 14.9) and Redunca fulvorufula (206.0 ± 7.3). The total tibial length of 258.5 mm suggests that this individual’s body mass overlaps in range with Antidorcas marsupialis (258.1 ± 19.1), Redunca fulvorufula (254.0 ± 7.4), and Tragelaphus scriptus (249.9 ± 13.8) (Swanepoel and Steyn, 2011). Block 051 contains a complete right humerus (209 mm), UW 88 - 1184, in articulation with a right, proximal and diaphysis shaft of a radius, UW 88 - 1213. Both of the elements are adults based on the epiphyseal fusion, 12 - 18 months old, and are BSC III (Davis, 1980). Three articulated cervical vertebrae were recovered from Malapa. UW 88 - 720, 88 - 721, and 88 - 722 represent an adult, BSC II individual (Figure 14). Block 081 also contains articulated vertebrae. UW 88 - 1235 from Block 081 includes two adult thoracic vertebrae from BSC III. An articulated BSC III proximal humerus and glenoid cavity of a scapula were also found in articulation. These specimens are adults, 12 - 18 months based on the fusion of the proximal humerus (Davis, 1980). While the sample size is small, the skeletal part representation illustrates that the bovid postcranial remains are comprehensive; essentially the entire bovid skeleton is represented in some degree at the site (Table 6). While minimal, this evidence supports the hypothesis that complete bovid individuals accumulated in the cave. Phytolith Results Unfortunately, very few phytolith fragments preserved on the Malapa bovid teeth and the ones that did were of very poor quality. The most common fragments are indeterminate, of no particular shape, and cannot be related to any phytolith morphotype. The second most common fragments are more or less geometric in shape (square, triangle, rectangle, etc.). These remains are probably siliceous but not related to any phytoliths. The samples frequently contained brown amorphous “ blobs, ” which may be a chemical residue. Some BROPHY: BOVIDAE FROM MALAPA samples have fragments of hexagonal mesh, which have been interpreted as insect eye facets. Fungal hyphae also occur but their source is unknown. A few phytoliths were identified from three bovid specimens. Grass inflorescences, woody dicot and tracheid morphotypes were recovered from Megalotragus sp. specimens, UW 88 - 746 and UW 88 - 1205, respectively. These results suggest Megalotragus sp. could have been a C 4 grazer with some browse in its diet. Makapania broomi (UW 88 - 929) exhibit two very poorly preserved saddle morphotypes, which imply a diet that includes C 4 grasses. Mesowear Results Due to the preservation of the fossils and small sample size, a formal analysis of the mesowear could not be performed. Larger sample sizes can illustrate differences in the proportions of occlusal relief and cusp shapes that can be used to infer paleodiets. However, it is still informative to discuss the wear patterns of even single specimens that retain indications of occlusal relief and cusp shape. This data, coupled with other lines of research, can help identify the Malapa bovids and their diet. The M 2 and M 3 of T. scriptus (UW 88 - 518 and UW 88 - 519) have high relief (Figure 15). While cusp damage makes identification of the outline difficult, the tips of the M 2 and M 3 appear sharp. This morphology coupled with taxonomic uniformitarianism suggests that T. scriptus was likely a browser or, possibly, a mixed feeder at the browsing end of the spectrum. In addition, the Sponheimer et al. (1999) isotope study found that T. scriptus was a browser. The M 1 of M. broomi (UW 88 - 929) is fairly worn for scoring, and the cusps of the M 2 are broken. Nevertheless, the relief appears high, and the cusp tip is rounded in both the upper and the lower molars. Based on mesowear, the specimen UW 88 - 929 was likely a mixed feeder or perhaps a fresh grass grazer. These results support the phytolith results above and Sponheimer et al. (1999) which suggest M. broomi was a mixed feeder that prefers grass. The M 2 of Megalotragus (UW 88 - 746) is also broken but the specimen exhibits high relief and rounded cusp tips. This morphotype possibly suggests a mixed feeder preferring grass. The Megalotragus (UW 88 - 1205) M 1 has moderate wear and discernible morphology. The relief is high and the cusp tip is rounded. The analyses suggest that UW 88 - 1205 was possibly a mixed feeder though the overall appearance and weak facet development provides a stronger indication that it was a grazer. Both the M 1 and M 2 of Megalotragus (UW 88 - 1251) show high relief and rounded cusp tips. The M 3 is unworn. This morphology suggests a mixed feeder towards the grazing end of the spectrum. These results correlate with Brink and Lee-Thorp (1992), which suggests Megalotragus was a grazer. Taphonomy Results Surface modification on the Malapa bovid limb bones includes cortical peeling, cracking, crushing, and erosion (Figures 16, 17). A significant portion (n = 44), 86 %, of the 51 limb fragments demonstrate BSI BSII BSIII Humerus, complete 1 / 1 / 1 1 / 1 / 1 2 / 2 / 1 Proximal humerus 1 / 1 / 1 3 / 2 / 1 Distal humerus Femur, complete 1 / 1 / 1 2 / 2 / 2 Proximal femur 4 / 3 / 2 2 / 1 / 1 Distal femur Tibia, complete 2 / 2 / 1 2 / 2 / 2 1 / 1 / 1 Proximal tibia 1 / 1 / 1 1 / 1 / 1 Shaft tibia 2 / 2 / 1 Distal tibia Radius 1 / 1 / 1 Proximal radius 1 / 1 / 1 1 / 1 / 1 Shaft radius 1 / 1 / 1 1 / 1 / 1 Distal radius Ulna 3 / 3 / 2 Proximal ulna 1 / 1 / 1 Shaft ulna 1 / 1 / 1 Distal ulna Metacarpal, complete 6 / 2 / 1 3 / 3 / 2 Proximal metacarpal 1 / 1 / 1 Shaft metacarpal 2 / 2 / 1 Distal metacarpal Metatarsal 1 / 1 / 1 1 / 1 / 1 Proximal metatarsal 1 / 1 / 1 4 / 2 / 1 Shaft metatarsal 1 / 1 / 1 1 / 1 / 1 Distal metatarsal signs of cracking while ~ 24 % of the assemblage reveal signs of being crushed (n = 12). Twenty percent of the assemblage exhibit cortical peeling. According to Behrensmeyer (1978), longitudinal cracking in long bones is indicative of Stage 1 weathering, while cortical peeling and cracking denotes Stage 2 weathering (Figure 16). Therefore, a majority of the assemblage was in Stage 2 weathering during fossilization. None of the bovid bones demonstrated any signs of weathering beyond Stage 2, as defined by Behrensmeyer (1978). The breakage patterns of the limb bones include right, oblique, and intermediate fracture Metapodial 1 / 1 / 1 2 / 2 / 1 Distal metatarsal Scapula 8 / 3 / 3 2 / 2 / 2 Atlas 1 / 1 / 1 Axis 1 / 1 / 1 Cervical vertebra 7 / 7 / 2 1 / 1 / 1 Thoracic vertebra 6 / 6 / 2 5 / 5 / 2 Lumbar vertebra 8 / 5 / 2 Caudal vertebra 1 / 1 / 1 Stenebra 1 / 1 / 1 Pelvis 1 / 1 / 1 Ribs 32 / 5 / 1 10 / 4 / 1 Sacrum 3 / 2 / 2 Proximal phalanx 4 / 3 / 1 10 / 10 / 3 Intermediate phalanx 1 / 1 / 1 4 / 4 / 2 7 / 7 / 2 Distal phalanx 2 / 2 / 1 2 / 2 / 1 Accessory carpal 1 / 1 / 1 Astragalus 3 / 3 / 2 1 / 1 / 1 Calcaneous 4 / 3 / 3 2 / 2 / 2 Internal cuneiform 1 / 1 / 1 Cuneiform 1 / 1 / 1 Lateral malleolus 1 / 1 / 1 Magnum 2 / 2 / 1 Naviculo-cuboid 2 / 2 / 1 1 / 1 / 1 Scaphoid 1 / 1 / 1 Unciform 1 / 1 / 1 1 / 1 / 1 Sesamoid 7 / 7 / 2 angles; each make up approximately one-third of the assemblage, 31 %, 33 %, and 36 %, respectively. While approximately 32 % of the long bone shaft fragments have transverse outlines, 34 % have curved and 34 % have intermediate fracture outlines in the morphology. Approximately 80 % (n = 36) of the long bones have a complete shaft circumference in at least a portion of the bone (Figure 18). A majority, 71 %, of the assemblage has ½ or less of its original shaft length (Figure 19). Age estimates for the Malapa specimens were determined in order to identify if the assemblage favors old or young individuals. The craniodental remains include young specimens with deciduous BROPHY: BOVIDAE FROM MALAPA and erupting teeth (e. g., UW 88 - 1251, UW 88 - 746), older individuals with fully erupted teeth (e. g., UW 88 - 929), and older, worn down teeth (e. g., UW 88 - 796, UW 88 - 1298). Age estimates for the Malapa Megalotragus sp. specimens are listed in Table 7 and range from 6 - 33 months. The ages are based on the occlusal rates of Connochaetes taurinus since eruptions rates for Megalotragus do not exist (Talbot and Talbot, 1963). The postcranial elements range in age estimates from 10 - 18 months. Therefore, the ages of the bovids do not appear to follow any age patterns.	en	Brophy, Juliet K., de Ruiter, Darryl J., Fortelius, Mikael, Bamford, Marion, Berger, Lee R. (2016): Pleistocene Bovidae (Mammalia) from Malapa, Gauteng Province, South Africa. Palaeontologia Electronica 35 (8): 1-22, DOI: 10.26879/618, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.26879/618
