taxonID	type	description	language	source
038CA8732C5DFFA6FEFDF8AAFAB4F22C.taxon	description	Aspöck et al. (2001) considered the species-rich genus Pseudomallada (then Dichochrysa) in need of revision and suspected that it was not a monophyletic genus. Now we have evidence that the genus is monophyletic. Additionally, both molecular data and genital morphology support the same four distinct morphological species-groups within the genus. In only three cases, molecular analyses revealed singletons as sister taxa of molecular clades. In two of those, the shape of the gonapsis leans towards one of the four morphological groups. Thus, there are very few mismatches between molecularly determined clades and morphologically based gonapsis groups. In most of the four species-groups, species distributions permit speculation on origins of the groups. The molecularly well-supported P 1 clade most likely originated in Asia (P. astur, P. alcestes, P. sp. 1 and P. sp. 2, P. cognatellus, P. parabolus, P. formosanus, P. ussuriensis), with two independent range extensions into the Indian Ocean and Africa. Apertochrysa eurydera is present on most islands east of Africa and in eastern and northwestern parts of continental Africa. A small clade that includes the widespread species, P. sjostedti, also extends to the Mascarene Islands (P. duplicatus) and into southern Africa (P. pulchrinus). The easily delineated prasinus - group (P 3, G 2) occurs mainly in Eurasia and northern Africa. Some of the species are difficult to identify reliably, especially the females. This might be the reason for the species names prasinus and abdominalis occurring several times on the list in Figure 1. We suspect that the prasinus - group comprises several undescribed cryptic species. In fact, Aspöck et al. (1980) reported that in large parts of northern Europe, P. prasinus and P. ventralis form mixed phenotypes. Additionally, the present study shows that except for P. benedictae, the species in the prasinus - group have similar DNA sequences for the three nuclear genes (P - distances are less than 0.009; Table 4). Indeed, sequences for all three genes were nearly the same in Swiss P. prasinus and P. abdominalis, while Greek P. prasinus and Italian P. abdominalis had ATPase sequences identical to each other. We could not identify cryptic species within the prasinus - group. However, P. marianus is the only species within the prasinus - group to deposit its eggs in bundles, possibly confirming its validity as a separate, cryptic species (Duelli, 1994). The flavifrons - group (part of P 4, G 3) is mainly African [P. hamatus, P. myassalandicus, P. handschini, P. chloris, P. spissinervis, P. sp. gray from South Africa, P. luaboensis, P. gunvorae, P. kibonotoensis, and P. baronissus (recently synonymized, probably prematurely, with P. kibonotoensis)]. However, one small, well-supported molecular clade has colonized North America (P. perfectus, P. macleodi, P. luctuosus), while another small clade, which includes the widespread over averaged P. abdominalis (Italy) – – – – – – – – 0.003 site per substitutions P marianus. – – – – – – – 0.004 0.007 base of number P abdominalis. (Switzerland) – – – – – – 0.005 0.002 0.004 the) estimated as prasinus. P (Switzerland – – – – – 0.001 0.006 0.003 0.006) clade P 3 (ventralis group P. – – – – 0.007 0.006 0.008 0.006 0.007 - prasinus prasinus. Japan) Pseudomallada P zelleri P. (– – – – 0.009 – 0.007 0.012 0.008 0.006 0.006 0.007 0.012 0.008 0.008 0.005 0.007 0.008 of taxa among taxa benedictae P. – 0.009 0.015 0.012 0.009 0.009 0.013 0.010 0.011 divergences the )). Evolutionary between pairs () Japan (Switzerland Switzerland (Italy) () Greece (shown are distances P -. 4 Table sequence all. P benedictae. P zelleri. P prasinus P ventralis. P prasinus. P abdominalis .. P marianus. abdominalis P P. prasinus Uncorrected species P. flavifrons, extends across Europe (P. ibericus, P. picteti) and into Asia (P. flavifrons). The venosus - group (P 5, G 4) may have its origin around the Mediterranean Sea [P. clathratus, P. genei, P. venosus (also in western Asia)], but one cluster of species extends into Africa (the widespread P. nicolainus, the undescribed P. sp. Sodere from Ethiopia) and even as far as South Africa (P. karooensis, P. rubicundus, P. tactus). There are only a few singletons between the molecular clades:	en	Duelli, Peter, Henry, Charles S., Hayashi, Masayuki, Nomura, Masashi, Mochizuki, Atsushi (2017): Molecular phylogeny and morphology of Pseudomallada (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae), one of the largest genera within Chrysopidae. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 180 (3): 556-569, DOI: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlw008, URL: https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/zoolinnean/zlw008
038CA8732C5DFFA6FEFDF8AAFAB4F22C.taxon	description	Another singleton is P. inornatus, shown in Figure 1 as molecularly distinct from and the sister taxon to P 2. The shape of its tiny gonapsis (Fig. 4 B) is markedly different from that characterizing any other Pseudomallada species. Pseudomallada inornatus is known from Europe and the Caucasus. Pseudomallada inopinatus, a rare endemic highland species on the island of La Réunion east of Madagascar, belongs to the species-rich clade P 4, comprising mainly African species. It appears on the tree as an isolated sister taxon to clade P 5. Its gonapsis (Fig. 4 C), however, is unlike others in P 5. The most similar gonapsis to that of P. inopinatus is found in species such as P. kibonotoensis, which belong to G 4 but are still part of the P 4 clade. ADAPTIVE COLORATION AND OVIPOSITION Not all ‘ green lacewings’ are green. Some even change their body coloration during the adult’s lifetime (Duelli, Johnson, et al., 2014). Variations in body coloration reflect cryptic adaptations to environmental conditions. A well-known characteristic of the genus Pseudomallada is the difference in body coloration among closely related species. From Figure 1 it is clear that in two groups (G 1 and G 2), all species are green, whereas in clade P 4 (G 3 and G 4), some but not all species are grey or brown. These non-green species occur in different sub-clades, interspersed phylogenetically with green species. The conclusion is that green must have been the original body colour in Pseudomallada. Grey or brown body coloration, always linked with white or greyish eggs, and often with bundled egg pedicels, is a derived trait, developed independently in dry and hot habitats, where the vegetation is yellow, grey, or brown for most of the period when the adults are active. Even in a bluish-brownish species considered as green here (P. clathratus), a yellow mutation occurs in the wild in dry areas (Duelli, 1994). In Europe, brownish-grey species such as P. venosus, P. genei, or P. venustus live only in the driest parts of the continent. Convergent evolution of grey or brown species in different genetic clusters leads to species that look very similar but have completely different shapes of their gonapses. Not only the colour of the body and eggs is scattered among the phylogenetic clades but also the mode of egg deposition is polyphyletic. Clustered egg pedicels are particularly common in non-green lacewings, but they also occur in some green species in all groups. Depositing eggs singly or in bundles significantly influences the intensity of cannibalism (Duelli & Johnson, 1992) and can be viewed as an adaptive trait (Duelli, 1981). In a habitat with sufficient food for most larvae, depositing eggs singly is a more successful way to produce offspring. With scarce food, isolated tiny larvae soon starve to death, while larvae from bundled eggs have a chance to encounter sibling larvae, which can be attacked and eaten. Laboratory experiments have shown that with scarce food, at least one larva out of a daily bundle of about 20 eggs will survive to the adult stage (Duelli & Johnson, 1992). From the distribution within the clusters in Figure 1 of species with egg bundles, we cannot see an obvious link to particular habitat qualities, other than the observation that bundled eggs are more often deposited in species living in hot and dry climates. However, several green species living in rather lush habitat (P. astur, P. marianus, and the North American species) show that there must be other reasons than climate for egg bundles.	en	Duelli, Peter, Henry, Charles S., Hayashi, Masayuki, Nomura, Masashi, Mochizuki, Atsushi (2017): Molecular phylogeny and morphology of Pseudomallada (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae), one of the largest genera within Chrysopidae. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 180 (3): 556-569, DOI: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlw008, URL: https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/zoolinnean/zlw008
