identifier	taxonID	type	CVterm	format	language	title	description	additionalInformationURL	UsageTerms	rights	Owner	contributor	creator	bibliographicCitation
03884F74FFFA8B5F45A8C8A195319023.text	03884F74FFFA8B5F45A8C8A195319023.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Acanthaceae	<div><p>Key to the subfamilies of Acanthaceae</p><p>Fruit a capsule with seeds held on hooked retinacula (retinacula malformed or not discernible in Aphanosperma and Chalarothyrsus and seeds permanently retained in capsule valves); cystoliths present or if absent then anthers monothecous ....... Acanthoideae</p><p>Key to the genera of Nelsonioideae [2]</p><p>Peduncles (if present) bearing alternate to spirally arranged, clasping scale-like sterile bracts; bracts sclerophyllous to coriaceous; leaves alternate and diffuse along stems or in rosettes or whorls either basally or terminating branches; stigma scarcely divided, touch-sensitive, folded over and enclosing anthers in undisturbed flowers, becoming erect when touched............................ Elytraria</p><p>Fruit a capsule or a drupe; if a capsule, then without hooked retinacula; cystoliths absent; anthers bithecous ................................ 2</p><p>Mangrove trees or shrubs with pneumatophores; fruit a leathery 1-seeded capsule ................................................... Avicennioideae</p><p>Peduncles (if present) without clasping scale-like bracts; bracts membranous or foliaceous; leaves opposite (sometimes subopposite or alternate in Nelsonia and Staurogyne), at least some pairs dispersed along the stems; stigma usually conspicuously lobed, neither folded over nor enclosing anthers, not touch-sensitive .................... 2</p><p>Herbs, shrubs or lianas, not mangrove trees or shrubs, pneumatophores absent; fruit a capsule with 2 or more seeds, or a 1–2-seeded drupe...3</p><p>Herbs or shrubs, not twining; paired bracteoles present or absent but never large and conspicuous; flowers usually alternate or spirally arranged in few- to many-flowered inflorescences; calyx deeply 4- or 5-lobed;fruit a many-seeded (usually&gt;10seeds) capsule ..................................................................................... Nelsonioideae</p><p>Bracteoles absent; inflorescence of dense ± cylindrical spikes with imbricate bracts; calyx 4-lobed, the anterior lobe with bifid apex (rarely more deeply divided into 5 lobes); stamens 2, staminodes absent............................................................................... Nelsonia</p><p>Climbing herbs or lianas, less frequently free-standing shrubs or perennial herbs; flowers subtended by conspicuous clasping or partially connate (at anthesis) paired bracteoles; flowers solitary or in fascicles or racemes of mostly opposite flowers, never spirally arranged; calyx a subentire or undulate rim or with irregular teeth, or shallowly 5-lobed; fruit either a 1–2-seeded drupe or a 2–4- seeded woody capsule....................................... Thunbergioideae</p><p>Bracteoles present; inflorescence variable but if spikes cylindrical then not so dense (except in Anisosepalum); calyx 5-lobed; stamens 4, adaxial staminode often also present (rarely reduced to 2 stamens + 2–3 staminodes).......................................................... 3</p><p>Pairs of bracteoles inserted below receptacle, not adnate to it or to base of calyx tube (leaves not ternate and corollas usually less than 3 cm long).................................................................... Staurogyne</p><p>Pairs of bracteoles partially adnate to receptacle and sometimes also to base of calyx tube (or if bracteoles sometimes free in Anisosepalum lewallei, then leaves mostly ternate and corollas 3–4 cm long) ....... 4</p><p>Key to the tribes of Acanthoideae</p><p>Cystoliths absent; stamens 4, monothecous................................. 2</p><p>Cystoliths present; stamens 2 or 4, if 4 then at least 2 of these bithecous...................................................................................... 3</p><p>Calyx lobes subequal but similar to one another and not hidden by bracteoles; ovary asymmetric with style arising on one side, stigma 1-lobed, lobe apically subcapitate; Brazil ................... Aymoreana</p><p>Calyx long-tubular, cylindrical to inflated; pollen colporate; capsule with more than 4 seeds; corolla aestivation left-contort..................... ............................................................................... Physacantheae [1]</p><p>Lateral 2 calyx lobes markedly shorter than other lobes and often hidden by the bracteoles; gynoecium not with the above combination of characters; Africa, Madagascar ........................................ 5</p><p>Calyx not as above; pollen colpate; capsule with up to 4 seeds; corolla aestivation ascending-cochlear ............................ Acantheae</p><p>Plants delicate trailing herbs; petiole usually longer than leaf blade; anther thecae with a basal appendage, this often forked; corolla widened almost to the base into a campanulate throat, palate of lower lip not bullate, i.e., without raised bosses ...................... Saintpauliopsis</p><p>Calyx strongly bilabiate, with a 2-lobed or -toothed anterior lip and a 3-lobed or -toothed posterior lip; androecium usually of 2 bithecous stamens and 2 monothecous stamens (rarely 4 bithecous stamens); corolla with a funnel-shaped limb comprising equal anterior and lateral lobes and partially (or almost completely) fused dorsal pair of lobes, not strongly bilabiate........................ Neuracantheae</p><p>Plants erect or procumbent herbs or subshrubs; petiole usually shorter than leaf blade; anther thecae with basal appendages absent or short, apiculate, not forked; corolla with a cylindrical basal tube, and ± gradually widened throat, not appearing campanulate, palate of lower lip bullate, i.e., with raised bosses................ Anisosepalum</p><p>Above combination of characters lacking; if androecium of 2 bithecous stamens and 2 monothecous stamens then corolla strongly bilabiate ......................................................................................... 4</p><p>Corolla with left-contort aestivation in bud ................................. 5</p><p>Corolla with either quincuncial or ascending-cochlear aestivation in bud........................................................................................... 6</p><p>Key to the genera of Thunbergioideae</p><p>Fruit a fleshy drupe with 1 or 2 seeds.......................................... 2</p><p>Corolla tube with a filament curtain present (in all but 4 genera); seeds with trichomes either covering entire surfaces or along rim, often hygroscopic, seed surface without concentric ridges............ ........................................................................................ Ruellieae</p><p>Fruit a woody capsule with 2 or 4 seeds...................................... 3</p><p>Drupe 2-seeded, large (3–10 cm in diam.) ........... Anomacanthus</p><p>Drupe 1-seeded, not so large ....................................... Mendoncia</p><p>Stigma ± equally 2-lobed, each lobe subdivided into 2 unequal lobes; pollen 7–9-lobate and -colpate .............................. Meyenia</p><p>Corolla tube lacking a filament curtain; seeds sculptured with concentric ridges at least towards the rim, lacking trichomes, or if hygroscopic trichomes covering the seed surface ( Lankesteria only) then with the unique combination of: corolla salverform with a long narrowly cylindrical tube and a spreading 5-lobed limb, sometimes with the sinus between the anterior pair of lobes broader than the other sinuses ........................................................ Whitfieldieae</p><p>Corolla with quincuncial aestivation............................. Barlerieae</p><p>Corolla with ascending-cochlear aestivation................................ 7</p><p>Capsule 6–20-seeded or rarely 4-seeded; pollen with apertural margin or surface conspicuously thickened and often intricately ornamented with conical spines, pseudocolpi absent........................ ......................................................................... Andrographideae</p><p>Capsule 2- or 4-seeded; pollen variable but without conspicuously thickened and ornamented apertural margins or surfaces, pseudocolpi often present ......................................................... Justicieae</p><p>Stigma funnel-shaped, capitate, unequally 2-lobed or if equally lobed then not subdivided; pollen spiraperturate and unlobed .... 4</p><p>Anthers opening by apical pores; seed with a scar on the proximal face; indumentum stellate, bracteoles with a dense orange, red or mustard-yellow stellate indumentum covering the external surface ................................................................................... Pseudocalyx</p><p>Anthers opening by longitudinal slits; seed hollow on the proximal face; indumentum rarely stellate, bracteoles without a very dense orange, red or mustard-yellow indumentum externally.... Thunbergia</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFFA8B5F45A8C8A195319023	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFFB8B5E45F8C82193B29771.text	03884F74FFFB8B5E45F8C82193B29771.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Acanthaceae	<div><p>Key to the genera of Acantheae</p><p>1 Corolla regularly 5-lobed or bilabiate, not comprising a single lip.... 2</p><p>1 Corolla lobes comprising a single lip, entire or 3- or 5-lobed, held either ventrally or dorsally, or if (rarely) not markedly 1-lipped [3] then at least with the sinus between the 2 uppermost (outermost) lobes clearly at a wider angle than that of the other sinuses ........ 8</p><p>2 Plants of tropical Africa and Madagascar ........ Stenandriopsis [4]</p><p>2 Plants of the Americas................................................................. 3</p><p>3 Corolla zygomorphic, the lobes dissimilar in form ..................... 4</p><p>3 Corolla usually subactinomorphic, the lobes more or less similar in form (or nearly zygomorphic with lobes of upper lip dissimilar from those of lower lip in some Stenandrium) ............................ 6</p><p>4 Calyx deeply 3-partite............................................. Cyphacanthus</p><p>4 Calyx 5-partite ............................................................................. 5</p><p>5 Leaves opposite (rarely subopposite), not quaternate; bracts entire or dentate, green or often brightly colored; corollas rarely with linear nectar guides, mostly 25–85 mm long; at least distal portion of filaments of stamens usually exserted from corolla tube; pollen with colpi not expanded or bifurcating (usually narrowed) toward poles, interapertural exine usually heterogeneously sculptured; plants typically of wet habitats; widespread in NW.................. Aphelandra [5]</p><p>5 Leaves opposite (rarely subopposite) or quaternate; bracts entire and usually green; corolla often with colored linear nectar guides, 6.5–24 mm long (or if longer [to 40 mm], then plants with quaternate leaves); filaments of stamens often entirely included in corolla tube; pollen with colpi sometimes expanded or bifurcating toward poles, interapertural exine homogeneously sculptured; plants of dry habitats; Mexico .................................................. Holographis</p><p>6 Pollen 3-colpate with each colpus longitudinally bisected by an operculum (elongate band of exine), opercula either isolated within the colpi (operculate) or connected at each end to the interapertural exine (pontoperculate); Jamaica ................................ Salpixantha [6]</p><p>6 Pollen 3-colpate with colpi not bisected by elongate bands of exine or pollen pantoforate (i.e., sometimes in Stenandrium dulce) or pollen pantoaperturate (rugate) with rugae arranged ± tangentially or irregularly over surface or pollen 3-colpate and with prominent margines and mesocolpial ridges (appearing 9-colpate); widespread, but not in Jamaica ............................................................ 7</p><p>7 Plants usually small, up to 25(–70) cm; leaves often borne at or near ground level (plants acaulescent to subcaulescent); bracts usually green; widespread .............................................. Stenandrium</p><p>7 Plants usually shrubby, up to 1.5 m tall; leaves disposed along conspicuous stems; bracts whitish, pinkish, or reddish-brown; Central America and South America............................... Neriacanthus [6]</p><p>8 Corolla tube twisted through 180°, the single corolla lip held dorsally, entire or 3-lobed; Tanzania ............................. Streptosiphon</p><p>8 Corolla tube not twisted, corolla lip held ventrally, 3- or 5-lobed or sometimes only undulate ............................................................. 9</p><p>9 Stamens included in corolla tube, anthers subsessile, not inserted on a thickened flange................................................................. 10</p><p>9 Stamens exserted from corolla tube, with flattened bone-like filaments, inserted on a thickened flange........................................ 11</p><p>10 Calyx 4-lobed, anterior lobe bifid; bracts not imbricate, smaller than bracteoles; bracteoles conspicuous, elliptic or obovate, diverging widely from inflorescence axis; corolla tube not narrowly cylindrical, limb obscurely 5-lobed or erose .......................... Crossandrella</p><p>10 Calyx 5-lobed; bracts usually imbricate, larger than and enclosing bracteoles; bracteoles linear to lanceolate, not diverging widely from inflorescence axis; corolla tube narrowly cylindrical, limb 5-lobed........................................................................ Crossandra</p><p>11 Calyx 5-lobed; seeds sculpted with pectinate scales or concentric rings; bracts, bracteoles and calyx lobes glumaceous ... Sclerochiton</p><p>11 Calyx 4-lobed; seeds either covered in hygroscopic trichomes, puberulous or glabrous, or seeds tuberculate, without scales or concentric rings; bracts, bracteoles and calyces only rarely glumaceous......................................................................... 12</p><p>12 Anterior pair of staminal filaments flattened and either with an obtuse or acute tooth-like appendage or truncate to rounded towards apex ventrally ............................................................................ 13</p><p>12 Anterior staminal filaments lacking appendages, if flattened then gradually narrowed towards apex .............................................. 14</p><p>13 Leaves opposite; flowers solitary or paired in leaf axils, each subtended by 2 pairs of bracteoles, outer pair entire, inner pair trifid; ovary without apical tufts of glandular trichomes; seeds tuberculate; India ............................................................ Cynarospermum</p><p>13 Leaves in pseudowhorls of (3) 4; inflorescences variable but not with single or paired flowers in leaf axils; bracteoles entire or toothed, not trifid; ovary with 2 apical tufts of glandular trichomes; seeds with branched hygroscopic trichomes; widespread.............. ....................................................................................... Blepharis</p><p>14 Seeds glabrous or sericeous-puberulous; stigma bilobed; bracts terminating in a single spine; plants often robust, ± tall perennial herbs, shrubs or small trees; widespread ........................ Acanthus</p><p>14 Seeds covered in long hygroscopic trichomes; stigma 1-lobed; bracts terminating in 3 or 5 simple or compound spines; plants often compact shrublets or acaulescent perennial herbs, if taller then slender; SW Africa .................................................... Acanthopsis</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFFB8B5E45F8C82193B29771	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFFB8B59462ECA67953090CA.text	03884F74FFFB8B59462ECA67953090CA.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Barlerieae	<div><p>Key to the genera of Barlerieae</p><p>Calyx 4-lobed, anterior lobe entire or bifid for less than half its length; anterior and posterior lobes typically larger and broader than lateral lobes and often enclosing them; corolla limb variously arranged, lobes subregular or in a 4 + 1 or 2 + 3 configuration, without hooded upper lip; staminal filaments?always twisted and crossing near the base ................................................ Barleria</p><p>Calyx 5-lobed, if lobes unequal then lateral lobes not enclosed; if calyx 4-partite with largely fused anterior lobes then corolla strongly bilabiate with hooded upper lip; stamens not twisted and crossing near the base.................................................................. 2</p><p>Androecium of 4 stamens, didynamous, with or without 1 staminode.. .........................................................................................3</p><p>Androecium of 2 stamens, usually with 2 or 3 staminodes ....... 14</p><p>All anthers bithecous ................................................................... 4</p><p>Anthers of longer pair of stamens bithecous, those of shorter pair of stamens monothecous............................................................ 12</p><p>Stamens included within corolla tube; stigma flattened, fan-shaped or rhombic; corolla weakly bilabiate, posterior pair of lobes partially fused but not forming a hooded upper lip .......................... 5</p><p>Longer pair of stamens exserted from corolla tube or clearly visible at corolla mouth; stigma capitate-bilobed; corolla strongly bilabiate, posterior pair of lobes largely or wholly fused to form a ± hooded upper lip.................................................................. 10</p><p>Flowers in often large spherical heads with several whorls of bracts, outermost bracts with a spiny or bristly margin and/or large, 20 mm long or more; continental Africa ......................... Crabbea</p><p>Flowers arranged in smaller, non-spherical heads or in spikes, glomerules or panicles; bracts not spiny, smaller; Madagascar [7] ..................................................................................................... 6</p><p>Inflorescences pedunculate axillary heads, spikes, umbels or dichasial panicles, or if fasciculate then inflorescence units held within paired clasping bracts ........................................................................ 7</p><p>Inflorescences sessile, axillary glomerules, inflorescence units not held within paired clasping bracts ............................................... 9</p><p>Flowers subtended by a whorl of (3) 4 bracts, these connate for at least half their length to form a 3–4-lobed epicalyx; corolla 37– 50 mm long..................................................................... Boutonia</p><p>Flowers or inflorescence units subtended by a pair of bracts; bracts not connate or only basally so; corolla up to 25 mm long..............8</p><p>8 Inflorescences of spikes, dichasial panicles or heads; pairs of bracts subtending each inflorescence unit often unequal, not adpressed, variously shaped ..................................... Podorungia [8]</p><p>8 Inflorescences of umbels (sometimes fasciculate) or lax dichasia; pairs of bracts subtending each inflorescence unit subequal, adpressed, ovate or elliptic ..................................... Pseudodicliptera</p><p>9 All bracts of glomerules linear or lanceolate, without recurved apices; plants often with dense pale indumentum on stems and/or abaxial surface of leaves................................................. Lasiocladus</p><p>9 Outermost bracts of glomerules broader, foliaceous, sometimes with recurved apices; plants without dense pale indumentum....... ..................................................................................... Pericalypta</p><p>10 Anther thecae conspicuously spurred at base; China to Malaysia ................................................................................. Chroesthes</p><p>10 Anther thecae not spurred at base, either obtuse or at most minutely apiculate.......................................................................... 11</p><p>11 Capsule stipitate; seeds glabrous; calyx lobes homomorphic; bracts and bracteoles small and inconspicuous; Borneo..... Borneacanthus</p><p>11 Capsule not or barely stipitate; seeds with hygroscopic trichomes; calyx lobes ± markedly heteromorphic, posterior lobe broadest, lateral lobes narrowest; bracts and bracteoles usually conspicuous, often similar to calyx lobes in shape and size; widespread ........... .................................................................................. Lepidagathis</p><p>12 Plants spiny with axillary spines and/or spinose leaf margins; Caribbean....................................................................... Barleriola</p><p>12 Plants without axillary spines or spinose leaf margins .............. 13</p><p>13 Stamens exserted beyond corolla lobes; corolla limb very short and not strongly bilabiate (although posterior pair of lobes is fused); inflorescence a many-flowered thyrse with flowers in dense whorls at each node; bracts and bracteoles inconspicuous; New Guinea ...... ............................................................................. Hulemacanthus</p><p>13 Stamens not exserted beyond corolla lobes; corolla limb strongly bilabiate; inflorescence a secund spike, spikes sometimes compounded into dense heads; bracts and bracteoles usually conspicuous; widespread ........................................................ Lepidagathis</p><p>14 Calyx lobes unequal, posterior lobe clearly broadest (2 + 2 + 1 configuration); seeds covered in long hygroscopic trichomes; inflorescences markedly secund; widespread ....... Lepidagathis</p><p>14 Calyx lobes subequal, all linear; seeds with minute trichomes towards the rim only; inflorescence a congested spiciform thyrse, not secund; D.R. Congo ......................................... Schaueriopsis</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFFB8B59462ECA67953090CA	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFFC8B5945A8CC0193E39505.text	03884F74FFFC8B5945A8CC0193E39505.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Whitfieldieae	<div><p>Key to the genera of Andrographideae</p><p>Filaments swollen (pouched) distally; corolla subequally 5-lobed, not clearly bilabiate...................................................................... 2</p><p>Key to the genera of Ruellieae</p><p>Filaments not swollen or pouched; corolla bilabiate or subequally 5-lobed......................................................................................... 3</p><p>Filament curtain lacking .............................................................. 2</p><p>Filament curtain present .............................................................. 5</p><p>Cladodes (reduced abortive branches) present in the inflorescence, terminated by paired small spines; seeds not compressed, with 2 distinct grooves, surface with hygroscopic trichomes ............... Haplanthodes</p><p>Anther filament connective tissue positioned lateral to thecae, thecae facing outward in a 180° configuration from connective tissue........................................................................................3</p><p>Cladodes absent in inflorescence; seeds somewhat compressed, not distinctly grooved, surface lacking trichomes, verrucose ........ .............................................................................. Haplanthus [9]</p><p>Anther filament connective tissue positioned dorsal to thecae, thecae held parallel (i.e., side-by-side) as typical in Acanthaceae .... 4</p><p>Plants with basal rosettes of leaves.............................. Pararuellia</p><p>Ovules 2 per locule; anthers glabrous, dehiscent by longitudinal slit in central half or 2/3 of each theca........ Sphinctacanthus [10]</p><p>Plants upright, with cauline leaves................................................. ...................................................... “ Pseudosiphonium ined.” [16]</p><p>Ovules 3 or more per locule, or if 2 then anthers conspicuously penicillate at base and dehiscent by longitudinal slit in distal half extending to apex......................................................................... 4</p><p>Plants with long, tubular flowers (≥ 5 cm total length), these yellow to white, narrow, unexpanded portions of tubes ≥2× longer than expanded portions; leaves not in a basal rosette; Papuasia................ ............................................................................. Leptosiphonium</p><p>Capsule compressed perpendicular to the septum, elliptic, oblanceolate or narrowly oblong in face view; seeds subglobose, ellipsoid or block-like, not compressed, often pitted or rugose and grooved; anthers often penicillate at base ........ Andrographis [11]</p><p>Plants with short, infundibuliform flowers (&lt;5 cm total length), these mostly purple, narrow unexpanded portions of tubes ± equal to expanded portions (or marginally different in length, not as above); leaves typically held in a basal rosette; Australia, New Caledonia, New Guinea ............................................. Brunoniella</p><p>Capsule not compressed, narrow throughout and 4-angled; seeds markedly compressed, smooth and lacking trichomes, or covered in trichomes; anthers not penicillate ............................................ 5</p><p>Pollen with coarse reticulate exine; corolla with a very long, narrow, unexpanded portion of tube; androecium of 2 stamens + 2 staminodes; ovary with 4 ovules ...................................................... 6</p><p>Calyx 4-lobed; slender procumbent herbs ................. Graphandra</p><p>Calyx 5-lobed; habit variable but not procumbent herbs............. 6</p><p>Staminodes present ........................................ Phlogacanthus [12]</p><p>Staminodes absent ....................................................................... 7</p><p>Corolla tube shorter than limb; upper lip ± curved.... Diotacanthus</p><p>Corolla tube longer than limb; upper lip not curved...................... .............................................................................. Gymnostachyum</p><p>Key to the genera of Whitfieldieae</p><p>Seeds covered in hygroscopic trichomes that obscure the seed surface; androecium of 2 stamens and (usually) 2 staminodes; corolla salverform (or sinus between the anterior pair of lobes broader than the other sinuses), tube narrowly cylindrical throughout............... .................................................................................... Lankesteria</p><p>Seeds lacking trichomes, surface with concentric rings at least towards rim; androecium of 4 stamens (very rarely reduced to 2 stamens plus 2 staminodes in occasional flowers); corolla form various but not salverform with tube narrowly cylindrical throughout........ 2</p><p>Flowers in well-developed racemes or spikes, these sometimes branched to form panicles; tropical Africa and Madagascar ....... 3</p><p>Flowers in axillary or subterminal fascicles, glomerules or short umbels; Madagascar [13]............................................................. 4</p><p>Each inflorescence unit 1-flowered; calyx ≥ 9 mm long, usually extending beyond or subequal in length to bracteoles, often showy and can be colored similar to corolla........................... Whitfieldia</p><p>Each inflorescence unit either 1-flowered or 2–3-flowered; calyx up to 8 mm long, hidden within paired bracteoles, not colored similar to corolla..................................................... Chlamydacanthus</p><p>Peduncle of each inflorescence unit conspicuous, filiform, 7–14 mm long, considerably longer than bracteoles and calyces .. .. Zygoruellia</p><p>Inflorescence units either sessile or peduncles shorter than or equal in length to bracteoles and calyces, not filiform.......................... 5</p><p>Corolla bright orange-red or scarlet, tube markedly curved; stamens exserted well beyond corolla lobes..................... Camarotea</p><p>Corolla variously colored but not bright orange-red or scarlet, tube straight or curved; stamens not or only slightly exserted beyond corolla lobes................................................................................. 6</p><p>Corolla tube subequal in length to limb, limb strongly bilabiate, lobes of upper lip partially fused, all lobes with long wispy white trichomes internally ............................................. Leandriella [14]</p><p>Corolla tube longer than limb, often markedly so, limb not strongly bilabiate, lobes of upper lip more deeply divided, or limb subequally 5-lobed, all lobes lacking long white trichomes internally .......................................................... Forcipella / Vindasia [15]</p><p>5 Pollen, corolla, androecium, and ovule number various, but not in the above combination................................................................. 7</p><p>6 Dichasia of 2 flowers typically arranged in terminal spikes, each flower subtended by a single leaf-like bract; pollen colporate; tropical Asia................................................................................ Eranthemum</p><p>6 Dichasia typically of 2 flowers, axillary and not arranged into terminal spikes, each flower subtended by pair of leaf-like bracts; pollen porate; west-central Africa ................................. Kosmosiphon</p><p>7 All anther thecae lacking basal awns or appendages ................... 8</p><p>7 One or more anther thecae with basal awns or appendages....... 27</p><p>8 Corolla with a rugula and with rows of trichomes on the inner surface of posterior corolla; transverse fusion of filaments creating a ridge or “strobilanthoid” type of filament curtain ....................... 9</p><p>8 Corolla lacking a rugula or rows of trichomes; filament curtain not “strobilanthoid” ......................................................................... 10</p><p>9 Ovaries with ≤4 ovules ............................................ Strobilanthes</p><p>9 Ovaries with&gt;4 ovules ....................................... Strobilanthes s.l. [incl. Hemigraphis / Clarkeasia / Stenosiphonium] [17]</p><p>10 Androecium of 2 stamens + 2 staminodes................................. 11</p><p>10 Androecium of 4 stamens.......................................................... 14</p><p>11 Ovaries with 2 ovules; pollen with sexine lips, 12-pseudocolpate; plants usually strongly odoriferous with a creosote-like smell ...... .................................................................................... Duosperma</p><p>11 Ovaries with&gt;2 ovules; pollen lacking sexine lips and not 12- pseudocolpate; plants not typically strongly odoriferous .......... 12</p><p>12 Corolla very large, gullet-shaped, pale green to greenish-yellow (sometimes with maroon tinges), cream-colored, or entirely dark maroon; primarily nocturnal, and adapted to bat pollinators; calyx 3-lobed; pollen lacking pseudocolpi.......................... Louteridium</p><p>12 Corolla various but not in the above character combination, and rarely yellow; calyx not 3-lobed; pollen with 4 pseudocolpi......13</p><p>13 Plants usually large herbs to large shrubs; corolla strongly bilabiate, hooded; leaf bases decurrent onto the petiole and forming a wing; plants typically of forests and woodlands or their margins.... ...................................................................................... Brillantaisia</p><p>13 Plants typically small herbs; corolla usually more weakly bilabiate, typically not hooded; leaf bases not typically decurrent onto the petiole thus not forming a wing; plants typically of riparian corridors ...................................................................... Hygrophila</p><p>14 Plants with large, inflated calyces with calyx lobes fused nearly to the apex (thus appearing tubular); all plant surfaces covered with large, prominent glands ............................................ Satanocrater</p><p>14 Plants lacking large, inflated, nearly completely fused calyces; plant surfaces with or without glands but not to the extent and size as above ..................................................................................... 15</p><p>15 Corolla with all 5 lobes comprising the lower lip (thus 1-lipped) .... ............................................................................ Eremomastax [18]</p><p>15 Corolla not 1-lipped................................................................... 16</p><p>16 Corolla with conspicuous “herring-bone” pattern characterizing lower throat and/or lip surfaces; transverse folds of corolla forming an additional fold (in addition to transverse fusion of filaments), or “corolla fold” type of filament curtain; corolla typically strongly bilabiate but weakly bilabiate in a few species.......................... 17</p><p>16 Corolla lacking “herring-bone” patterning; filament curtain not of the “corolla fold” type; corolla typically rotate to zygomorphic, only distinctly bilabiate in a few species ................................... 18</p><p>17 Large herbs typically&gt; 1 m in height; leaves drying blackish in color; pollen grains 2-aperturate........................ Calacanthus [19]</p><p>17 Small herbs typically &lt;1 m in height; leaves not drying blackish in color; pollen grains 4-aperturate.................................. Hygrophila</p><p>18 Calyx 3-lobed ............................................................ Louteridium</p><p>18 Calyx not 3-lobed ...................................................................... 19</p><p>19 Corolla with flattened, apically rounded, uni- or bicellular trichomes lining inner corolla surfaces; pollen spherical, echinate, lacking ring of echinae surrounding the apertures....... Acanthopale</p><p>19 Corolla lacking trichomes as described above; pollen various but not spherical, echinate, and lacking the ring of echinae............ 20</p><p>20 Ovary with 2 ovules; pollen with sexine lips and 12-pseudocolpate; plants usually strongly odoriferous with a creosote-like smell .................................................................................... Duosperma</p><p>20 Ovary with&gt;2 ovules (rarely reduced to 2); pollen lacking sexine lips and not 12-pseudocolpate; plants not typically strongly odoriferous.........................................................................................21</p><p>21 Calyx conspicuously zygomorphic............................................ 22</p><p>21 Calyx typically actinomorphic or at most weakly zygomorphic .............................................................................................................23</p><p>22 Calyx with 3 anterior lobes fused to varying degrees, 2 posterior lobes mostly free; dorsalmost lobe lacking conspicuous marginal veins; pollen spherical, echinate, and with conspicuous ring of echinae surrounding the apertures .................. Dischistocalyx [20]</p><p>22 Calyx in a 2 + 2 + 1 configuration with dorsalmost lobe the largest, the 2 ventral lobes intermediate in size, the 2 lateral lobes the smallest, and all lobes free to the receptacle; dorsalmost lobe with conspicuous marginal veins; pollen spherical, coarsely reticulate, ring of echinae absent........................................... Dinteracanthus</p><p>23 Shrubs or trees to 25 m tall and usually&gt; 4 m in height at maturity; plants often used as fence posts; restricted to southern Central America and northern South America...................... Trichanthera</p><p>23 Herbs, shrubs, or treelets, but clearly not true trees; plants not used as fenceposts to our knowledge; widespread............................. 24</p><p>24 Plants covered in dense tomentum of golden-yellow pubescence; pollen bicolporate with numerous bands of pseudocolpi oriented perpendicular to opposing face........................... Trichosanchezia</p><p>24 Plants not as above; pollen not as above.................................... 25</p><p>25 Pollen spherical, exine coarsely reticulate, lacking pseudocolpi and lacking sexine lips ............................................................. Ruellia</p><p>25 Pollen 3-porate, 12-pseudocolpate, pores flanked by sexine lips .... 26</p><p>26 Capsule with fracturing placentae ............................... Phaulopsis</p><p>26 Capsule remaining intact post-dehiscence, lacking fracturing placentae................................................................. Heteradelphia</p><p>27 Plants creeping or trailing herbs characterized most frequently by near linear leaves, giving overall gestalt a “grass-like” appearance (rarely elliptical to obovate); restricted to Namib and Kalahari Deserts......................................................................... Ruelliopsis</p><p>27 Plant habit various but not creeping with linear leaves and “grass-like” in appearance; widespread ................................................ 28</p><p>28 Capsule with fracturing placentae ............................................. 29</p><p>28 Capsule with placentae that remain attached to capsular wall at time of dehiscence ..................................................................... 30</p><p>29 Flowers lacking pair of conspicuously leaf-like bracts; pollen grains with sexine lips ................................................. Phaulopsis</p><p>29 Conspicuous pair of relatively large, leaf-like bracts subtending each flower; pollen grains with 4 areas of raised tectum, triangular in polar view................................................................. Petalidium</p><p>30 Anther thecae each with 2 appendages................... Diceratotheca</p><p>30 Anther thecae otherwise ............................................................ 31</p><p>31 Pollen polypseudocolpate with 40+ pseudocolpi.............................. ................................................................“ Sinoacanthus ined.” [21]</p><p>31 Pollen otherwise ........................................................................ 32</p><p>32 Calyx lobes fused for at least 1/3 of their length and usually over half of their length, with hyaline regions bordering each lobe............................................................................................ 33</p><p>32 Calyx lobes unfused or variously fused but rarely over 1/3 of their length, lacking hyaline regions bordering each lobe ................. 34</p><p>33 Ovary with 4 ovules, capsule with (up to) 4 seeds ........................ ............................................................................ Dyschoriste [22]</p><p>33 Ovary with 8 ovules, capsule with more than 4 seeds................... .............................................................................. Echinacanthus</p><p>34 Leaves conspicuously dentate or crenate................................... 35</p><p>34 Leaves entire or weakly dentate to crenate, but not conspicuously so...................................................................................... 36</p><p>35 Outermost theca of each of longer pair of stamens with a conspicuous appendage, other thecae with much shorter appendages or rounded................................................................ Mimulopsis [23]</p><p>35 Either both thecae or one of each pair of thecae of all anthers with an appendage ............................................................. Mellera [24]</p><p>36 Plants with long tubular, bird-pollination adapted flowers, often bright red, pink, orange, or yellow in color; pollen bicolporate with numerous bands of pseudocolpi oriented perpendicular to opposing face ...................................................................................... 37</p><p>36 Plants with various flowers and pollen, but not as above .......... 38</p><p>37 Androecium of 2 stamens + 2 staminodes.................... Sanchezia</p><p>37 Androecium of 4 stamens...................................... Suessenguthia</p><p>38 Capsules usually 2-seeded ......................................................... 39</p><p>38 Capsules with&gt;2 seeds.............................................................. 40</p><p>39 Corolla bilabiate, 10–12.5 mm long, tube cylindrical, without a clearly expanded throat; lower lip with long bristly trichomes internally; pollen with 12 pseudocolpi; SW Angola .............. Mcdadea</p><p>39 Corolla subactinomorphic, not strongly bilabiate, 22–45 mm long, tube clearly differentiated into a narrow basal tube and an expanded throat; pollen with 18+ pseudocolpi; Angola to D.R. Congo and to Zimbabwe .......................... Strobilanthopsis</p><p>40 Inflorescences of very long, terminal spikes, these commonly 30 cm in length; Malaysia ........................................ Stenothyrsus</p><p>40 Inflorescences variable, primarily of racemes, less commonly of spikes or solitary flowers, but if a spike, these not so elongate, consistently &lt;15 cm long ................................................................ 41</p><p>41 Evergreen shrubs or trees, precocious flowering absent; ultimate branches not as below; pollen bicolporate with numerous bands of pseudocolpi oriented perpendicular to opposing face; Neotropics............................................................................... Bravaisia</p><p>41 Deciduous tree to 5 m tall, flowering before the leaves appear (precocious flowering); ultimate branches numerous and curved-ascending; pollen not as above; karst hills of Laos ....................... ........................................................................... Xylacanthus [25]</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFFC8B5945A8CC0193E39505	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFFE8B6F45A8CD519531970D.text	03884F74FFFE8B6F45A8CD519531970D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Acanthaceae	<div><p>Key to the genera of Acanthaceae in Africa, Madagascar, the Mediterranean region, and the Arabian Peninsula</p><p>Mangrove trees or shrubs with pneumatophores present; fruit a leathery 1-seeded capsule .............................................. Avicennia</p><p>Herbs, shrubs, woody twiners or small trees, not mangrove trees, without pneumatophores; fruit an explosively dehiscent capsule, not leathery, with (1) 2 or more seeds, or a 1–2-seeded drupe .... 2</p><p>Seeds not borne on hook-shaped retinacula, retinacula lacking or papilliform; plants without cystoliths; anthers bithecous............. 3</p><p>Seeds borne on prominent hook-shaped retinacula; plants with or without cystoliths, if cystoliths absent then anthers monothecous [8] .............................................................................................. 11</p><p>Herbs or shrubs, not twining; paired bracteoles present or absent but not large and conspicuous; flowers usually alternate or spirally arranged in few- to many-flowered inflorescences; calyx deeply 4- or 5-lobed; fruit a many-seeded (usually&gt;10 seeds), capsule, not woody .......................................................................................... 4</p><p>Herbaceous twiners or lianas, less frequently free-standing shrubs or herbs; flowers solitary or in fascicles or racemes of opposite flowers, not spirally arranged; flowers subtended by conspicuous clasping or partially connate paired bracteoles; calyx a subentire or undulate rim or with irregular teeth, or obscurely 5-lobed; fruit either a 1–2-seeded drupe or a 2–4-seeded woody capsule ......... 8</p><p>Peduncles bearing alternate clasping scale-like sterile bracts; all bracts sclerophyllous; leaves held in rosettes or whorls ................ ......................................................................................... Elytraria</p><p>Peduncles (if present) without clasping scale-like bracts; bracts membranous or foliaceous; leaves opposite, at least some pairs dispersed along the stems................................................................. 5</p><p>Bracteoles absent; inflorescence of dense ± cylindrical spikes with imbricate bracts; calyx 4-lobed, the anterior lobe with bifid apex (rarely more deeply divided into 5 lobes); stamens 2, staminodes absent............................................................................... Nelsonia</p><p>5 Bracteoles present; inflorescence variable but if spikes cylindrical then not so dense; calyx 5-lobed; stamens 4, adaxial staminode often also present (rarely reduced to 2 stamens + 2–3 staminodes) ................................................................................................... 6</p><p>6 Pairs of bracteoles inserted below receptacle, not adnate (leaves not ternate; corollas &lt;3 cm long); lateral 2 lobes of calyx can be somewhat shorter than other lobes but not markedly so and not hidden by the bracteoles; W and C Africa ........................ Staurogyne</p><p>6 Pairs of bracteoles partially adnate to receptacle and sometimes base of calyx (or if bracteoles sometimes free in Anisosepalum lewallei, then leaves mostly ternate and corollas 3–4 cm long); lateral 2 calyx lobes markedly shorter than other lobes and largely hidden by the bracteoles .............................................................. 7</p><p>7 Plants delicate trailing herbs; petiole usually longer than leaf blade; anther thecae with a basal appendage, this often forked; corolla widened almost from the base into a campanulate throat, palate of lower lip not bullate, i.e., without raised bosses; Gabon to Tanzania, Madagascar .......................................... Saintpauliopsis</p><p>7 Plants erect or procumbent herbs or subshrubs; petiole usually shorter than leaf blade; anther thecae with basal appendages absent or short, apiculate, not forked; corolla with a cylindrical basal tube, and ± gradually widened throat, not appearing campanulate, palate of lower lip bullate, i.e., with raised bosses; C and E Africa...................................................................... Anisosepalum</p><p>8 Fruit a fleshy drupe with 1 or 2 seeds.......................................... 9</p><p>8 Fruit a 2–4-seeded woody capsule............................................. 10</p><p>9 Drupe with 2 seeds, large (3–10 cm in diam.); leaves with a characteristic ± long narrow basal portion above an abruptly rounded or cordate base, can appear as a winged petiole; Congo Rep., D.R. Congo ........................................................... Anomacanthus</p><p>9 Drupe with a single seed, not so large; leaves without base as above; widespread........................................................ Mendoncia</p><p>10 Anthers opening by apical pores; seed with a scar on proximal face; indumentum stellate, bracteoles with a dense orange, red or mustard-yellow stellate indumentum covering external surface..... ..................................................................................... Pseudocalyx</p><p>10 Anthers opening by longitudinal slits; seed hollowed on proximal face; indumentum usually not stellate, bracteoles without a very dense orange, red or mustard-yellow indumentum externally ....... .................................................................................... Thunbergia</p><p>11 Stamens 4, sometimes with an additional staminode ................ 12</p><p>11 Stamens 2, with or without additional staminodes .................... 61</p><p>12 Anthers all monothecous; plants without cystoliths .................. 13</p><p>12 Either anthers all bithecous or 2 anthers bithecous and 2 anthers monothecous; plants with cystoliths.......................................... 21</p><p>13 Calyx long-tubular, cylindrical to inflated, with short lobes; capsule with more than 4 seeds; corolla aestivation left-contort; W and C Africa ........................................................... Physacanthus</p><p>13 Calyx not markedly tubular, deeply divided into 4 or 5 lobes; capsule with up to 4 seeds; corolla aestivation not contorted.... 14</p><p>14 Corolla lobes not comprising a single lip, either regularly 5-lobed or bilabiate; corolla not yellow........................ Stenandriopsis [4]</p><p>14 Corolla limb comprising a single lip, entire or 3- or 5-lobed, held either ventrally or dorsally, or at least with the sinus between the 2 uppermost (or outermost) lobes at a markedly wider angle than that of the other lobe sinuses, if only weakly so then corolla yellow ( Crossandra flava)..................................................................... 15</p><p>15 Corolla tube twisted through 180°, the single corolla lip held dorsally, entire or 3-lobed; Tanzania ............................. Streptosiphon</p><p>15 Corolla tube not twisted, corolla lip held ventrally, 3- or 5-lobed or sometimes only undulate ........................................................... 16</p><p>16 Stamens included in corolla tube, subsessile, not inserted on a thickened flange ........................................................................ 17</p><p>16 Stamens exserted from the corolla tube, with flattened bone-like filaments, inserted on a thickened flange .................................. 18</p><p>17 Calyx 4-lobed, anterior lobe bifid; bracts not imbricate, smaller than bracteoles, these conspicuous, elliptic or obovate, diverging widely from inflorescence axis; corolla tube not narrowly cylindrical, limb obscurely 5-lobed or erose; Liberia to Tanzania ............. ................................................................................ Crossandrella</p><p>17 Calyx 5-lobed; bracts usually imbricate, larger than and enclosing bracteoles, these linear to lanceolate, not diverging widely from inflorescence axis; corolla tube narrowly cylindrical, limb 5-lobed; widespread.................................................................. Crossandra</p><p>18 Calyx 5-lobed; seeds sculptured with pectinate scales or concentric rings; bracts, bracteoles and calyx lobes glumaceous............. .................................................................................. Sclerochiton</p><p>18 Calyx 4-lobed; seeds covered in hygroscopic trichomes, puberulous or glabrous, without scales or concentric rings; bracts, bracteoles and calyces rarely glumaceous ........................................... 19</p><p>19 Anterior pair of staminal filaments each with an obtuse or acute tooth-like appendage towards the apex ventrally........... Blepharis</p><p>19 Anterior staminal filaments lacking appendages....................... 20</p><p>20 Seeds glabrous or sericeous-puberulous; stigma bilobed; bracts terminating in a single spine; plants often robust, ± tall perennial herbs, shrubs or treelets; widespread.............................. Acanthus</p><p>20 Seeds covered in long hygroscopic trichomes; stigma 1-lobed; bracts terminating in 3–5 simple or compound spines; plants often compact shrublets or acaulescent perennial herbs, if taller then slender; Namibia, western South Africa .................... Acanthopsis</p><p>21 Longer 2 stamens bithecous, shorter 2 stamens monothecous but sometimes with vestigial second theca, or if rarely (in few Neuracanthus) all stamens bithecous then shorter pair with anthers almost sessile and corolla with short tube and funnel-shaped limb comprising equal anterior and lateral lobes and partially to almost completely fused dorsal pair of lobes ........................................ 22</p><p>21 All stamens bithecous, filaments present; corolla not as above .... ................................................................................................... 24</p><p>22 Calyx bilabiate, with a 2-lobed or -toothed anterior lip and a 3-lobed or -toothed posterior lip; corolla with a funnel-shaped limb comprising equal anterior and lateral lobes and partially (or almost completely) fused dorsal pair of lobes, not bilabiate ..................... ................................................................................ Neuracanthus</p><p>22 Calyx 5-lobed, lobes either equal or with posterior lobe widest (2 + 2 + 1 configuration); corolla bilabiate ............................... 23</p><p>23 Bracts obovate with rounded apex, often with conspicuous darker pinnate-anastomosing venation; calyx ± equally 5-lobed, markedly shorter than bracteoles; small trailing herbs of rainforest; Nigeria, Bioko, Cameroon .......................................... Afrofittonia</p><p>23 Bracts variously shaped but apex acute to acuminate, 3- to palmately veined or venation inconspicuous; calyx unequally 5- lobed, posterior lobe clearly broadest (2 + 2 + 1 configuration), not or only slightly shorter than bracteoles; habit and habitat various but often in drier habitats; widespread............... Lepidagathis</p><p>24 Calyx 4-lobed, anterior lobe entire or bifid for less than half its length; anterior and posterior lobes typically much broader than lateral lobes and often enclosing them; corolla variously arranged, lobes subregular or in a 4 + 1 or 2 + 3 (rarely 1 + 3) configuration, without a hooded upper lip; filaments of anterior (long) pair of stamens?always twisted and crossing near the base.................. Barleria</p><p>24 Calyx (3-) 5-lobed, or if anterior pair of lobes partially fused and lobes of unequal width then corolla markedly bilabiate with a ± hooded upper lip; staminal filaments not twisted and crossing near the base .............................................................................. 25</p><p>25 Stamens in 2 pairs with filaments fused at base, sometimes forming a filament curtain within the corolla tube............................ 26</p><p>25 Stamens not in 2 pairs, filaments not fused, filament curtain absent ................................................................................................... 49</p><p>26 Seeds usually tuberculate or rugose, often with a thickened and irregularly crenate or serrate margin, more rarely smooth and rounded, lacking trichomes; corolla bilabiate (sometimes weakly so), with ascending-cochlear aestivation ................................... 27</p><p>26 Seeds with hygroscopic trichomes present throughout or at least along the rim; or if (rarely) glabrous then corolla subactinomorphic; corolla with left-contort aestivation .................................. 29</p><p>27 Flowers solitary in leaf axils; Botswana, South Africa .................. .................................................................................. Glossochilus</p><p>27 Flowers held in well-developed spikes or racemes, sometimes compounded into panicles ......................................................... 28</p><p>28 Anthers with thecae offset, rounded at the base; inflorescence a slender racemose thyrse with opposite cymose units; west-central Africa........................................................................... Filetia [26]</p><p>28 Anthers with thecae held at an equal or subequal height, usually basally spurred or apiculate; inflorescence often a secund spike or raceme, more rarely with opposite cymose units; widespread..... .................................................................................... Asystasia [27]</p><p>29 All anther thecae ± rounded at base, lacking basal appendages .... ................................................................................................... 30</p><p>29 One or both thecae of at least 2 of the 4 anthers with basal appendages ................................................................................ 42</p><p>30 Calyx large, inflated, fused nearly to the apex with only short lobes; all plant surfaces covered in large, prominent scale-like glands; Guinea, NE Africa ....................................... Satanocrater</p><p>30 Calyx not large and inflated, not fused nearly to the apex; plant surfaces with or without glands but not covered in dense scale-like glands.............................................................................................31</p><p>31 Corolla 1-lipped, with all 5 lobes comprising the lower lip (or rarely lip held in upper position due to floral resupination resulting from twisting of the tube) ........................................ Eremomastax</p><p>31 Corolla not 1-lipped................................................................... 32</p><p>32 Calyx with 3 posterior lobes fused for half their length or more, 2 anterior lobes free to the receptacle (2 + 3 configuration); Guineo-Congolian forests.......................................................... 33</p><p>32 Calyx without 3 posterior lobes conspicuously fused ............... 34</p><p>33 Pollen coarsely reticulate; corolla tube cylindrical, only narrowly widened towards mouth, geniculate; W and C Africa ................... ............................................................. Ruellia [ Endosiphon] [20]</p><p>33 Pollen echinate, not coarsely reticulate; corolla tube infundibuliform, not markedly geniculate; Nigeria to D.R. Congo ................. ............................................................................... Dischistocalyx</p><p>34 Calyx strongly zygomorphic, posterior lobe conspicuously broader than the other lobes, ovate, elliptic or rhombic, the other lobes linear-lanceolate to oblanceolate, the 2 anterior lobes slightly broader than the 2 lateral lobes (2 + 2 + 1 configuration), all divided ± to the receptacle..........................................................................35</p><p>34 Calyx (sub)actinomorphic or if zygomorphic then not as above; posterior lobe not markedly broader than other lobes..................36</p><p>35 Capsule with fracturing placentae; flowers held in strobilate to more lax spikes, usually dorsiventral, with flowers and fertile bracts ventrally and sterile bracts dorsally, or rarely flowers solitary and axillary; pollen prolate, 12(+)-pseudocolpate, exine finely reticulate; widespread ..................................................... Phaulopsis</p><p>35 Capsule without fracturing placentae; inflorescences simple or compound dichasia, not strobilate or dorsiventral; pollen spherical, lacking pseudocolpi, exine coarsely reticulate; Angola, Namibia ................................................................... Dinteracanthus [28]</p><p>36 Capsule 2-seeded....................................................................... 37</p><p>36 Capsule 4- to many-seeded........................................................ 38</p><p>37 Calyx divided almost to the receptacle into 5 subequal (posterior sometimes longer) lobes; corolla with flattened, apically rounded, uni- or bicellular trichomes lining inner surface, tube usually ± markedly curved; stigma with 1 linear lobe, second lobe reduced to a short tooth; plants without a creosote-like smell; widespread ............................................................................... Acanthopale</p><p>37 Calyx with fused basal portion and zygomorphic limb due to partial fusion of anterior pair of lobes; corolla without such trichomes internally, tube straight; stigma bilobed; plants usually strongly odiferous with a creosote-like smell; E and S Africa, Arabia ......................................................................... Duosperma</p><p>38 Calyx lobes fused for at least 1/3 of their length and usually over half their length, with marginal hyaline regions, lobes linear(-lanceolate); capsule 4-seeded; stigma lobe with flat straight margin; pollen prolate with 12+ pseudocolpi and with sexine lips around the short apertures ...................................................... Dyschoriste</p><p>38 If calyx fused for over 1/3 of their length and with linear lobes and capsule 4-seeded (some Ruellia in Madagascar), then calyx lacking hyaline margins, stigma lobe with involute irregular margin and pollen spheroid, coarsely reticulate, lacking pseudocolpi and sexine lips .................................................................................. 39</p><p>39 Corolla typically strongly bilabiate with 2-lobed hooded upper lip and 3-lobed lower lip often with conspicuous “herring-bone” patterning, or if corolla only weakly bilabiate then less than 1 cm long; plants of (seasonal) wetlands.............................. Hygrophila</p><p>39 Corolla subactinomorphic or if zygomorphic then not strongly bilabiate with hooded 2-lobed upper lip, lacking or with only faint “herring-bone” patterning on lower lip; corolla usually&gt; 1 cm long; plants not of wetlands....................................................... 40</p><p>40 Pollen spherical, exine coarsely reticulate or rarely (in our region only known in Ruellia togoensis) with large verrucae, lacking pseudocolpi or sexine lips; flowers usually axillary, solitary or in fascicles, more rarely in lax axillary dichasia or (in R. dissidens only) a slender terminal spike............................................ Ruellia</p><p>40 Pollen prolate, 3-porate and 12-pseudocolpate, pores flanked by sexine lips; flowers held in a terminal thyrse or panicle............ 41</p><p>41 Corolla limb either zygomorphic, with 1 lobe splitting from the tube earlier than and considerably longer than the other 4 lobes, or if subactinomorphic then lobes narrowly oblong with rounded apices and staminal filaments puberulous; Tanzania ...... ................................................ Mimulopsis [ Epiclastopelma] [29]</p><p>41 Corolla limb subactinomorphic, lobes elliptic or oblong with emarginate apices; staminal filaments glabrous; Guinea to Ivory Coast, São Tomé ................................................................. Heteradelphia</p><p>42 Flowers subtended by a pair of conspicuous, ± large bracteoles, these papery to leathery and often with conspicuous reticulate venation, enclosing the calyx and base of the corolla; southern Africa............................................................................ Petalidium</p><p>42 Flowers not subtended by a pair of conspicuous bracteoles ...... 43</p><p>43 Capsules with fracturing placentae; calyx strongly zygomorphic, posterior lobe ovate or elliptic, markedly broader than other lobes, these linear-lanceolate to oblanceolate (2 + 2 + 1 configuration); inflorescences often dorsiventral spikes, with flowers and fertile bracts ventrally and differently shaped sterile bracts dorsally, rarely radially symmetrical .................................................... Phaulopsis</p><p>43 Capsules without fracturing placentae or with placentae easily dislodged but lateral walls of capsule not tearing; calyx actinomorphic or only weakly zygomorphic, posterior lobe not markedly broader than other lobes; inflorescences not dorsiventral spikes........ 44</p><p>44 Corolla limb subactinomorphic, throat lacking “herring-bone” patterning; plants with trailing or procumbent stolons from a woody rootstock sometimes rooting adventitiously, with clusters of leaves or short erect leafy stems along the stolons, leaves linear to narrowly elliptic or obovate, plant often with a “grass-like” gestalt; southern Africa ............................................................ Ruelliopsis</p><p>44 Corolla limb zygomorphic or weakly so, throat often with prominent “herring-bone” patterning; plant habit not as above, not grass-like ................................................................................... 45</p><p>45 Calyx lobes fused for at least 1/3 of their length and usually over half their length, with hyaline margins between the lobes, lobes linear(-lanceolate); ovary with 2 ovules per locule, capsule 4-seeded...................................................................... Dyschoriste</p><p>45 Calyx lobes divided to the receptacle or shortly fused, lacking hyaline margins; lobes linear or often spathulate; ovary with 2–8 ovules per locule; capsule often either&gt;4-seeded or 2-seeded...... 46</p><p>46 Outermost theca of each of longer pair of stamens with a conspicuous curved appendage, other thecae with much shorter appendages or rounded .......................................................... Mimulopsis</p><p>46 Either all thecae or 1 of each pair of thecae of all anthers with an appendage.................................................................................. 47</p><p>47 Leaves conspicuously dentate or crenate; capsule with&gt;4 and usually ≥8 seeds; seeds with hygroscopic trichomes largely restricted to the rim, surfaces with or without short non-hygroscopic trichomes; E and S Africa ............................................. Mellera [24]</p><p>47 Leaves entire or with a single tooth on each side; capsule usually 2-seeded, hygroscopic trichomes covering entire seed surface....48</p><p>48 Corolla bilabiate, 10–12.5 mm long, tube cylindrical, without a clearly expanded throat; lower lip with long bristly trichomes internally; pollen with 12 pseudocolpi; SW Angola .............. Mcdadea</p><p>48 Corolla subactinomorphic, not strongly bilabiate, 22–45 mm long, tube clearly differentiated into a narrow basal tube and an expanded throat; pollen with 18+ pseudocolpi; Angola to D.R. Congo and Zimbabwe ..................................................... Strobilanthopsis</p><p>49 Seeds (where known) sculptured with concentric rings at least towards the rim, lacking trichomes; corolla with left-contort aestivation..... 50</p><p>49 Seeds not sculptured with concentric rings, either covered in trichomes or, if glabrous, then surface smooth; corolla with quincuncial aestivation ........................................................................... 55</p><p>50 Flowers held in well-developed racemes or spikes, sometimes branched to form panicles; continental Africa and Madagascar ............. 51</p><p>50 Flowers held in axillary or subterminal fascicles, glomerules or short umbels; Madagascar [13] ................................................. 52</p><p>51 Inflorescence units 1-flowered; calyx ≥ 9 mm long, usually extending beyond or subequal in length to bracteoles, often showy and colored similar to corolla; widespread in tropical continental Africa........................................................................... Whitfieldia</p><p>51 Inflorescence units 1- or 2–3-flowered; calyx short, up to 8 mm long, hidden within paired bracteoles, not colored similar to corolla; Kenya, Tanzania, Madagascar ................ Chlamydacanthus</p><p>52 Peduncle of inflorescence units conspicuous, filiform, 7–14 mm long, considerably longer than bracteoles and calyces .................. .................................................................................... Zygoruellia</p><p>52 Inflorescence units either sessile or peduncles shorter than or equal in length to bracteoles and calyces, not filiform........................ 53</p><p>53 Corolla bright orange-red or scarlet, tube markedly curved; stamens exserted well beyond corolla lobes .................... Camarotea</p><p>53 Corolla variously colored but not bright orange-red or scarlet, tube straight or curved; stamens not or barely exserted beyond corolla lobes .......................................................................................... 54</p><p>54 Corolla tube subequal in length to limb, limb strongly bilabiate, lobes of upper lip partially fused, all lobes with long wispy white trichomes internally ............................................. Leandriella [14]</p><p>54 Corolla tube longer than limb, often markedly so, limb not so strongly bilabiate, lobes of upper lip more deeply divided, or limb subactinomorphic, all lobes lacking long white trichomes internally .................................................................. Forcipella / Vindasia [15]</p><p>55 Longer pair of stamens exserted from corolla tube or clearly visible at corolla mouth; stigma capitate-bilobed; corolla strongly bilabiate with 2 posterior lobes largely or completely fused to form a hooded upper lip....................................................... Lepidagathis</p><p>55 Stamens included within corolla tube; stigma flattened, fan-shaped or rhombic; corolla not so strongly bilabiate, posterior pair of lobes fused somewhat higher than other lobes but not forming a hooded upper lip..................................................................................... 56</p><p>56 Flowers held in ± spherical heads surrounded by several whorls of bracts, outermost bracts with a spiny or bristly margin and/or long, ≥ 20 mm long; E and S Africa.......................................... Crabbea</p><p>56 Flowers arranged in smaller, non-spheroidal heads or in spikes, glomerules or panicles; bracts not spiny, smaller; Madagascar [7] ................................................................................................... 57</p><p>57 Inflorescences pedunculate axillary heads, spikes, umbels or dichasial panicles, or if fasciculate then inflorescence units held within paired clasping bracts ..................................................... 58</p><p>57 Inflorescences sessile axillary glomerules, inflorescence units not held within paired clasping bracts ............................................. 60</p><p>58 Flowers subtended by a whorl of (3) 4 bracts connate for at least half their length to form a 3–4-lobed epicalyx; corolla 37–50 mm long................................................................................. Boutonia</p><p>58 Flowers or inflorescence units subtended by a pair of bracts; bracts not connate or only basally so; corolla up to 25 mm long ............................................................................................. 59</p><p>59 Inflorescences of spikes, dichasial panicles or heads; bracts subtending each inflorescence unit paired but the pairs often unequal, not adpressed, variously shaped ................................. Podorungia</p><p>59 Inflorescences of umbels (sometimes fasciculate) or lax dichasia; bracts subtending each inflorescence unit paired, subequal, adpressed, ovate or elliptic ..................................... Pseudodicliptera</p><p>60 All bracts of glomerules linear or lanceolate, without recurved apices; plants often with dense pale indumentum on stems and/or abaxial surface of leaves................................................. Lasiocladus</p><p>60 Outermost bracts of glomerules broader, foliaceous, sometimes with recurved apices; plants without dense pale indumentum ...... ..................................................................................... Pericalypta</p><p>61 Anthers monothecous ................................................................ 62</p><p>61 Anthers bithecous ...................................................................... 67</p><p>62 Corolla resupinate through ±180° twist in corolla tube; flowers held between paired clasping or partially fused ± conspicuous bracts ............................................................................. Hypoestes</p><p>62 Corolla not resupinate, tube not twisted; pairs of bracts neither clasping nor partially fused ....................................................... 63</p><p>63 Corolla either subregularly 5-lobed or if bilabiate then upper lip conspicuously 2-lobed and lower lip deeply divided into 3 lobes; staminodes 2, sometimes basally fused to filaments of fertile stamens; seeds either smooth on both faces, or smooth on outer face and irregularly ridged on inner face, this with or without a raised rim.........64</p><p>63 Corolla strongly bilabiate, upper lip undivided or at most shortly notched, lower lip only partially divided into 3 lobes or almost undivided; staminodes absent; seeds tuberculate, rugulose or with concentric ridges, without a raised rim...................................... 66</p><p>64 Corolla tube much longer than limb, markedly curved and gradually expanded towards mouth; Socotra .......................... Ballochia</p><p>64 Corolla tube either shorter than limb or if longer than limb then narrowly cylindrical throughout except for slight expansion at the mouth; not on Socotra ......................................................... 65</p><p>65 Corolla tube narrowly cylindrical, longer than limb; limb either subequally 5-lobed or bilabiate with posterior 2 lobes partially fused, anterior 3 corolla lobes not reflexed or widely divergent.... ................................................................................. Ruspolia [30]</p><p>65 Corolla tube more broadly cylindrical or saccate, shorter than or subequal to limb; posterior pair of lobes partially fused and erect, anterior 3 corolla lobes either reflexed and held against the tube, or widely divergent............................................................. Ruttya</p><p>66 Corolla with tube up to 10 mm long, upper lip lanceolate, hooded, largely enclosing the staminal filaments (flower nototribic); C and E Africa ........................................................... Monothecium [31]</p><p>66 Corolla with tube longer than 10 mm or, if shorter, then upper lip subulate, oblong-lanceolate or elliptic, not hooded, often recurved or inrolled, stamens held between the 2 lips (flower pleurotribic); widespread......................................................... Brachystephanus</p><p>67 Staminodes present, sometimes basally fused to the adjacent staminal filament............................................................................... 68</p><p>67 Staminodes absent ..................................................................... 81</p><p>68 Calyx 4-lobed, anterior lobe entire or bifid for less than half its length; anterior and posterior lobes typically much broader than lateral lobes and often enclosing them; corolla arrangement variable, lobes subregular or in a 4 + 1 or 2 + 3 configuration, without hooded upper lip; staminal filaments?always twisted and crossing near the base ..................................................................... Barleria</p><p>68 Calyx 5-lobed or equally 4-lobed, or if anterior pair of lobes partially fused (less than half their length) and lobes of unequal width then corolla markedly bilabiate with ± hooded upper lip; staminal filaments not twisted and crossing near the base ...................... 69</p><p>69 Pollen bipororate, circular in apertural view, with a broad marginal girdle-like ring of sexine; flowers held in axillary and subterminal glomerules on largely leafless woody stems; corolla with dense tuft of yellow trichomes on palate of lower lip immediately proximal to the lobes; Madagascar ............................................... Ritonia [32]</p><p>69 Pollen and macromorphological characters not in the above combination............................................................................... 70</p><p>70 Seeds with hygroscopic trichomes present throughout or at least around the rim; corolla either with left-contort or quincuncial aestivation.................................................................................. 71</p><p>70 Seeds without hygroscopic trichomes, sculptured with tuberculae, echinae or verruculae, or smooth; corolla with ascending-cochlear aestivation.................................................................................. 78</p><p>71 Corolla salverform, with narrowly cylindrical tube markedly longer than spreading 5-lobed limb; limb subactinomorphic or with sinus between 2 adaxial lobes wider than the other sinuses ................ 72</p><p>71 Corolla not salverform, often markedly bilabiate or, if limb subactinomorphic, then tube not long and narrowly cylindrical...... ............................................................................................. 73</p><p>72 Corolla blue or violet; flowers held in (1)2(3)-flowered dichasia in the axils of leaves, each flower subtended by a pair of conspicuous ovate foliaceous bracteoles held on a winged pedicel; Cameroon, Central African Republic, D.R. Congo ................... Kosmosiphon</p><p>72 Corolla yellow, orange or white; flowers held in terminal spikes or dense thyrses, often with conspicuous imbricate bracts, or bracts linear; bracteoles linear; winged pedicels absent; widespread....... .................................................................................... Lankesteria</p><p>73 Filament curtain absent; corolla aestivation quincuncial ........... 74</p><p>73 Filament curtain present; corolla aestivation left-contort .......... 75</p><p>74 Inflorescences dense secund spikes with unequal fertile and sterile bracts; calyx lobes markedly unequal in 2 + 2 + 1 configuration, posterior lobe broadest, ovate or elliptic; seeds with long hygroscopic trichomes; Madagascar [33]............................................ Lepidagathis</p><p>74 Inflorescences dense terminal thyrses, not secund, pairs of bracts equal; calyx of 5 subregular linear lobes; seeds with minute trichomes only; D.R. Congo ...................................... Schaueriopsis</p><p>75 Capsule 2-seeded; 2 anterior calyx lobes fused more distally than 3 posterior lobes, inflorescences not subtended by spines................ .................................................................................... Duosperma</p><p>75 Capsule 4- to ca. 30-seeded; anterior calyx lobes not fused more distally than posterior lobes or, if so, then fascicles of flowers subtended by hard spines ................................................................ 76</p><p>76 Leaf base decurrent onto petiole, forming a ± marked wing; corolla strongly bilabiate with laterally compressed and curved hooded upper lip and basally hinged lower lip........................... Brillantaisia</p><p>76 Leaf base not winged; corolla not so strongly bilabiate, upper lip may be hooded but not laterally compressed nor so strongly curved, lower lip not basally hinged ............................................... 77</p><p>77 Capsule 4-seeded; lower corolla lip lacking stiff retrorse bristles; anther thecae usually spurred; plants usually of dry habitats ........ .................................................................................... Dyschoriste</p><p>77 Capsule 8–20+-seeded; lower lip of corolla with numerous stiff retrorse bristles; anther thecae not spurred; plants of (seasonal) wetlands....................................................................... Hygrophila</p><p>78 Inflorescence of curved secund spikes, with the flowers held upright, 1 flower per inflorescence node; corolla tube markedly infundibuliform, with basal cylindrical portion and abruptly widened throat; South Africa, Eswatini ................................ Mackaya</p><p>78 Inflorescences of axillary solitary flowers or fascicles, or of slender spikes with opposite flowers or fascicles at each inflorescence node; corolla tube cylindrical throughout or, if with an expanded throat, then throat gradually widened ........................................ 79</p><p>79 Corolla tube curved and gradually widened distally, 7–10 mm in diam. at mouth; dorsal pair of corolla lobes largely fused to form hooded upper lip; Nigeria, Bioko, Cameroon ...... Graptophyllum</p><p>79 Corolla tube cylindrical to narrowly so or at most narrowly campanulate, up to 3 mm in diam. at mouth, straight or ± abruptly bent distally; dorsal pair of corolla lobes not largely fused, upper lip not hooded ....................................................................................... 80</p><p>80 Inflorescences long slender spikes; corolla tube usually much longer than limb, rarely shorter than limb; widespread ...................... ......................................................................... Pseuderanthemum</p><p>80 Inflorescence axillary (but branches can be largely leafless at flowering), flowers solitary or in fascicles; corolla tube shorter than limb; Madagascar ..................................................... Oplonia [34]</p><p>81 Corolla resupinate through ±180° twist in corolla tube............. 82</p><p>81 Corolla not resupinate or if so, then due to twisting of pedicel, corolla tube not twisted ................................................................. 84</p><p>82 Thecae of each anther widely separated by extension of the connective tissue; Madagascar ......................................... Vavara [35]</p><p>82 Anther thecae immediately superposed or slightly overlapping .... ................................................................................................... 83</p><p>83 Capsule with fracturing placentae, placenta base and thin walls tearing away from thickened flanks ............................... Dicliptera</p><p>83 Capsule without fracturing placentae, walls and placenta base remaining attached at dehiscence ........................ [ Peristrophe] [36]</p><p>84 Corolla strongly bilabiate with lips markedly longer than tube (often 2× longer or more), upper lip strongly hooded, straight to gradually curved, lower lip narrowly oblong, strap-shaped or narrowly cylindrical, usually recoiled at anthesis ..................................... 85</p><p>84 Corolla limb various, if bilabiate, then lips usually not markedly longer than tube or if so then lower lip broader and not recoiled at anthesis .................................................................................. 87</p><p>85 Pollen bipororate, circular in apertural view, with a broad marginal girdle-like ring of sexine (“gürtelpollen”); inflorescence spikes slender with rachis sometimes visible between the pairs of bracts; Madagascar .............................................. Anisotes perplexus [37]</p><p>85 Pollen 2-, 3- or 4-colporate with pseudocolpi flanking each aperture, prolate, without a marginal girdle; inflorescences variable but if spikes then more contracted with usually imbricate bracts, not so slender.......................................................................................86</p><p>86 Capsule with fracturing placentae; Nigeria, E and S Africa .......... ............................................................................ Metarungia [38]</p><p>86 Capsule without fracturing placentae; widespread .......... Anisotes</p><p>87 Flowers sternotribic; trailing or procumbent herb with axillary fascicles of flowers; bracts, bracteoles and calyx lobes with palehyaline margins; Kenya .......................................... Kenyacanthus</p><p>87 Plants without the above combination of characters.................. 88</p><p>88 Pollen bipororate, circular in apertural view, with a broad marginal girdle-like ring of sexine (“gürtelpollen”); corolla bilabiate; anthers with thecae either held at an equal height and parallel or offset to fully superposed and/or oblique, basally muticous, if offset then the upper theca slightly longer than the lower theca ..................... ................. Isoglossa / Melittacanthus / Sphacanthus / Celerina [39]</p><p>88 Pollen variable but not as above; if anther thecae offset to superposed then often with a basal appendage on the lower theca or both thecae, and the upper theca slightly shorter than the lower theca ............................................................................................. 89</p><p>89 Anther thecae each with a broad flattened appendage with irregular projections along the rim (resembling a “chicken’ s crest”); corolla intricately speckled or striped, lacking a rugula; Nigeria, Bioko, Cameroon, Gabon ................................................... Champluviera</p><p>89 Anther thecae either without appendages or if appendages present then not as above, appendages apiculate to well-developed and elongate, often curved, sometimes with a bifid apex but without projections along the rim; corolla coloring various; if anther appendages present, then corolla with a rugula............................. 90</p><p>90 Corolla lacking a rugula; anther thecae held at an equal height (but sometimes unequal in size) and parallel or sagittate; anther appendages absent......................................................................... 91</p><p>90 Corolla with a rugula present on upper lip and dorsal side of tube; anther thecae usually strongly offset to fully superposed and/or oblique; lower theca or both thecae often with a well-developed appendage................................................................................ 101</p><p>91 Corolla 9–12 mm long, with narrowly cylindrical tube longer than the limb; corolla lobes all reflexed at anthesis; anther thecae held at ± equal height but 1 theca larger than the other; pollen 6-colporate, sculptured with verruculae arranged in ± well-defined longitudinal lines; W and C Africa.......................................... Chlamydocardia</p><p>91 If corolla with narrowly cylindrical tube then considerably longer than 12 mm; corolla lobes not all reflexed at anthesis but apices can be recurved or recoiled; anther thecae not unequal in size; pollen not as above ......................................................................... 92</p><p>92 Upper lip of corolla curved and laterally compressed, very narrow; lower lip lacking raised “herring-bone” pattern; seeds covered in glochidiate tubercles; D.R. Congo, Kenya, Mozambique ............. ................................................................................... Cephalophis</p><p>92 Plant not with the above combination of characters; if upper lip of corolla curved and laterally compressed then lower lip with conspicuous raised “herring-bone” pattern and seeds not covered in glochidiate tubercles .................................................................. 93</p><p>93 Upper lip of corolla not hooded, sometimes apically recurved or recoiled; lower lip without raised “herring-bone” pattern; seeds discoid with a raised rim............................................................ 94</p><p>93 Upper lip of corolla ± hooded; lower lip often with raised “herring-bone” pattern; seeds less strongly flattened, without a marginal rim ........................................................................................... 100</p><p>94 Inflorescences pendulous; corolla ascending-sigmoid-shaped in bud, tube strongly expanded apically; lower lip shortly 3-lobed; Socotra .................................................................... Angkalanthus</p><p>94 Inflorescences erect; corolla not ascending-sigmoid-shaped in bud, tube cylindrical or only slightly widened upwards; lower lip deeply 3-lobed ........................................................................... 95</p><p>95 Upper corolla lip broadly elliptic with rounded or slightly emarginate apex; leaves lanceolate with length: width ratio 7–9: 1, longest leaves 11–15 cm long; Madagascar ....................................... .............................................................................. Dolichostachys</p><p>95 Upper corolla lip linear-lanceolate to narrowly elliptic, apex acute or notched; leaves variable, if narrow then less than 10 cm long ............................................................................................. 96</p><p>96 Corolla tube narrowly cylindrical, barely widened at mouth, often longer than lobes; upper lip markedly smaller than lower lip; stamens held close to upper lip of corolla with short filaments (flower nototribic), anthers parallel to filament .................. Ecbolium [40]</p><p>96 Corolla tube cylindrical to somewhat campanulate but not narrowly cylindrical, shorter than or subequal in length to lobes; upper lip ± equal in length to lower lip; stamens held ± equidistant between the upper and lower lips (flower pleurotribic), anthers often held perpendicular to filaments ................................................. 97</p><p>97 Corolla lobes spreading or recurved but not recoiled at anthesis; pollen 3-colporate with only weakly defined colpi and lacking pseudocolpi; E and S Africa, Arabian Peninsula........................... ............................................................................. Megalochlamys</p><p>97 Corolla lobes, at least on lower lip, becoming apically recoiled at anthesis; pollen 3–6-colporate, colpi conspicuous, pseudocolpi present ....................................................................................... 98</p><p>98 Inflorescence 4-angular with imbricate slightly concave bracts; pollen (4) 5 (6)-colporate, with pseudocolpi fused towards one or both poles to form arcs, circles or ellipses; coastal Kenya and Tanzania ...................................................................... Trichaulax</p><p>98 Inflorescence not conspicuously 4-angular, if bracts imbricate then convex; pollen 3-colporate, pseudocolpi not fused towards poles, parallel to the colpi .................................................................... 99</p><p>99 Plants from Madagascar .......................................... Populina [41]</p><p>99 Plants from Socotra, Somalia, Botswana, South Africa ................ ................................................................................. Chorisochora</p><p>100 Calyx zygomorphic (2 + 2 + 1 configuration), lobes oblong-elliptic to oblong-oblanceolate, posterior lobe broadest, 4–7 mm wide; Madagascar .................................................................. Ambongia</p><p>100 Calyx not or barely zygomorphic, lobes linear or lanceolate, less than 4 mm wide; Ethiopia, Somalia ........................ Ichthyostoma</p><p>101 Corolla tube narrowly cylindrical throughout or ventrally abruptly expanded in distal half, usually considerably longer than lips except in R. pulcher where lower lip&gt; 20 mm long; upper lip linear-lanceolate to shortly ovate, not hooded; anthers with thecae muticous or lower theca apiculate ................. Rhinacanthus</p><p>101 Corolla tube not so narrowly cylindrical throughout nor abruptly expanded on ventral side of tube, if tube longer than lips then upper lip hooded; anthers usually with well-developed basal appendages ......................................................................... 102</p><p>102 Capsule with fracturing placentae; inflorescences strobilate secund spikes, bracts often with conspicuous and abrupt white- or pinkish hyaline margins .......................................................... 103</p><p>102 Capsule with placentae not fracturing; inflorescences variable, if strobilate, secund spikes then bracts without abrupt pale hyaline margins (margins sometimes gradually paler)......................... 104</p><p>103 Anthers dehiscing by basal pores; Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon ............................................................. Ascotheca</p><p>103 Anthers dehiscing by longitudinal slits; widespread ......... Rungia</p><p>104 Capsule 2-seeded (rarely 4-seeded), seeds smooth, glabrous or white-sericeous, or with 2 tufts of moniliform trichomes ....... 105</p><p>104 Capsule usually 4-seeded, more rarely 2-seeded, seeds variously sculptured or with short trichomes, rarely smooth .................. 106</p><p>105 Inflorescences of axillary or both axillary and terminal spikes; bracts elliptic, ovate or obovate, often imbricate, inflorescence units at each axil often&gt;1-flowered; seeds 2–3 mm in diam., lenticular with a sharp rim, ± symmetrical in cross section and lacking a prominent ridge on one side, glabrous ........... Meiosperma [42]</p><p>105 Inflorescences either axillary and 1-flowered (bracts undifferentiated from the leaves) or in well-defined, mostly terminal spikes (bracts highly modified), rarely in axillary pedunculate fascicles; bracts in species with well-defined spikes usually narrow, linear to lanceolate, or rarely (in one species) broadly elliptic to obovate; seeds variable, often larger than 3 mm in diam. with a rounded rim (including in the single species with broad bracts) and/or variously pubescent, or if small and with sharp rim then asymmetric in cross section and with a prominent ridge on one side............................ ............................................................................ Pogonospermum</p><p>106 Corolla red or orange with tube somewhat curved and gradually widened, longer than lips; anthers with both thecae appendaged; Socotra ....................................................................... Trichocalyx</p><p>106 Corolla variable but usually with ± straight tube; if corolla red and with curved, gradually widened tube, then anthers with only the lower theca appendaged .......................................................... 107</p><p>107 Inflorescences secund spikes with usually imbricate, obovate, spathulate or lanceolate bracts, these green, white or pink; seeds subglobose, with hygroscopic or papillose trichomes; mainly Madagascar, 1 sp. widespread in tropical Africa.............. Anisostachya</p><p>107 Inflorescences variable; if secund spikes with imbricate bracts then seeds not as above, primarily without (rarely with) hygroscopic or papillose trichomes; widespread................ Justicia [43]</p><p>Key to the genera of Acanthaceae in Asia and Australasia (excluding the Arabian Peninsula and Mediterranean region)</p><p>Mangrove trees or shrubs with pneumatophores present; fruit a leathery 1-seeded capsule .............................................. Avicennia</p><p>Herbs, shrubs, woody twiners, or small trees, not mangrove trees (although occasionally mangrove shrubs in Acanthus), without pneumatophores; fruit a woody or thin-walled capsule with (1) 2 or more seeds............................................................................... 2</p><p>Seeds not borne on hook-shaped retinacula, either retinacula lacking or papilliform; plants without cystoliths; all anthers bithecous ..................................................................................................... 3</p><p>Seeds borne on prominent hook-shaped retinacula; plants with or without cystoliths, if cystoliths absent then anthers monothecous.................................................................................... 7</p><p>3 Herbs or shrubs, not twining; paired bracteoles present or absent but not large and conspicuous; calyx deeply 4- or 5-lobed; fruit a many-seeded (usually&gt;10 seeds) capsule ................................... 4</p><p>3 Herbaceous twiners or lianas, less frequently free-standing shrubs or herbs; flowers solitary or in fascicles or racemes of opposite flowers, not spirally arranged; calyx a subentire or undulate rim or with irregular teeth, or obscurely 5-lobed; fruit a 2–4-seeded capsule ......................................................................................... 6</p><p>4 Peduncles bearing spirally arranged, clasping, scale-like sterile bracts; all bracts sclerophyllous; leaves held in rosettes or basal whorls; India, Sri Lanka .................................................. Elytraria</p><p>4 Peduncles (if present) without clasping scale-like bracts; bracts membranous or foliaceous; leaves mostly opposite, at least some pairs dispersed along the stems.................................................... 5</p><p>5 Stamens 2, staminodes absent; bracteoles absent (rarely present); inflorescence of dense ± cylindrical spikes with imbricate bracts; calyx 4-lobed, the anterior lobe with bifid apex (rarely more deeply divided into 5 lobes) ........................................................ Nelsonia</p><p>5 Stamens 4, adaxial staminode often also present, or rarely reduced to 2 stamens +2–3 staminodes; bracteoles present; inflorescence variable but, if spikes cylindrical, then not so dense; calyx 5-lobed......................................................................... Staurogyne</p><p>6 Stigma ± equally 2-lobed, each lobe subdivided into 2 unequal lobes; pollen 7–9-lobate and -colpate; India .................... Meyenia</p><p>6 Stigma funnel-shaped, unequally 2-lobed or if equally so then not subdivided; pollen spiraperturate and unlobed; widespread.......... .................................................................................... Thunbergia</p><p>7 Stamens 4, sometimes with an additional staminode................... 8</p><p>7 Stamens 2, with or without additional staminodes .................... 39</p><p>8 Anthers all monothecous; plants without cystoliths; corolla 1-lipped........................................................................................ 9</p><p>8 Either anthers all bithecous or 2 anthers bithecous and 2 anthers monothecous; plants with cystoliths; arrangement of corolla lobes various but not 1-lipped ............................................................. 12</p><p>9 Stamens included in corolla tube, subsessile, not inserted on a thickened flange; India and Sri Lanka to Myanmar .............. Crossandra</p><p>9 Stamens exserted from corolla tube, with flattened bone-like filaments, inserted on a thickened flange........................................ 10</p><p>10 Anterior staminal filaments lacking appendages, if flattened then gradually narrowed towards apex; seeds glabrous or sericeous-puberulous ...................................................................... Acanthus</p><p>10 Anterior pair of staminal filaments flattened and either with an obtuse or acute tooth-like appendage or truncate to rounded towards apex ventrally; seeds with branched hygroscopic trichomes or tuberculate ................................................................................. 11</p><p>11 Leaves opposite; flowers solitary or paired in the leaf axils, each flower or pair of flowers subtended by 2 pairs of bracts, outer pair entire, inner pair trifid; ovary without apical tufts of glandular trichomes; seeds tuberculate; India ..................... Cynarospermum</p><p>11 Leaves in pseudowhorls of (3) 4; inflorescences variable but not consisting of solitary or paired flowers in leaf axils; bracts entire or toothed, not trifid; ovary with 2 apical tufts of glandular trichomes; seeds with branched hygroscopic trichomes; widespread ....................................................................................... Blepharis</p><p>12 Calyx distinctly bilabiate, with a 2-lobed or -toothed anterior lip and a 3-lobed or -toothed posterior lip; corolla with a funnel-shaped limb comprising equal anterior and lateral lobes and partially (or almost completely) fused dorsal pair of lobes; India to Laos ........................................................................ Neuracanthus</p><p>12 Calyx not distinctly bilabiate (although can appear so in Barleria), either 4- or 5-lobed, lobes can be equal or unequal in shape and size; if calyx appears bilabiate then corolla not as above .............. ................................................................................................... 13</p><p>13 Calyx 4-lobed, anterior lobe entire or bifid for less than half its length; anterior and posterior lobes typically much broader than lateral lobes and often enclosing them; corolla variously arranged, lobes subregular or in a 4 + 1 or 2 + 3 configuration, without hooded upper lip; filaments of anterior (long) pair of stamens?always twisted and crossing near the base........................................ Barleria</p><p>13 Calyx 5-lobed, or if anterior pair of lobes partially fused and lobes of unequal width then corolla strongly bilabiate with ± hooded upper lip; staminal filaments not twisted and crossing near the base.... 14</p><p>14 Seed surfaces smooth or sculptured, lacking trichomes; corolla aestivation ascending-cochlear .................................................. 15</p><p>14 Seed surfaces either covered by trichomes or with trichomes at least along margins and/or near the apices (trichomes minute in a few genera, such as Hulemacanthus, absent in Borneacanthus); corolla aestivation left-contort or quincuncial ........................... 19</p><p>15 One pair of stamens with bithecous anthers, the other pair with monothecous anthers; Thailand, Malaysia ............ Thysanostigma</p><p>15 Both pairs of stamens with bithecous anthers ........................... 16</p><p>16 Corolla strongly bilabiate with upper two lobes almost completely fused into a hooded or erect, apically notched lip; either stamens included in corolla tube or if exserted then anthers usually with thecae unevenly inserted on the filament and offset by ca. half their length ......................................................................................... 17</p><p>16 Corolla not so strongly bilabiate, 5 lobes often subequal although arranged in a 2 + 3 configuration and upper two lobes can be partially fused; stamens exserted, anther thecae held at a subequal height ......................................................................................... 18</p><p>17 Mouth of corolla closed due to raised, rounded palate of lower lip, upper lip held erect; stamens included in corolla tube, filaments very short, anthers with thecae held at a subequal height; calyx lobes apically reflexed; Borneo ................................. Linariantha</p><p>17 Mouth of corolla not closed, palate of lower lip can be raised but not so strongly bulging, upper lip hooded, not erect; stamens exserted and held within hooded upper lip, filaments well developed; calyx lobes not markedly reflexed apically; Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo ......................................................................... Filetia [44]</p><p>18 Calyx with a ± distinct tubular portion, the tube sometimes longer than the lobes; inflorescences often with opposite cymose units, pedicels widely divergent from inflorescence axis and can be thickened; India, Malaysia .............................. Phialacanthus [45]</p><p>18 Calyx divided ± to the base; inflorescences often secund, pedicels not so widely diverging from the axis and not thickened; widespread...................................................................... Asystasia</p><p>19 Corolla lacking a filament curtain ............................................. 20</p><p>19 Corolla with a conspicuous filament curtain ............................. 27</p><p>20 One pair of stamens with bithecous anthers, the other pair with monothecous anthers ................................................................. 21</p><p>20 Both pairs of stamens with bithecous anthers ........................... 22</p><p>21 Stamens exserted beyond corolla lobes, corolla limb very short and not strongly bilabiate (although posterior pair of lobes are partially fused); inflorescence a many-flowered thyrse with flowers in dense whorls at each node, not secund; bracts and bracteoles inconspicuous; New Guinea ................................ Hulemacanthus</p><p>21 Stamens not exserted beyond corolla lobes, corolla limb strongly bilabiate; inflorescence a secund spike, spikes sometimes compounded into dense heads; bracts and bracteoles usually conspicuous; widespread ........................................................ Lepidagathis</p><p>22 Corolla bilabiate, with ± hooded upper lip; corolla aestivation quincuncial ................................................................................ 23</p><p>22 Corolla subactinomorphic or weakly zygomorphic, not strongly bilabiate with hooded upper lip; corolla aestivation left-contort.................................................................................25</p><p>23 Anther thecae conspicuously spurred at base; China to Malaysia ................................................................................. Chroesthes</p><p>23 Anther thecae not spurred at base, either obtuse or at most minutely apiculate............................................................................... 24</p><p>24 Capsule stipitate; seeds glabrous; calyx lobes all linear or linear-lanceolate; bracts and bracteoles small and inconspicuous; Borneo .............................................................................. Borneacanthus</p><p>24 Capsule not or barely stipitate; seeds with hygroscopic trichomes; calyx lobes ± markedly unequal, posterior lobe broadest, lateral lobes narrowest (2 + 2 + 1 configuration); bracts and bracteoles usually conspicuous, often similar to calyx lobes in shape and size; widespread................................................................ Lepidagathis</p><p>25 Flowers with “X-shaped anthers” (i.e., thecae extend outwardly in a 180° configuration from expanded filament connective tissue); China ........................................................................... Pararuellia</p><p>25 Anthers various but not “X-shaped” as above........................... 26</p><p>26 Plants with long-tubed, pale-colored corollas; leaves not held in a basal rosette; Papuasia......................................... Leptosiphonium</p><p>26 Corollas not long-tubed and pale-colored, typically short infundibuliform, primarily purple; leaves typically held in a basal rosette; Australia, New Caledonia, New Guinea .................... Brunoniella</p><p>27 Corolla strongly bilabiate .......................................................... 28</p><p>27 Corolla infundibuliform, campanulate or other shapes, not strongly bilabiate ....................................................................................... 29</p><p>28 Plants large herbs or weak shrubs to 2.5 m tall; capsule oblong or obovate, not with noticeably thin walls; ovules 4 or fewer per ovary; India ................................................................ Calacanthus</p><p>28 Plants herbaceous, typically &lt;1 m tall (very rarely to 1.5 m tall); capsule cylindrical, with noticeably thin walls; ovules&gt;8 per ovary, capsule typically polyspermous (≥16 seeds); widespread ................ ......................................................................................... Hygrophila</p><p>29 Capsule with fracturing placentae ............................................. 30</p><p>29 Capsules with non-fracturing placentae..................................... 31</p><p>30 Inflorescences complex, densely bracteate and compact, with numerous, small flowers; flowers not subtended by large, conspicuous, paired leaf-like bracts; corolla small (&lt;10 mm long); anther thecae without appendages; widespread...................... Phaulopsis</p><p>30 Inflorescences axillary, solitary or in simple dichasia, not complex and dense as above; flowers subtended by a large, conspicuous, pair of leaf-like bracts; corolla&gt; 34 mm long; anther thecae with appendages; India and Nepal ........................................ Petalidium</p><p>31 Anthers with at least some thecae with basal appendages......... 32</p><p>31 Anthers lacking basal appendages............................................. 36</p><p>32 Deciduous tree to 5 m tall, flowering before the leaves appear; ultimate branches numerous and curved-ascending; karst hills of Laos ................................................................... Xylacanthus [25]</p><p>32 Herbs or shrubs, habit not as above........................................... 33</p><p>33 Leaf pairs strongly and consistently anisophyllous, the smaller leaf about 1/3 of the size of the larger; each anther theca with a pair of appendages; Thailand ............................................. Diceratotheca</p><p>33 Leaf pairs sometimes slightly dissimilar in size but not strongly (nor consistently) anisophyllous; anther thecae variously appendaged but not with 2 appendages per theca............................... 34</p><p>34 Inflorescences of very long, terminal spikes, these commonly 30 cm in length; Malaysia ........................................ Stenothyrsus</p><p>34 Inflorescences variable, primarily of racemes, less commonly of spikes or solitary flowers, if spikes, consistently &lt;15 cm long .....35</p><p>35 Ovary with 8 ovules; India, China ........................ Echinacanthus</p><p>35 Ovary with 4 ovules (occasionally fewer); widespread .............. .............................................................................. Dyschoriste</p><p>36 Ovary with 16 ovules........................................ Strobilanthes [46]</p><p>36 Ovary primarily with fewer than 16 ovules (with rare exceptions) ................................................................................................... 37</p><p>37 Corolla resupinate via twisting of the tube through 180°; inflorescences thyrsoid with secondary flowers in the axils of bracteoles; corolla with a ventricose throat......................... Strobilanthes [47]</p><p>37 Corolla usually not resupinate via twisting of the tube (except in Strobilanthes dyeriana, S. autapomorpha, and S. steenisiana), but corolla distortions sometimes achieved by bending of the corolla throat; if resupinate, then not in combination with above additional features...........................................................................................38</p><p>38 Corolla internally with prominent rows of trichomes along posterior surface, these functioning to retain the style (very rarely secondarily lost); corolla typically with thin but prominent ridge between pairs of stamens, representing vestigial staminode.......... ................................................................................. Strobilanthes</p><p>38 Corolla internally lacking prominent rows of trichomes along posterior surface; corolla lacking a ridge between pairs of stamens........................................................................... Ruellia</p><p>39 Anthers monothecous ................................................................ 40</p><p>39 Anthers bithecous (one theca sometimes reduced in size) ........ 43</p><p>40 Corolla tube twisted through 180°, limb resupinate with the 3-lobed lower lip held in the upper position and unlobed or emarginate upper lip held in the lower position; India to China and Thailand ......................................................................... Hypoestes</p><p>40 Corolla tube not twisted; if flower resupinate then this achieved through geniculation of corolla tube.......................................... 41</p><p>41 Corolla 30–60 mm long, bright red-orange; clambering shrubs; China to Indonesia ................................................... Clinacanthus</p><p>41 Corolla up to 10 mm long, white or pale blue, with or without red or mauve markings; perennial herbs or small shrubs, not clambering ................................................................................. 42</p><p>42 Corolla with 4-lobed upper lip and unlobed lower lip; each anther with theca terminal and transverse, sometimes also with a vestigial second theca observed as a bump below the fertile theca; flowers axillary and solitary, held on lateral branches; Australia ............... ....................................................................... Xerothamnella [48]</p><p>42 Corolla with shortly bilobed, hooded upper lip and 3-lobed lower lip; each anther with theca dorsifixed and ± parallel to filament, without a vestigial second theca; inflorescence a small, dense secund spike; India, Sri Lanka ................................... Monothecium</p><p>43 Staminal filament divided at apex, the thecae separated widely by an elongate connective perpendicular to the filament; corolla subactinomorphic with 5 ± equal lobes; Australia ........................ ............................................................................... Dicladanthera</p><p>43 Stamens not as above, if thecae widely separated then vertically offset to superposed; arrangement of corolla lobes various, but corolla usually ± zygomorphic ...................................................... 44</p><p>44 Staminodes present, either free or basally fused to the adjacent staminal filament ....................................................................... 45</p><p>44 Staminodes absent ..................................................................... 59</p><p>45 Calyx 4-lobed, anterior lobe entire or bifid for less than half its length, anterior and posterior lobes typically much broader than lateral lobes and often enclosing them; corolla arrangement variable, lobes subregular or in a 4 + 1 or 2 + 3 configuration, without a hooded upper lip; staminal filaments?always twisted and crossing near the base............................................................... Barleria</p><p>45 Calyx 5-lobed, or if anterior pair of lobes largely fused then corolla markedly bilabiate with ± hooded upper lip; staminal filaments not twisted and crossing near the base............................................. 46</p><p>46 Seeds with hygroscopic trichomes present throughout or at least around the rim; corolla either with left-contort or quincuncial aestivation.................................................................................. 47</p><p>46 Seeds without hygroscopic trichomes, variously tuberculate, echinate, verruculate, puberulous, tomentellous or smooth; corolla with ascending-cochlear aestivation .......................................... 51</p><p>47 Filament curtain absent; corolla with quincuncial aestivation; inflorescences dense secund spikes that can be compounded into complex heads, often with dimorphic fertile and sterile bracts; calyx lobes highly unequal, posterior lobe broadest, lateral lobes narrowest (2 + 2 + 1 configuration) .............................. Lepidagathis</p><p>47 Filament curtain present; corolla with left-contort aestivation; inflorescences variable but not dense secund spikes with dimorphic bracts; calyx lobes (sub)equal to somewhat unequal, not in 2 + 2 + 1 configuration....................................................................... 48</p><p>48 Corolla tube much longer than lobes, tube either narrowly cylindrical throughout (corolla salverform) or with long cylindrical basal portion and gradually expanded throat; inflorescences a series of spikes, bracts often imbricate and often with conspicuous reticulate patterning ........................................................... Eranthemum</p><p>48 Corolla without such a long basal cylindrical tube, not salverform; inflorescences not as above ....................................................... 49</p><p>49 Corolla internally with prominent rows of trichomes along posterior surface, these functioning to retain the style; corolla typically with thin but prominent ridge between pair of stamens....... ................................................................................. Strobilanthes</p><p>49 Style not held in place by trichomes on corolla tube; corolla without a prominent ridge between pair of stamens ......................... 50</p><p>50 Ovary with 4 ovules; lower corolla lip lacking stiff retrorse bristles; anther thecae usually spurred; plants usually of dry ground ......... .................................................................................... Dyschoriste</p><p>50 Ovary with 8–20+ ovules; lower lip of corolla with numerous stiff retrorse bristles; anther thecae not spurred; plants of (seasonal) wetlands....................................................................... Hygrophila</p><p>51 Ovary with 8 or more ovules, capsule 8–16-seeded; pollen with aperture margins conspicuously thickened and intricately ornamented with conical spines .................................. Phlogacanthus [12]</p><p>51 Ovary with 2 or 4 ovules; capsule 2- or 4-seeded; pollen without thickened and ornamented aperture margins ............................. 52</p><p>52 Leaves strongly anisophyllous (appearing alternate), larger leaf of a pair 9.5–19 × 2.5–6.7 cm, smaller leaf of a pair reduced to a minute lanceolate blade 4–6 × 1–2 mm; Borneo........................... ............................................................ Ptyssiglottis staminodifera</p><p>52 Leaves isophyllous or not so markedly anisophyllous .............. 53</p><p>53 Corolla salverform, tube longer than limb and narrowly cylindrical throughout or only slightly widened distally, limb either subequally 5-lobed or only weakly bilabiate, if the posterior pair of lobes partially fused then not forming a hooded upper lip ............ ................................................................. Pseuderanthemum [49]</p><p>53 Corolla not salverform, if tube longer than limb and cylindrical, then limb markedly bilabiate with posterior pair of lobes largely fused and sometimes forming a hooded upper lip..................... 54</p><p>54 Corolla small, up to 15 mm long but often ≤ 10 mm long......... 55</p><p>54 Corolla much larger,&gt; 25 mm long ........................................... 58</p><p>55 Leaves with toothed, spinose or sinuate margin; inflorescences axillary, 1-flowered or simple dichasia or fascicles; Australia, New Guinea, Fiji .................................................... Graptophyllum [50]</p><p>55 Leaves with ± entire margin; inflorescences spikes or racemes, often terminal.........................................................................56 [51]</p><p>56 Corolla campanulate, limb only weakly bilabiate; tube shorter than limb and widened almost from the base; India to Japan and Vietnam ............................................................... Codonacanthus</p><p>56 Corolla strongly bilabiate; tube longer than or subequal to limb, not widened from the base......................................................... 57</p><p>57 Anther thecae basally muticous; corolla tube sometimes with a dorsal pouch distally; China to Borneo ............. Cosmianthemum</p><p>57 Anther thecae with paired basal spurs; corolla tube without a dorsal pouch; China ................................................ Wuacanthus</p><p>58 Corolla tube markedly infundibuliform, with basal cylindrical portion and abruptly widened throat; limb only weakly bilabiate, the 5 lobes subequal, upper lip not strongly hooded; corolla white or rose-colored, with intricate darker veins; India, Bhutan, Myanmar, China ..................................................................................... Mackaya</p><p>58 Corolla tube more gradually widened from base to apex and ± strongly curved; limb bilabiate with posterior pair of lobes forming a hooded upper lip; corolla red or bright pink; Australia, New Guinea, Pacific Is., naturalized elsewhere ...... Graptophyllum</p><p>59 Corolla resupinate through ±180° twist in corolla tube; flowers held between paired clasping bracts .......................................... 60</p><p>59 Corolla not resupinate or, if so, then due to twisting of pedicel, corolla tube not twisted; flowers not held between paired clasping bracts ......................................................................................... 61</p><p>60 Capsule with fracturing placentae; anther thecae rounded or elliptic............................................................................ Dicliptera</p><p>60 Capsule without fracturing placentae; anther thecae (in Asia) typically linear-oblong, rarely rounded or elliptic............................. .............................................................................. [ Peristrophe] [36]</p><p>61 Anthers with thecae superposed and held patent to one another; corolla with a conspicuously 2-lobed upper lip, each lobe forked; Australia ........................................................ Xerothamnella [52]</p><p>61 If anthers superposed and oblique then corolla with a shortly 2-lobed or emarginate upper lip, the lobes not forked............... 62</p><p>62 Pollen disc-shaped, bipororate with a broad marginal girdle of sexine [53]; anthers with thecae ± markedly offset to fully superposed and often highly oblique, sometimes 1 or both thecae perpendicular to filament, lacking basal appendages; rugula absent .............. ........................................................................................ Isoglossa</p><p>62 Pollen very variable but never disc-shaped with a marginal girdle; anthers with thecae variously held at an equal height to strongly offset, if offset then often with the lower theca or both thecae with a basal appendage, and rugula present ...................................... 63</p><p>63 Rugula absent; anther thecae held at the same height or only slightly offset, parallel to each other and to the filament or slightly sagittate; thecae without appendages or with short uncurved appendages....64</p><p>63 Rugula present; anther thecae usually offset by at least half their length or fully superposed, sometimes markedly oblique; lower theca or more rarely both thecae often with a conspicuous ± curved appendage, this typically pale.................................................... 79</p><p>64 Ovary with 6 or more ovules, capsule 6- to many-seeded, or if 2 ovules per locule and capsule 4-seeded then anthers penicillate at base or thecae only dehiscing via a short slit in central half to 2/3; pollen with aperture margins and/or aperture surface conspicuously thickened and often intricately ornamented with conical spines ......................................................................................... 65</p><p>64 Ovary with 2 or 4 ovules; capsule 2- or 4-seeded; anthers not penicillate at base, thecae dehiscing along ± their full length; pollen without thickened and ornamented aperture margins or surfaces ....... 72</p><p>65 Filaments swollen (pouched) distally; corolla subequally 5-lobed, not clearly bilabiate ................................................................... 66</p><p>65 Filaments not swollen or pouched; corolla bilabiate or subequally 5-lobed....................................................................................... 67</p><p>66 Cladodes (reduced abortive branches) present in the inflorescence, terminated by paired small spines; seeds not compressed, with 2 distinct grooves, surface with hygroscopic trichomes; India ......... ................................................................................ Haplanthodes</p><p>66 Cladodes absent in inflorescence; seeds somewhat compressed, not distinctly grooved, surface without trichomes, verrucose; widespread ................................................................... Haplanthus [9]</p><p>67 Ovary with 4 ovules; anthers glabrous, dehiscent via longitudinal slit in central half or 2/3 of each theca; India, Myanmar ............... .................................................................... Sphinctacanthus [10]</p><p>67 Ovary with 6 or more ovules, or if 4 then anthers conspicuously penicillate at base and dehiscent via longitudinal slit in distal half extending to apex....................................................................... 68</p><p>68 Capsule linear and 4-angled, not compressed; seeds markedly compressed, smooth, can be covered in trichomes; anthers not penicillate .................................................................................. 69</p><p>68 Capsule compressed perpendicular to the septum, elliptic, oblanceolate or narrowly oblong in face view; seeds subglobose, ellipsoid or block-like, not compressed, often pitted or rugose and grooved; anthers often penicillate at base.........................................................71</p><p>69 Calyx 4-lobed; slender procumbent herbs; Thailand ....... Graphandra</p><p>69 Calyx 5-lobed; habit variable but not procumbent herbs........... 70</p><p>70 Corolla tube shorter than limb; upper lip ± curved; India ............. ................................................................................. Diotacanthus</p><p>70 Corolla tube longer than limb; upper lip not curved; widespread ........................................................................ Gymnostachyum</p><p>71 Capsule 6–20-seeded; India and Sri Lanka to Myanmar, introduced elsewhere....................................................... Andrographis</p><p>71 Capsule 4-seeded; India, Sri Lanka ............... [Indoneesiella] [11]</p><p>72 Corolla blue-green or livid-green, tube narrowly cylindrical throughout with only very short expanded throat, usually longer than limb, upper lip linear-lanceolate, much smaller than lower lip; India and Sri Lanka to Myanmar ........................................................ Ecbolium</p><p>72 Corolla variously colored but not shades of green, tube variously shaped but if longer than limb then more gradually expanded and lips not so unequal..................................................................... 73</p><p>73 Inflorescences often on leafless portion of branches or on mature woody stems (ramiflorous or cauliflorous), in fascicles or short spikes; shrubs or small trees ...................................................... 74</p><p>73 Inflorescences either terminal or axillary on leafy portion of branches; herbs or shrubs ................................................................. 75</p><p>74 Corolla lips conspicuously longer than tube; lower lip strap-shaped with 3 short rounded apical lobes; New Guinea .............. ........................................................................... Calycacanthus</p><p>74 Corolla tube longer than lips; lower lip deeply divided into 3 linear-lanceolate lobes; Vietnam ........................................ Cyclacanthus</p><p>75 Calyx lobes lanceolate, with 3 or more parallel veins prominent at maturity; corolla with ± markedly saccate throat above short basal cylindrical tube .......................................................................... 76</p><p>75 Calyx lobes linear to linear-lanceolate, usually only the midrib prominent or veins inconspicuous; corolla without markedly saccate throat.......................................................................................... 77</p><p>76 Inflorescences 1-flowered, these sometimes clustered towards branch tips; anther thecae pubescent; pollen 3-colporate, 6-pseudocolpate; Thailand .............................................................................. Marcania</p><p>76 Flowers held in branched thyrses; thecae glabrous; pollen 5-colporate, 10-pseudocolpate; New Guinea ...................................... Jadunia [54]</p><p>77 Inflorescences axillary, varying from lax dichasia to reduced and contracted dichasia with 2(–4) contracted branches that can bear several to many pairs of imbricate, scale-like bracts, or sometimes reduced to single flowers; inflorescences not spiciform; Sri Lanka to New Guinea ............................................................ Ptyssiglottis</p><p>77 Inflorescences terminal, spiciform or, if branched, then branches spiciform.................................................................................... 78</p><p>78 Corolla with strongly curved and hooded upper lip, upper lip either shortly 2-lobed or 4-lobed, lower lip 3-lobed or 1-lobed; inflorescence often branched with branches spiciform, or sometimes unbranched; India and China to Indonesia ................... Leptostachya</p><p>78 Corolla with a ± straight and not conspicuously hooded upper lip, upper lip shortly 2-lobed, lower lip 3-lobed; inflorescence spiciform, unbranched; Taiwan .............................. Kudoacanthus [55]</p><p>79 Corolla tube narrowly cylindrical, considerably longer than lips; upper lip lanceolate or narrowly so, not hooded; anthers with thecae lacking appendages; widespread ...................... Rhinacanthus</p><p>79 Corolla tube not so narrowly cylindrical, if tube longer than lips then upper lip hooded; anther thecae with or (rarely) without basal appendages, often with a conspicuous curved pale appendage on the lower theca........................................................................... 80</p><p>80 Capsule with fracturing placentae; inflorescences usually secund spikes with imbricate bracts; bracts with or without conspicuous white or pinkish hyaline margins....................................... Rungia</p><p>80 Capsule without fracturing placentae; inflorescences variable, if secund spikes with imbricate bracts then bracts without abrupt pale hyaline margins ......................................................................... 81</p><p>81 Capsule 2-seeded, seeds smooth, discoid; India ........ Meiosperma</p><p>81 Capsule usually 4-seeded, seeds variously sculptured or rarely smooth; widespread................................................... Justicia [43]</p><p>Key to the genera of Acanthaceae in the Americas</p><p>Mangrove trees or shrubs with pneumatophores present; fruit a leathery 1-seeded capsule .............................................. Avicennia</p><p>Herbs, shrubs, lianas or small trees, if (rarely) mangrove trees or shrubs then pneumatophores lacking (can have aerial prop roots); fruit either a ± woody or thin-walled capsule with 2 or more seeds, or a 1-seeded drupe...................................................................... 2</p><p>Seeds not borne on hook-shaped retinacula, retinacula lacking or papilliform; plants without cystoliths; all anthers bithecous......3</p><p>Seeds borne on prominent hook-shaped retinacula (retinacula indistinct in Aphanosperma and Chalarothyrsus, with seeds permanently retained in capsule valves); plants with or without cystoliths, if cystoliths absent then anthers monothecous ................................. 7</p><p>Herbaceous twiners or lianas; flowers subtended by conspicuous clasping or partially connate paired bracteoles; calyx a subentire or undulate rim or with irregular teeth, or obscurely 5-lobed; fruit a 1-seeded drupe..................................................... Mendoncia [56]</p><p>3 Herbs or shrubs, not twining; paired bracteoles present or absent but not large and conspicuous; calyx deeply 4- or 5-lobed; fruit a many-seeded capsule (usually&gt;10 seeds) ................................... 4</p><p>4 Peduncles bearing clasping scale-like sterile bracts; all bracts sclerophyllous; leaves in rosettes or whorls either basally or terminating branches (sometimes dispersed along stems in E. imbricata and E. mexicana) ....................................................................... Elytraria</p><p>4 Peduncles (if present) without clasping scale-like sterile bracts; bracts membranous or foliaceous; leaves opposite, at least some pairs dispersed along the stems.................................................... 5</p><p>5 Bracteoles absent; inflorescence of dense ± cylindrical spikes with imbricate bracts; calyx 4-lobed, the anterior lobe with bifid apex (rarely more deeply divided into 5 lobes); stamens 2, staminodes absent....................................................................... Nelsonia [57]</p><p>5 Bracteoles present; inflorescence variable but, if spikes cylindrical, then relatively lax; calyx 5-lobed; stamens 4, adaxial staminode often also present (rarely 2 stamens +2–3 staminodes) ............... 6</p><p>6 Plants subcaulescent (internodes indistinct or short); inflorescence of axillary, long-pedunculate (peduncles 9.8–22 cm long) panicles of spikes; ovary asymmetric with style arising on one side, stigma 1-lobed, subcapitate; Brazil ........................................ Aymoreana</p><p>6 Plants caulescent (internodes distinct, usually elongate); inflorescence of terminal, sessile to short-pedunculate (peduncles 0.2– 4 cm long) racemes or spikes (rarely panicles); ovary symmetric, stigma 2-lobed (one lobe usually bifid) or subcrateriform (in S. guianensis), lobes not subcapitate; widespread ....... Staurogyne</p><p>7 Stamens 4, sometimes also with an additional staminode ........... 8</p><p>7 Stamens 2, sometimes also with (1) 2 (3) staminodes ............... 30</p><p>8 Anthers all monothecous; plants without cystoliths .................... 9</p><p>8 Anthers all bithecous or 2 bithecous and 2 monothecous; plants with cystoliths............................................................................ 14</p><p>9 Corolla zygomorphic, the lobes dissimilar in form ................... 10</p><p>9 Corolla usually subactinomorphic, the lobes more or less similar in form ........................................................................................... 12</p><p>10 Calyx deeply 3-partite; Colombia ........................... Cyphacanthus</p><p>10 Calyx 5-partite........................................................................... 11</p><p>11 Leaves opposite (rarely subopposite); bracts entire or dentate, green or often brightly colored; corolla rarely with linear nectar guides, mostly 25–85 mm long; at least distal portion of filaments of stamens usually exserted from corolla tube; pollen with colpi not expanded or bifurcating (usually narrowed) toward poles, interapertural exine usually heterogeneously sculptured; widespread ........... Aphelandra [5]</p><p>11 Leaves opposite (rarely subopposite) or quaternate; bracts entire and usually green; corolla often with colored linear nectar guides, 6.5–24 mm long (or if larger, to 40 mm, then plants with quaternate leaves); filaments of stamens often entirely included in corolla tube; pollen with colpi sometimes expanded or bifurcating toward poles, interapertural exine homogeneously sculptured; Mexico ..... ................................................................................... Holographis</p><p>12 Pollen 3-colpate with each colpus longitudinally bisected by an operculum (elongate band of exine), opercula either isolated within the colpi (operculate) or connected at each end to the interapertural exine (pontoperculate); Jamaica ............................................... Salpixantha</p><p>12 Pollen 3-colpate with colpi not bisected by elongate bands of exine or pollen pantoforate (i.e., sometimes in Stenandrium dulce) or pollen pantoaperturate (rugate) with rugae arranged ± tangentially over surface or pollen 3-colpate and with prominent margines and mesocolpial ridges (appearing 9-colpate); widespread, but not in Jamaica ...................................................................................... 13</p><p>13 Plants usually small, up to 25(–70) cm; leaves often borne at or near ground level (plants acaulescent to subcaulescent); bracts usually green; pollen 3-colpate or pantoforate (i.e., sometimes in S. dulce) .................................................................... Stenandrium</p><p>13 Plants usually shrubby, up to 1.5 m tall; leaves disposed along conspicuous stems; bracts whitish, pinkish, or reddish-brown; pollen pantoaperturate (rugate) with rugae arranged ± tangentially or pollen 3-colpate and with prominent margines and mesocolpial ridges (appearing 9-colpate)........................................ Neriacanthus [6]</p><p>14 Stamens with 2 anthers bithecous and 2 anthers monothecous...15</p><p>14 Stamens with all anthers bithecous............................................ 20</p><p>15 Seeds with hygroscopic trichomes; corolla with quincuncial aestivation...............................................................................................16</p><p>15 Seeds without hygroscopic trichomes; corolla with ascending-cochlear aestivation ................................................................... 17</p><p>16 Calyx lobes ± homomorphic; plants with axillary spines and/or spiny leaf margins; West Indies..................................... Barleriola</p><p>16 Calyx lobes heteromorphic in 2 + 2 + 1 configuration, posterior lobe broadest, lateral lobes narrowest, anterior lobes often partially fused; plants lacking axillary spines and/or spiny leaf margins; widespread........................................................ Lepidagathis [58]</p><p>17 Corolla red, colored markings on limb absent, 34–48 mm long, ± tubular or clarinet shaped with the tube elongate, relatively slender but gradually expanded distally and the limb shallow, inconspicuous, tube 6–11× longer than limb; Bolivia, Brazil ................ ............................................................................. Pranceacanthus</p><p>17 Corolla white, pinkish or purple, often with colored markings on limb, 10–45 mm long, infundibuliform to salverform and with a ± conspicuous limb (at least the upper lip in Isotheca), tube 1– 2.6 (–3.6) × longer than limb (or if 6 or more times longer than limb as in Isotheca, then corolla white)..................................... 18</p><p>18 Corolla white, apparently lacking colored markings on limb, 35– 45 mm long, downward curved and “cobralike” in bud; stamens conspicuously exserted beyond limb of corolla; inflorescence a ± open, terminal dichasiate raceme (i.e., dichasia sessile and flowers pedicellate); pollen 4-aperturate, echinate; Trinidad, Venezuela ...... ............................................................................................. Isotheca</p><p>18 Corolla white, pinkish or purple, usually with colored markings on limb, 10–30 mm long, usually straight, not “cobralike” in bud; stamens included in corolla tube or exserted from it, but not extending beyond limb; inflorescence of axillary or usually terminal dichasiate spikes (sometimes very reduced) or panicles of spikes; pollen usually 3-aperturate ................................................................... 19</p><p>19 Corolla ± salverform with subactinomorphic limb, upper lip deeply lobed; bracts ± inconspicuous, ca. 1 mm wide; Costa Rica, Brazil, Panama ........................................................... Chamaeranthemum</p><p>19 Corolla infundibuliform with bilabiate limb, upper lip entire to shallowly lobed; bracts conspicuous, (2–) 5–20 mm wide; widespread ..................................................................... Herpetacanthus</p><p>20 Corolla with ascending-cochlear aestivation; pollen 3-colporate, 6-pseudocolpate......................................................................... 21</p><p>20 Corolla with quincuncial or left-contort aestivation; pollen otherwise ................................................................................... 22</p><p>21 Perennial herbs or shrubs to 1.5 m tall; calyx to 5 mm long, 5-lobed, lobes homomorphic; corolla red, 15–21 mm long; capsule 12– 18 mm long; seeds permanently retained in capsule and partially fused to inner capsule wall; western Mexico .......... Chalarothyrsus</p><p>21 Large shrubs to small trees to 8 m tall; calyx 15–40 mm long, 2-lipped, the 2 segments entire or variously lobed at apex; corolla white to yellow; 23–97 mm long; capsule 40–85 mm long; seeds expelled from mature capsule, not fused to inner capsule wall; eastern and southern Mexico to Costa Rica ................. Spathacanthus</p><p>22 Corolla with quincuncial aestivation, lacking a filament curtain; inflorescences mostly secundiflorus ......................... Lepidagathis</p><p>22 Corolla with left-contort aestivation, with a filament curtain; inflorescences rarely (if ever) secundiflorus ..................................... 23</p><p>23 Calyx 3-lobed;corolla very large,gullet-shaped,pale green to greenish-yellow (sometimes with maroon tinges), cream-colored, or entirely dark maroon; Mexico and Central America ..................... Louteridium</p><p>23 Calyx 5-lobed; corolla variable but not as above....................... 24</p><p>24 Corolla subcylindrical or, if with an expanded/ampliate throat, then flowers borne in headlike clusters subtended by several pairs of bracts ......................................................................................... 25</p><p>24 Corolla campanulate, throat ampliate; flowers not borne in headlike clusters, not subtended by several pairs of bracts............... 26</p><p>25 Thecae awned basally; western South America..... Suessenguthia</p><p>25 Thecae awnless; Peru .......................................... Trichosanchezia</p><p>26 Calyx lobes fused for at least 1/3 of their length and usually over half of their length, with hyaline regions bordering each lobe; anther thecae usually appendaged at base, these sometimes inconspicuous or rarely absent; plants herbaceous or subshrubby............ Dyschoriste</p><p>26 Calyx lobes deeply divided, or if with a conspicuous fused portion then lacking hyaline regions bordering each lobe; anther thecae lacking basal appendages or if basally awned ( Bravaisia) then plants large shrubs or trees ........................................................ 27</p><p>27 Thecae awned with a single, subulate projection ........... Bravaisia</p><p>27 Thecae awnless.......................................................................... 28</p><p>28 Shrubs or trees up to 25 m tall and usually ≥ 4 m tall; corolla woolly pubescent externally ..................................... Trichanthera</p><p>28 Herbs, shrubs, sometimes clambering, or treelets, &lt;4 m tall; corolla various but not woolly pubescent externally......................... 29</p><p>29 Corolla usually ≤ 10 mm long, conspicuously bilabiate; plants usually aquatic or semi-aquatic; pollen 4-colporate and 8- (or more? [59]) pseudocolpate, exine usually more or less finely and irregularly reticulate .............................................................. Hygrophila</p><p>29 Corolla usually&gt; 10 mm long, subactinomorphic and not conspicuously bilabiate; plants not aquatic but can be riparian; pollen 3-aperturate, lacking pseudocolpi, exine coarsely reticulate ......... ........................................................................................... Ruellia</p><p>30 Corolla with left-contort or quincuncial aestivation, with or without a filament curtain................................................................. 31</p><p>30 Corolla with ascending-cochlear aestivation, lacking a filament curtain........................................................................................ 34</p><p>31 Corolla with quincuncial aestivation, lacking a filament curtain..... 32</p><p>31 Corolla with left-contort aestivation, with a filament curtain.... 33</p><p>32 Corolla red, strongly bilabiate, upper lip ± hooded, entire or shallowly 2-lobed, lower lip 3-lobed; Mexico ................ Lepidagathis</p><p>32 Corolla bright yellow (drying dark purplish), consisting of 5, large, spreading lobes, 4 posterior, 1 anterior; widespread ........ Barleria</p><p>33 Calyx 3-partite; corolla very large, gullet-shaped, pale green to greenish-yellow (sometimes with maroon tinges), cream-colored, or entirely dark maroon; primarily nocturnal; shrubs to trees; pollen spherical and pantoforate; Mexico and Central America......... ................................................................................... Louteridium</p><p>33 Calyx 5-partite; corolla long and tubular, primarily red or orange, but can be yellow or white; shrubs; pollen not spherical, 2-colporate and polypseudocolpate, the apertural faces oriented 90° from one another; mostly South America........................................ Sanchezia</p><p>34 Androecium of 2 stamens (bithecous) and 2 staminodes; flowers sometimes heterostylous............................................................ 35</p><p>34 Androecium of 2 stamens (bithecous or monothecous) and 0 staminodes; flowers not heterostylous ........................................... 41</p><p>35 Corolla ca. 5 mm long; upper lip divided less than 1/3 its length (i.e., shallowly 2-lobed); Ecuador ........................ Psilanthele [60]</p><p>35 Corolla (at least of chasmogamous flowers)&gt; 5 mm long (up to 45 mm long and usually&gt; 10 mm long); upper lip divided 1/2 or more its length (shallowly 2-lobed in Chileranthemum and some species of Odontonema) ............................................................ 36</p><p>36 Corolla with purplish spots on limb, the 2 lobes of upper lip strongly laterally divergent from each other; stamens conspicuously exposed between lips of corolla (not appressed to upper lip of corolla), filaments arched toward lower lip of corolla; plants not heterostylous; South America.................................................. Pulchranthus</p><p>36 Corolla with or without spots on limb, the 2 lobes of upper lip not laterally divergent from each other; stamens appressed to upper lip of corolla or exposed between lips, filaments straight (not curved toward lower lip of corolla); plants often heterostylous...................37</p><p>37 Corolla ± salverform, tube elongate and cylindric (or throat becoming slightly expanded) or sometimes narrowed distally, limb ± rotate, usually subactinomorphic.................. Pseuderanthemum</p><p>37 Corolla infundibuliform, tube expanding gradually or ± abruptly toward mouth (sometimes subcylindric), limb extending forward to reflexed, bilabiate .................................................................. 38</p><p>38 Trailing or clambering shrubs; leaves coriaceous, blades 10–25 mm long; corolla 13–17 mm long; serpentine substrates in Cuba ........... .............................................................................................. Sapphoa</p><p>38 Plants lacking the above combination of characters .................. 39</p><p>39 Armature usually present in leaf axils (absent in some plants or in some species); leaves usually coriaceous; corolla usually bluish to purple (rarely red or white); Argentina, Bolivia, Peru, West Indies .................................................................................. Oplonia [61]</p><p>39 Spines absent; leaves membranaceous; corolla red, purplish, pink, yellow, or white ......................................................................... 40</p><p>40 Corolla purplish to pinkish to whitish with colored markings on the lower lip, tube subcylindric to ± abruptly expanded distally, shorter to only slightly longer than limb, upper lip shallowly 2-lobed, erect, lower lip horizontally spreading (i.e., lips 90° apart with lower lip forming a conspicuous “landing platform”); plants not clambering; Mexico to El Salvador ..................................... Chileranthemum</p><p>40 Corolla red, pinkish, or purplish (rarely yellow or white), usually lacking colored markings, tube usually gradually expanded distally and longer (often&gt;1.5× longer) than limb, upper lip shallowly to ± deeply 2-lobed, upper and lower lips variously oriented; plants sometimes clambering; widespread.......................... Odontonema</p><p>41 Anthers monothecous ................................................................ 42</p><p>41 Anthers bithecous ...................................................................... 43</p><p>42 Inflorescence of terminal spikes; corolla violet, tube cylindric, limb deeply 5-lobed with equal lobes; Brazil ................................ ............................................................ Sebastiano-Schaueria [62]</p><p>42 Plants not with the above combination of characters; widespread ....................................................................... Stenostephanus</p><p>43 Stems usually hexagonal; flowers in bracteate dichasia bearing 1 or more cymules, cymules of 1 or more flowers subtended by an involucre of 2 or more pairs of bracteoles (outer pair usually conspicuous and larger than inner pair(s)); capsules with fracturing placentae, dehiscent capsule conspicuously ruptured near base of head; corolla resupinate (180° or 360°) in some species; widespread ............................................................................ Dicliptera</p><p>43 Stems terete to quadrate to quadrate-sulcate (rarely subhexagonal); flowers rarely borne in cymules but, if so, then not as described above; capsules without fracturing placentae (or retinacula slightly separating from inner wall in Henrya and Tetramerium, but then not rising to protrude prominently from each capsule valve on/after dehiscence); corolla not resupinate............................................ 44</p><p>44 Corolla subsalverform, purplish; stamens 2–2.5 mm long, filaments apically pubescent with flexuose eglandular trichomes, thecae superposed (0.3–0.5 mm apart), distal theca fertile, proximal theca sterile (appendage-like); seeds ca. 5 mm in diam., papillose, margin swollen............................................................. Streblacanthus</p><p>44 Plants not with the above combination of characters................. 45</p><p>45 Upper lip of corolla with a rugula on the internal surface (not confirmed for all taxa); flowers nototribic; anther thecae with or without basal appendages, the pair parallel to perpendicular and equally to unequally inserted on the filament; pollen 2–6 (or more?)-aperturate, pseudocolpi present or absent, insulae (i.e., ± isolated [sometimes linked in Poikilacanthus] [63] gemmate regions enclosed by thick, smooth marginal walls) and/or peninsulae (attached on one side to the interapertural exine), when present, usually restricted to 1 or more rows flanking apertures or entire interapertural surface either reticulate or covered with smooth and subconic to rounded verrucae..........................................................................................46</p><p>45 Upper lip of corolla lacking a rugula; flowers sternotribic, nototribic or pleurotribic; anther thecae lacking basal appendages, the pair parallel to subsagittate and equally to subequally inserted on the filament; pollen 3-colporate and 6-pseudocolpate (pseudocolpi sometimes fused, inconspicuous, or rarely absent; 2-colporate, 4- pseudocolpate in Mexacanthus), insulae and peninsulae absent ...53</p><p>46 Shrubs or epiphytic herbs; flowers subtended by an involucre of conspicuous, basally fused bracteoles; corolla red or lilac; calyx highly reduced, cupular, entire to shallowly dentate; Brazil .......... .................................................................................... Clistax [64]</p><p>46 Plants not with the above combination of characters................. 47</p><p>47 Inflorescence of short, axillary, pedunculate, subcapitate spikes; bracts oblanceolate to obovate; thecae of a pair superposed and perpendicular; corolla yellow-green with purplish spots on lower lip, ca. 9 mm long; Andean Peru ......................... Cephalacanthus</p><p>47 Plants not with the above combination of characters................. 48</p><p>48 Trees to 5 m tall; leaves with globose (appearing hemispheric on surfaces) concretions 0.3–0.7 mm in diam.; thecae of a pair equally inserted, parallel to subsagittate, lacking basal appendages; calyx 25–32 mm long, lobes oblong to oblanceolate, widely spreading at maturity; capsule 22–29 mm long; Haiti .............. Samuelssonia</p><p>48 Plants not with the above combination of characters................. 49</p><p>49 Pollen 4–6 (or more?)-porate, interapertural surfaces either covered with discrete insulae or with insulae linked by sharing common end-walls and arranged in loops that enclose a row or band of linked insulae ........................................................................ 50</p><p>49 Pollen 2–4-aperturate (colporate or porate), apertures flanked by pseudocolpi or by 1 or more rows of ± discrete insulae and/or peninsulae, or the entire interapertural surface covered with smooth and subconic to rounded verrucae ............................................. 51</p><p>50 Inflorescence large, usually longer than 7 cm, and very showy with conspicuous subfoliose red to maroon to pinkish bracts and bracteoles; corolla white (sometimes turning pinkish with age); pollen covered with discrete insulae; frequently cultivated, presumably native in Venezuela ...................................... Megaskepasma [65]</p><p>50 Inflorescence various, but not as described above, usually less than 7 cm long; corolla red, orangish, pink, pinkish-purple, greenish-yellow, or white; pollen covered with discrete insulae or pollen otherwise; widespread ........................................... Poikilacanthus</p><p>51 Erect shrubs to 3 m; corolla primarily nocturnal, greenish, pale yellow, or cream, 38–95 mm long, upper lip arched, lobes of lower lip usually dangling and somewhat twisted; thecae 5–7.6 mm long; pollen 3-colporate and with either a pseudocolpus or 1 row of insulae flanking each colporus; Brazil ..................... Harpochilus [66]</p><p>51 Plants not with the above combination of characters................. 52</p><p>52 Subscandent shrubs; corolla greenish white, 13–14 mm long, upper lip erect (i.e., continuous with tube) and lower lip horizontal at maturity (i.e., spreading 90° from upper lip); pollen 4-colporate, mesocolpia “occasionally” [fide Raj, 1961] with 2 pseudocolpi; Cuba ................................................................................... Dasytropis</p><p>52 Plants not with this combination of characters and extremely variable in vegetative, floral, and palynological morphologies; widespread ........................................................................ Justicia [67]</p><p>53 Inflorescence a terminal thyrse; corolla bud strongly arched (i.e., curved downward and appearing like an upside-down hook), open corolla with the limb curved downward forming an upside-down “U” or semi-circle; thecae 5–6 mm long; Cuba ..... Ancistranthus</p><p>53 Plants not with the above combination of characters; not occurring in Cuba ...................................................................................... 54</p><p>54 Bracteoles of a pair fused along one side from base to near apex forming a sheathing involucre around flower; pollen with colpi broad, far exceeding the width of the centrally positioned ora; septa and attached retinacula separating slightly from inner wall of mature capsules near base of head; U.S.A. (Arizona) to Costa Rica ........................ Henrya</p><p>54 Bracteoles of a pair not fused, or if so only at base up to 1 mm; pollen with colpi narrow, not or only slightly exceeding width of centrally positioned ora; septa and attached retinacula not separating from inner wall of mature capsules (except in Tetramerium).......55</p><p>55 Capsules progressively reflexing during maturation (upside-down at maturity), distal portion of capsule expanded, truncate and widest at apex, basal portion of capsule densely pubescent with apically hooked (uncinate) trichomes; seeds 2, permanently enclosed in capsule valves; northwestern Mexico ........................... Aphanosperma</p><p>55 Capsules not reflexed at maturity, distal portion of capsule tapering to a point or rounded at apex, basal portion lacking uncinate trichomes; seeds 2–4, free from capsule valves when mature ............ 56</p><p>56 Flowers sternotribic (i.e., stamens positioned near lower lip of corolla and anthers dehiscing toward upper lip) or pleurotribic (i.e., anthers dehiscing toward center of floral axis and each other); primarily North and Central America ............................................ 57</p><p>56 Flowers nototribic (i.e., stamens positioned near upper lip of corolla and anthers dehiscing toward lower lip) or sternotribic in Schaueria litoralis from South America; mostly South America..................61</p><p>57 Flowers pleurotribic; seeds usually 2 per capsule...................... 58</p><p>57 Flowers sternotribic; seeds 2–4 per capsule............................... 59</p><p>58 Corolla 6.5–11 mm long, cream with maroon markings; pollen 3- colporate, 6-pseudocolpate; southern Mexico ........ Gypsacanthus</p><p>58 Corolla 17–26 mm long, bicolored with upper lip red and lower lip yellow; pollen 2-colporate, 4-pseudocolpate; west-central Mexico ................................................................................. Mexacanthus</p><p>59 Inflorescence of usually densely bracteate, 4-sided spikes; bracts conspicuous, usually concealing the calyx; septa and attached retinacula separating slightly from inner wall of mature capsules near base of head.............................................................. Tetramerium</p><p>59 Inflorescence neither densely bracteate nor 4-sided; bracts inconspicuous and sometimes caducous, not concealing the calyx; septa and attached retinacula not separating from inner wall of mature capsules ..................................................................................... 60</p><p>60 Shrubs to 4 m tall, rarely dying back to woody caudices; corolla (white) pink, red, or orange (yellowish), lacking conspicuous colored markings, (24–) 30–65 mm long, tube usually conspicuously ampliate toward apex, (10–) 14–31 mm long; thecae 2.2–4.8 mm long; U.S.A. to Costa Rica ...................................... Anisacanthus</p><p>60 Perennial herbs to weak shrubs up to 1 (–1.5) m tall, usually dying back to woody caudices; corolla white, yellow, blue, purple, or pinkish, usually with conspicuous colored markings on the limb, 5.5–23 (–27) mm long, tube not or only slightly ampliate toward apex, 1.5– 8.5 (–13) mm long; thecae 0.5–1.9 mm long; widespread ............... ..................................................................................... Carlowrightia</p><p>61 Creeping perennial herbs; leaves with conspicuous white, pink, or red veins; corolla yellow, 10–15 mm long; inflorescence of densely bracteate terminal spikes; Colombia and Brazil to Bolivia .... .......................................................................................... Fittonia</p><p>61 Plants not with the above combination of characters................. 62</p><p>62 Inflorescence of axillary and terminal, densely bracteate spike-like thyrses to 15 cm long; bracts and calyx lobes distally dark maroon; corolla yellow, (28–) 35–47 mm long, throat abruptly and broadly expanded from subcylindric tube, appearing saccate; northeastern Mexico ........................................................................ Hoverdenia</p><p>62 Plants not with the above combination of characters [68] ......... 63</p><p>63 Shrubs; bracts and bracteoles inconspicuous and often caducous, 0.8–3 mm long, 0.2–1 mm wide; corolla red, 20–45 mm long; seasonally dry forests of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay .......... ..................................... Thyrsacanthus (in part, excl. T. sulcatus)</p><p>63 Plants not with the above combination of characters................. 64</p><p>64 Corolla subsalverform, tube elongate, 1.3–8.5× longer than limb, narrow (up to 1.5 mm in diam. near midpoint, measured flat), and cylindric for most of its length (± abruptly expanded only near apex, if at all)............................................................................. 65</p><p>64 Corolla infundibuliform, tube ± gradually expanded distally, 0.7–3 (–3.6) × longer than limb, mostly neither conspicuously narrow ([1.2–] 1.5–6.3 mm in diam. near midpoint, measured flat) nor cylindric through most of its length .......................................... 67</p><p>65 Inflorescence of open and elongate spikes, bracts inconspicuous, rachis clearly visible; corolla tube 3–8.5× longer than limb; Costa Rica to Argentina ...................... Pachystachys (in part [69])</p><p>65 Inflorescence of densely and conspicuously bracteate ± 4-sided spikes, rachis not visible; corolla tube 1.3–3× longer than limb..... 66</p><p>66 Bracts lanceolate, 2–4 mm wide; Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay .... ................................................................... Thyrsacanthus sulcatus</p><p>66 Bracts ovate, broadly ovate, subdeltate, elliptic or subcircular, 5– 18 mm wide; U.S.A. to Mexico ....................................... Yeatesia</p><p>67 Corolla bluish or purplish, 11–21 mm long; arid regions of northern Mexico ................. Mirandea (in part, excluding M. sylvatica)</p><p>67 Corolla white, yellow, orangish, red or pink, 8–70 mm long; plants of moist to wet forests in southern Mexico to South America.....68</p><p>68 Corolla yellow to white, 8–31 mm long; Mexico, Guatemala .....69</p><p>58 Corolla white, yellow, orangish, red or pink, 10–70 mm long; South America and the West Indies ...................................................... 70</p><p>69 Bracts 1–4 mm long, 0.5–0.8 mm wide; calyx 2–3.7 mm long; corolla 8–13.5 mm long; southern Mexico .......... Mirandea sylvatica [70]</p><p>69 Bracts 9–22 mm long, 1.2–2.2 mm wide; calyx 10–25 mm long; corolla 22–31 mm long; Mexico, Guatemala ................................ .............................................................. Schaueria parviflora [71]</p><p>70 Corolla yellow or white; bracts narrow, 0.5–2.5 mm wide, mostly yellow in species with yellow corollas and green in species with white corollas; Atlantic forests of Brazil ...................... Schaueria</p><p>70 Corolla mostly red, orange-red or pink (white in P. lutea, and yellow in P. azaleiflora); bracts (4–) 6–18 mm wide in most species (1–1.5 mm wide in P. azaleiflora, P. badiospica, P. gracilis and P. linearibracteata), green to yellowish-green (bright yellow to orange-yellow in P. lutea and brownish red in P. badiospica); West Indies and Amazonian South America, especially Peru ................ ................................................................................. Pachystachys</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFFE8B6F45A8CD519531970D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFCD8B68450BCBE2932496ED.text	03884F74FFCD8B68450BCBE2932496ED.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Barlerieae	<div><p>Barlerieae Nees in Martius, Fl. Bras. 9: 7, 65. 1847</p><p>– Type: Barleria L.</p><p>= Russeggereae Meisn., Pl. Vasc. Gen., Tab. Diagn.: 293 &amp; Comm.: 202. 1840 – Type: Russeggera Endl. (= Lepidagathis Willd.).</p><p>Perennial, herbs, shrubs or rarely small trees, with cystoliths, these sometimes occurring in adjacent cells to form “double cystoliths”; leaves opposite, sometimes subrosulate; inflorescences terminal or axillary, varying from flowers solitary to held in complex dichasial or monochasial cymes or thyrses; flowers subtended by paired bracteoles, bracts and/or bracteoles inconspicuous or conspicuous, sometimes with multiple whorls of bracts subtending the flowers; calyces varying from equally to highly unequally 5-lobed or reduced to 4 highly unequal lobes through fusion of the anterior pair of lobes; corollas variable in size, shape and color, strongly bilabiate to subactinomorphic, rugula absent, aestivation quincuncial (i.e., lateral lobes outermost in bud); androecium either of 4 stamens, then didynamous to strongly so, or of 2 stamens plus 2–3 staminodes, anthers in taxa with 2 stamens bithecous, anthers in taxa with 4 stamens either all bithecous or with 2 pairs bithecous and 2 pairs monothecous, thecae in bithecous stamens ± equally inserted on filament, parallel or slightly sagittate, with or more often without short basal appendages; stigma either 2-lobed or with only 1 lobe developing, this either linear or enlarged and flattened; capsule fusiform or conspicuously rostrate, or sometimes stipitate, 2–4-seeded, retinacula present, without fracturing placentae; seeds discoid to lenticular, surfaces often covered in hygroscopic trichomes, these rarely sparse or absent; pollen variable, frequent forms include (1) globose, 3-porate or 3-colporate with a coarsely reticulate exine, (2) prolate, 3-colporate with a finely reticulate exine, or (3) globose to subprolate 3-porate (to 6-porate), with a gemmate, verrucose or rugose sculpturing of the exine.</p><p>Note. – The tribal name Russeggereae predates Barlerieae by seven years and so has nomenclatural priority. Russeggereae was described by Meisner to accommodate two genera described by Endlicher, Russeggera (= Lepidagathis) and Schwabea, the latter of which is an excluded name in the current classification. This name has never been used since its first description, whereas the name Barlerieae has been applied frequently to this tribe as currently circumscribed (e.g., Manktelow &amp; al., 2001; McDade &amp; al., 2008; Champluvier &amp; Darbyshire, 2012; Darbyshire &amp; al., 2019a,c; Comito &amp; al., in rev.), and a comparison of citations on Google Scholar reveals 124 references to Barlerieae but 0 references to Russeggereae. There is no option under the Code (Turland &amp; al., 2018) to conserve names between the ranks of family and genus, but under Art. 56, rejection of a name at any rank can be proposed. The current authors are therefore preparing a proposal to reject the name Russeggereae, given that abandoning Barlerieae would be a “disadvantageous nomenclatural change” (Art. 56.1). In the meantime, we maintain Barlerieae over Russeggereae in the current classification. A description of Barlerieae is provided above to clarify the circumscription of this tribe.</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFCD8B68450BCBE2932496ED	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFCD8B684679CBE29282916D.text	03884F74FFCD8B684679CBE29282916D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Lankesteriinae	<div><p>Lankesteriinae I.Darbysh. &amp; E.Tripp subtr. nov.</p><p>– Type: Lankesteria Lindl.</p><p>Perennial herbs or shrubs with cystoliths; leaves opposite; inflorescences of dense terminal spikes or thyrses, often with conspicuous imbricate bracts or the bracts linear in some species, paired bracteoles linear and inconspicuous; corolla yellow, orange, or white, salverform, subactinomorphic or with sinus between the two adaxial lobes at a wider angle than the other lobe sinuses, with trifurcating traces to the lobes, filament curtain absent, aestivation left-contort; androecium of 2 stamens plus (typically) 2 staminodes, anthers bithecous, thecae inserted equally on the filament and held at an equal height; stigma capitate, the lobes oblique; capsule 2-seeded, seeds with hygroscopic trichomes covering the surfaces, surface with concentric rings of ridges, the trichomes attached to (and hiding) these ridges (fide Manktelow &amp; al., 2001); pollen 3-porate, triangular in polar view with flattened apertural faces, pores surrounded by a granular circular area, interapertural areas otherwise reticulate.</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFCD8B684679CBE29282916D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFCD8B68450BC9A2975296ED.text	03884F74FFCD8B68450BC9A2975296ED.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Physacantheae	<div><p>Physacantheae E.Tripp &amp; I.Darbysh. tr. nov.</p><p>– Type: Physacanthus Benth.</p><p>= Haselhoffiinae Lindau in Engler &amp; Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenfam., Nachtr. 1: 305. 1897 – Type: Haselhoffia Lindau (= Physacanthus).</p><p>Trailing, decumbent or weakly erect herbs, cystoliths absent; leaves opposite but sometimes closely spaced and rosette-forming, often variegated; inflorescences terminal, 1- to several-flowered; calyces cylindrical or inflated, lobes fused for most of their length; corolla white to purple, tube narrowly cylindrical, geniculate at apex, limb subactinomorphic with 5 equal lobes, aestivation left-contort; androecium of 4 stamens with monothecous anthers plus 1 staminode; stigma clavate, 2-lobed; capsule cylindrical, (4–) 6–9-seeded, retinacula present, seeds with papillose processes on the surface; pollen with compound germinal apertures, prolate, 3-colporate with 3 interapertural pseudocolpi.</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFCD8B68450BC9A2975296ED	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFCD8B6B4679CC629709958D.text	03884F74FFCD8B6B4679CC629709958D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Whitfieldiinae	<div><p>Whitfieldiinae I.Darbysh. &amp; E.Tripp, subtr. nov.</p><p>– Type: Whitfieldia Hook.</p><p>Perennial herbs or shrubs with cystoliths; leaves opposite; inflorescences variously spiciform or racemoid thyrses, sometimes compounded into a panicle, or fasciculate, glomerulate or shortly umbellate; individual flowers or floral units subtended by paired bracts (or bracteoles), these often conspicuous, clasping and sometimes partially connate at least in bud; calyces equally to somewhat unequally 5-lobed; corolla ranging from subactinomorphic to bilabiate, with traces trifurcating in the lobes, filament curtain absent, aestivation left-contort (also reported as ascending-cochlear but this not observed by the current authors); androecium of 4 stamens (rarely reduced to 2 stamens plus 2 staminodes in some flowers), with or without an additional staminode, anthers bithecous, thecae inserted equally on the filament and held at an equal height; stigma capitate, the lobes symmetrical; capsule 2- to 4-seeded, seeds (where known) with concentric rings of coarse scales at least towards margin, surfaces lacking trichomes; pollen lenticular, 2-pororate, with a pronounced marginal girdle (this typically psilate), or rarely globose and pantoforate, areas around the pores granular or micro-echinate.</p><p>Note. – If Ritonia Benoist proves to be a member of Whitfieldiinae, then the description of the androecium must be modified to include 2 stamens plus 2 staminodes as a nonaberrant trait.</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFCD8B6B4679CC629709958D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFCE8B6B4629CF0292CE930D.text	03884F74FFCE8B6B4629CF0292CE930D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Dolichostachys	<div><p>Dolichostachys Benoist, gen. nov.</p><p>– Type: Dolichostachys elongata Benoist, sp. nov.</p><p>Validating description in Bull. Soc. Bot. France 109: 133. 1962.</p><p>Resembling Populina Baill. and allied genera in Tetrameriinae but differing in the very short corolla tube 4.5 mm long (fide Benoist, 1962), in the broad, elliptic upper lip of the corolla with a rounded apex, and in the long, narrowly elliptic leaves 11–15 cm long when mature.</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFCE8B6B4629CF0292CE930D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFCE8B6B45FBCDC292E6956D.text	03884F74FFCE8B6B45FBCDC292E6956D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Graptophyllinae	<div><p>Graptophyllinae T.Anderson in J. Proc. Linn. Soc., Bot. 7: 17. 1863, emend. Kiel, McDade, I.Darbysh. &amp; T.F.Daniel –</p><p>Type: Graptophyllum Nees.</p><p>Perennial (rarely annual) herbs or shrubs or small trees with cystoliths; leaves opposite; inflorescences terminal to axillary, form highly variable, inflorescences consisting of 1- to many-flowered dichasia in leaf axils or in axils of bracts in axillary and/or terminal spikes, racemes, or thyrses (or, when branched, in panicles of these), flowers subtended by paired bracteoles, bracts and/or bracteoles inconspicuous or conspicuous; corollas variable in size, shape and color, bilabiate to only weakly zygomorphic, rugula absent; androecium either of 4 stamens or of 2 stamens plus 2 staminodes, 2 pairs of stamens (or pairs comprising 1 stamen plus 1 staminode) sometimes with filaments basally fused, anthers in taxa with 2 stamens either bithecous or monothecous, anthers in taxa with 4 stamens either all bithecous or with 1 pair bithecous and 1 pair monothecous, thecae of a pair subequally or unequally inserted on filament, parallel or slightly oblique, with or without short basal appendages; stigma usually bilobed, but sometimes subfunnelform (e.g., some Chileranthemum); capsule clavate, (2–) 4-seeded, retinacula present and not separating from inner capsule wall at maturity; seeds (where known) discoid to lenticular, surfaces variously ornamented or smooth, trichomes absent; pollen most frequently prolate and 3-colporate, 6-pseudocolpate but can be 4-colporate, 8-pseudocolpate or sometimes 4-por(or)ate and echinate (in Isotheca and some Herpetacanthus).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFCE8B6B45FBCDC292E6956D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFCE8B6B4629C86293B791CD.text	03884F74FFCE8B6B4629C86293B791CD.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Monotheciinae	<div><p>Monotheciinae Lindau in Bot Jahrb. Syst. 18: 56. 1893, emend. Kiel, I.Darbysh. &amp; T.F.Daniel – Type: Monothecium Hochst.</p><p>Perennial herbs, shrubs or small trees with cystoliths; leaves opposite, isophyllous to strongly anisophyllous; inflorescences varying from terminal to axillary or sometimes ramiflorous or cauliflorous, inflorescence form highly variable, ranging from open dichasia to spicate or paniculate thyrses, to contracted few-branched dichasia or flowers solitary, flowers subtended by paired bracteoles, bracts and/or bracteoles inconspicuous or conspicuous; corollas variable in size, shape and color, bilabiate, upper lip often hooded, rugula absent, lower lip often with 2 raised ridges and a central furrow running into the throat; androecium of 2 stamens and no staminodes (except in Ptyssiglottis staminodifera where 2 staminodes present), anthers bithecous or ( Monothecium only) monothecous, thecae of a pair subequally or unequally inserted on filament, parallel or slightly oblique, with or more commonly without basal appendages; stigma 2-lobed; capsule (where known) clavate, 4-seeded, retinacula present and not separating from inner capsule wall at maturity; seeds (where known) lenticular, surfaces variously ornamented, often tuberculate, trichomes absent; pollen most frequently prolate and 3-colporate, 6-pseudocolpate but with variation up to 4- or 5-colporate, 8- or 10-pseudocolpate, and also spheroidal pantoporate.</p><p>Below, we validate names for two genera from Madagascar that have been applied in the literature and in various databases for several decades now but were not validly published at the time of original description. The status of these genera within the classification of Acanthaceae remains to be further researched. These validations thus serve to facilitate future discussion. Small diagnostic descriptions are provided to aid identification of these two poorly known taxa; full descriptions are available in the original publications (Benoist, 1962).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFCE8B6B4629C86293B791CD	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFCE8B6B45FBC8C296D4908D.text	03884F74FFCE8B6B45FBC8C296D4908D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Tetrameriinae	<div><p>Tetrameriinae T.F.Daniel, Kiel &amp; McDade, subtr. nov. –</p><p>Type: Tetramerium Nees.</p><p>Perennial herbs or shrubs with cystoliths; leaves opposite; inflorescences in 1- to many-flowered dichasia, these borne in leaf axils or in axils of bracts along spikes, racemes, or thyrses, which are sometimes branched into panicles, flowers subtended by paired bracteoles, bracts and/or bracteoles inconspicuous or conspicuous; corollas variable in size, shape and color, rugula absent; androecium of 2 stamens and no staminodes (4 stamens in Chalarothyrsus), anthers bithecous (monothecous in Clinacanthus), thecae of a pair equally or subequally inserted on filament, parallel to sagittate, lacking basal appendages; stigma usually 2-lobed; capsule clavate, 2–4-seeded, retinacula present and usually not separating from inner capsule wall at maturity (separating slightly in Henrya and Tetramerium); seeds distinct and expelled from capsule on dehiscence (indistinct by fusion with retinacula and capsule wall, and not expelled from capsule valves in Aphanosperma and Chalarothyrsus); seeds compressed, surfaces and margin smooth or variously ornamented, trichomes usually absent (hygroscopic trichomes present in Henrya insularis); pollen usually 3- colporate, 6-pseudocolpate (see Daniel &amp; al., 2008 for rare variants).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFCE8B6B45FBC8C296D4908D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFCE8B6A4629CE42973F97ED.text	03884F74FFCE8B6A4629CE42973F97ED.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Dolichostachys elongata Benoist 2022	<div><p>Dolichostachys elongata Benoist, sp. nov. – Holotype: Madagascar: Fénérive, fl. 1912, Perrier de la Bâthie 9448 (P [P00089215]*).</p><p>Validating description in Bull. Soc. Bot. France 109: 133. 1962.</p><p>Additional material seen. – Madagascar, R. Mananara, fl. Aug. 1912, Perrier de la Bâthie 9445 (P [P00089214]*).</p><p>Notes. – When describing Dolichostachys elongata, Benoist (1962) cited the two specimens listed above but did not designate a type specimen, thus the names of the genus and species were not validly published under Art. 40 of the Code (Turland &amp; al., 2018). This is rectified here by selection of a type specimen. As Benoist provided full descriptions for the genus and species (in Latin), the names can continue to be attributed to him but with priority from the present publication.</p><p>Dolichostachys remains unplaced within Justicieae . The combination of an androecium comprising two stamens with parallel thecae and (apparently) lacking staminodes, a 2-lipped corolla with the lower lip deeply divided into 3 lobes and lacking raised venation in the throat, and a slender spiciform inflorescence suggests possible affinity to Tetrameriinae, but Isoglossinae cannot be ruled out. Benoist (1962) described the pollen as spherical and smooth with three pores. Triporate pollen is observed in some Isoglossinae, notably in Brachystephanus (Champluvier &amp; Darbyshire, 2009), but in those cases the grains are still conspicuously “girdled” as in other Isoglossinae. It is possible that Benoist misinterpreted this pollen type.</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFCE8B6A4629CE42973F97ED	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFCF8B6A4679CD029557926D.text	03884F74FFCF8B6A4679CD029557926D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Asystasia	<div><p>Asystasia Blume in Bijdr. Fl. Ned. Ind.: 796. 1826</p><p>– Type: Asystasia intrusa (Forssk.) Blume (= A. gangetica (L.) T.Anderson subsp. micrantha (Nees) Ensermu).</p><p>Salpinctium was separated from Asystasia by Edwards &amp; Getliffe Norris (1989) on the basis of having compressed bicolporate pollen and an elongate linear corolla tube. However, Ensermu &amp; al. (1992) noted that bicolporate pollen is also recorded in at least one species of Asystasia in Africa, and pollen is quite variable in the genus. Whilst the corolla tube in Asystasia is usually infundibuliform, the length and width of the tube is variable and in A. vogeliana from West and Central Africa it is long and slender. Salpinctium was not upheld by Ensermu &amp; Vollesen (in Darbyshire &amp; al., 2015) and this decision is followed here. Combinations in Asystasia are already available for two of the three species treated in Salpinctium by Edwards &amp; Getliffe Norris (1989); below we make the new combination for the third species, which is endemic to Eswatini.</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFCF8B6A4679CD029557926D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFCF8B6A4679CF6293B392CD.text	03884F74FFCF8B6A4679CF6293B392CD.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Asystasia hirsuta (T. J. Edwards) I. Darbysh. & E. Tripp 2022	<div><p>Asystasia hirsuta (T.J.Edwards) I.Darbysh. &amp; E.Tripp, comb. nov.</p><p>≡ Salpinctium hirsutum T.J.Edwards in S. African J. Bot. 55: 9. 1989 – Holotype: Eswatini, 3 miles S of Stegi, fl. 25 Nov 1958, Compton 28397 (PRE [PRE0130612-0]*).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFCF8B6A4679CF6293B392CD	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFCF8B6A450BCC4295FE96ED.text	03884F74FFCF8B6A450BCC4295FE96ED.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Vavara breviflora (Benoist ex I. Darbysh. & E. Tripp 2022) Benoist ex I. Darbysh. & E. Tripp 2022	<div><p>Vavara breviflora (Benoist) Benoist ex I.Darbysh. &amp; E.Tripp, comb. nov.</p><p>≡ Rhinacanthus breviflorus Benoist in Notul.</p><p>Syst. (Paris) 12: 140. 1946 – Lectotype (designated here): Madagascar, bassin supérieur du Mandrare (Sud-Est), col de Vavara, fl. 10 Nov 1928, Humbert 6532 (P [P00089211]*; isolectotypes: BM [BM013867026]!, K [K000378866]!, P [P00089210]*, TAN [TAN000434]*).</p><p>Additional material seen. – Madagascar, chaine du Vohibory (a l’ ouest d’ Ivohibe), fl. 1 Nov 1924, Humbert 3071 (P [P00089213]*); Prov. de Farafangana, entre Vondrozo et Ivohibe, fl. 18 Sep 1926, Decary 5373 (P [P00089212]*) .</p><p>Notes. – Benoist (1946) described Rhinacanthus breviflorus based on three collections (Decary 5373; Humbert 3071, 6532) of which he designated Humbert 6532 as the type. As there are several specimens of this gathering, we designate (above) one of those at P as lectotype. When Benoist (1962) later described his new genus Vavara containing the single species V. breviflora, he failed to record that it was based on R. breviflorus despite citing the same three collections (without any type designation on this occasion). Therefore, Vavara was not validly published under Art. 41 of the Code (Turland &amp; al., 2018). This is rectified here by formalizing the new combination.</p><p>Vavara breviflora closely resembles some species of Dicliptera, most notably in corolla morphology, but the unique arrangement of the anthers with the two thecae widely separated by 0.8–1 mm appears to be diagnostic. Benoist (1946) recorded the corolla as being sulphur-yellow, which would be an additional diagnostic character, as Dicliptera has corollas that range from white to purple or red. However, on Decary 5373, the flower color is recorded as “white, slightly pink”. We therefore consider it likely that Benoist’ s (1946) record of the flower color is erroneous. We are confident that this genus belongs within Justicieae-Justiciinae but molecular data are needed to reveal its position in relation to Dicliptera and allied genera.</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFCF8B6A450BCC4295FE96ED	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFCF8B6A450BCAE296DB910D.text	03884F74FFCF8B6A450BCAE296DB910D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Vavara	<div><p>Vavara Benoist, gen. nov.</p><p>– Type: Vavara breviflora (Benoist)</p><p>Benoist ex I.Darbysh. &amp; E.Tripp, comb. nov.</p><p>Validating description in Bull. Soc. Bot. France 109: 134. 1962.</p><p>Resembling Dicliptera Juss. in its corolla tube twisted through ±180° resulting in a resupinate corolla limb and sternotribic flower but differing in the anther thecae of each stamen being widely separated by long extension of the anther connective (versus thecae immediately superposed or slightly overlapping).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFCF8B6A450BCAE296DB910D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFCF8B654679CE029530902D.text	03884F74FFCF8B654679CE029530902D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Aphelandra R. Br.	<div><p>Aphelandra R.Br. in Prodr.: 475. 1810</p><p>– Type: Aphelandra cristata (Jacq.) R.Br. ex W.T.Aiton (= A. pulcherrima (Jacq.) Kunth).</p><p>= Orophochilus Lindau in Bull. Herb. Boissier 5: 657. 1897, syn. nov.</p><p>– Type: Orophochilus stipulaceus Lindau.</p><p>= Rhombochlamys Lindau in Bull. Herb. Boissier 5: 659. 1897, syn. nov. – Type: Rhombochlamys rosulata Lindau (≡ Aphelandra rosulata (Lindau) Wassh.).</p><p>= Encephalosphaera Lindau in Bull. Herb. Boissier, ser. 2, 4: 322. 1904, syn. nov. – Type: Encephalosphaera vitellina Lindau.</p><p>Although not sampled phylogenetically in McDade &amp; al. (2005), the monospecific genus Orophochilus is allied to spiny members of Aphelandra . As such, we provide the necessary combination below.</p><p>The genus Rhombochlamys was shown by McDade &amp; al. (2005) to be nested within Aphelandra with strong bootstrap support, even though placed phylogenetically by only a single locus. Nonetheless, those data in combination with morphological attributes discussed in McDade &amp; al. (2005) suggest that Rhombochlamys belongs within Aphelandra, and we provide the necessary combination below. Note that R. rosulata Lindau was previously transferred into Aphelandra by D. Wasshausen in 1996.</p><p>The genus Encephalosphaera was shown by McDade &amp; al. (2005) to be nested within Aphelandra with strong bootstrap support. As such, we provide the necessary combinations for all species here. Note that no new combination is needed for Encephalosphaera puberula (Leonard) Wassh., as this was first published under Aphelandra puberula Leonard.</p><p>The genus Xantheranthemum was previously included within Aphelandra (Wasshausen, 1996), which we follow here.</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFCF8B654679CE029530902D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFC08B6545FBCD22952490ED.text	03884F74FFC08B6545FBCD22952490ED.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Aphelandra elata (Lindau) McDade & E. Tripp 2022	<div><p>Aphelandra elata (Lindau) McDade &amp; E.Tripp, comb. nov.</p><p>≡ Rhombochlamys elata Lindau in Bull. Herb. Boissier 5: 661. 1897 – Holotype: Colombia, prov. Cauca, über La Vitrera bei Palmira, fl. 17 Jun 1883, Lehmann 2891 (B†, photo at F [neg. no. 8723]*; isotype: G [G00226595]*).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFC08B6545FBCD22952490ED	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFC08B6545FBCDE2952C91AD.text	03884F74FFC08B6545FBCDE2952C91AD.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Aphelandra lasiandra (Mildbr.) McDade & E. Tripp 2022	<div><p>Aphelandra lasiandra (Mildbr.) McDade &amp; E.Tripp, comb. nov.</p><p>≡ Encephalosphaera lasiandra Mildbr. in Notizbl. Bot. Gart. Berlin-Dahlem 11: 68. 1930 – Holotype: Brazil, Rio Acre, Seringal Saraguassu, fl. Feb 1911, Ule 9810 (B†, photo at F [neg. no. 8721]*; isotype: K [K000534546]!).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFC08B6545FBCDE2952C91AD	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFC08B6545FBCCA29439928D.text	03884F74FFC08B6545FBCCA29439928D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Aphelandra stipulacea (Lindau) McDade & E. Tripp 2022	<div><p>Aphelandra stipulacea (Lindau) McDade &amp; E.Tripp, comb. nov.</p><p>≡ Orophochilus stipulaceus Lindau in Bull. Herb. Boissier 5: 658. 1897 – Holotype: Peru, Peruviae orientalis, prope Tarapoto, fl., 1855–1856, Spruce 4324 (B†, photo at F [neg. no. 8720]*; isotypes: BR [000006951306]*, C [C10005068]*, G [G00236408]*, GH [00094151, 00094152]*, K [K000202098, K000202099]!, NY [00312235]*, P [P00719696]*).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFC08B6545FBCCA29439928D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFC08B6545FBCFC29773938D.text	03884F74FFC08B6545FBCFC29773938D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Aphelandra vitellina (Lindau) McDade & E. Tripp 2022	<div><p>Aphelandra vitellina (Lindau) McDade &amp; E.Tripp, comb. nov.</p><p>≡ Encephalosphaera vitellina Lindau in Bull. Herb. Boissier, ser. 2, 4: 323. 1904 – Holotype: Colombia, Prov. Popayan, “prope Agua Clara in Andibus occidentalis”, fl. Jan 1899, Lehmann 9048 (B†, photo at F [neg. no. 8722]*; isotypes: K [K000534568]!, NY [00311968]!).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFC08B6545FBCFC29773938D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFC08B654629CBC2932597ED.text	03884F74FFC08B654629CBC2932597ED.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mimulopsis calcarata (Benoist) E. Tripp & I. Darbysh. 2022	<div><p>Mimulopsis calcarata (Benoist) E.Tripp &amp; I.Darbysh., comb. nov.</p><p>≡ Ionacanthus calcaratus Benoist in Notul. Syst. (Paris) 9: 65. 1940 ≡ Mellera calcarata (Benoist) E.Tripp in Int. J. Pl. Sci. 174: 128. 2013 – Holotype: Madagascar, massif du Tsaratanana et haute vallée du Sambirano (réserve naturelle no. 4), fl. &amp; fr. Nov–Dec 1937, Humbert 18317 (P [P00435417]*; isotypes: K [K000394123]!, P [P00435418]*, TAN [TAN000225]*).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFC08B654629CBC2932597ED	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFC08B654629C9A29273968D.text	03884F74FFC08B654629C9A29273968D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mimulopsis Schweinf.	<div><p>Mimulopsis Schweinf. in Verh. K. K. Zool.-Bot. Ges. Wien 18: 677. 1868</p><p>– Type: Mimulopsis solmsii Schweinf.</p><p>= Ionacanthus Benoist in Notul. Syst. (Paris) 9: 65. 1940, syn. nov. – Type: Ionacanthus calcaratus Benoist.</p><p>The Malagasy monospecific genus Ionacanthus was synonymized with Mellera by Tripp &amp; al. (2013a) on the basis of phylogenetic data derived from Sanger sequencing but was later included within a RADseq dataset (Tripp &amp; Darbyshire, 2020) where it was resolved within Mimulopsis (including Epiclastopelma). This latter result better aligns with morphological features, as Ionacanthus shares with Mimulopsis the unique arrangement of the anthers in which the outermost theca of each of the longer pair of stamens has a conspicuous curved appendage, while the other thecae have much shorter appendages or lack appendages. Ionacanthus is therefore here transferred to Mimulopsis .</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFC08B654629C9A29273968D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFC08B654629CAE2934E930D.text	03884F74FFC08B654629CAE2934E930D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Stenandriopsis S. Moore	<div><p>Stenandriopsis S.Moore in J. Bot. 44: 153. 1906</p><p>– Type: Stenandriopsis thompsonii S.Moore.</p><p>= Achyrocalyx Benoist in Bull. Soc. Bot. France 76: 1036. 1930, syn. nov. – Type: Achyrocalyx decaryi Benoist.</p><p>Vollesen (1992) transferred OW species previously treated within Stenandriopsis to Stenandrium, which had previously been treated as a NW genus, citing a lack of morphological evidence for their separation. However, the NW and OW clades are clearly separated phylogenetically (McDade &amp; al., 2005) and so Stenandriopsis is resurrected here. Combinations are available for all but two of the species of OW Stenandrium; as such, the new combinations are made below.</p><p>McDade &amp; al. (2005) sampled one of the three species of Achyrocalyx in their phylogenetic analysis of Acanthoideae and found it to be resolved within the Stenandriopsis clade, related to the two sampled species of Malagasy Stenandriopsis . Achyrocalyx was separated from Stenandriopsis by Benoist (1930) on the basis of having a bilabiate corolla versus corolla with five subequal lobes. However, McDade &amp; al. (2005) noted that several species of Stenandriopsis have a zygomorphic corolla and, further, that plants of Achyrocalyx share with Malagasy Stenandriopsis the character of having leaves in pseudowhorls, a trait that Vollesen (1992) used in placing African and Malagasy species of Stenandriopsis into different sections. Hence, Achyrocalyx is best placed in Stenandriopsis and the new combinations are made here.</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFC08B654629CAE2934E930D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFC08B644629CE42976095AD.text	03884F74FFC08B644629CE42976095AD.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Stenandriopsis decaryi (Benoist) T. F. Daniel, McDade & Kiel 2022	<div><p>Stenandriopsis decaryi (Benoist) T.F.Daniel, McDade &amp; Kiel, comb. nov.</p><p>≡ Achyrocalyx decaryi Benoist in Bull. Soc. Bot. France 76: 1037. 1930 – Holotype: Madagascar, district d’ Ambovombe, Ampasimpolaka, fl. 10 Jun 1924, Decary 2819 (P n.v.; isotypes: P n.v.).</p><p>= Achyrocalyx vicinus Benoist in Notul. Syst. (Paris) 8: 153. 1939 – Holotype: Madagascar, environs de Tuléar, fl. 7 Aug 1928, Humbert &amp; Swingle 5215 (P n.v.; isotypes: G [G00008600]*, K [K000394662]!, LISC [LISC 011410]*, US [00664183]*).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFC08B644629CE42976095AD	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFC18B64450BCB82946E970D.text	03884F74FFC18B64450BCB82946E970D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Stenandriopsis gossypina (Benoist) T. F. Daniel, McDade	<div><p>Stenandriopsis gossypina (Benoist) T.F.Daniel, McDade &amp; Kiel, comb. nov.</p><p>≡ Achyrocalyx gossypinus Benoist in Notul. Syst. (Paris) 8: 154. 1939 – Holotype: Madagascar, Manampetsa, fl. Apr 1933, Perrier de la Bâthie 19185 (P [P00089282]*; isotype: P [P00089283]*).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFC18B64450BCB82946E970D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFC18B64450BC8A29447964D.text	03884F74FFC18B64450BC8A29447964D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Stenandriopsis grandiflora (Vollesen) T. F. Daniel, McDade	<div><p>Stenandriopsis grandiflora (Vollesen) T.F.Daniel, McDade &amp; Kiel, comb. nov.</p><p>≡ Stenandrium grandiflorum Vollesen in Kew Bull. 55: 967. 2000 – Holotype: Tanzania, Southern Udzungwa Escarpment, Kihansi River Gorge, fl. &amp; fr. 22 Jun 1995, Lovett 5053 (K [K000394700]!; isotypes: DSM n.v., NHT [NHT000000436]*).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFC18B64450BC8A29447964D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFC18B64450BCA42977D902D.text	03884F74FFC18B64450BCA42977D902D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Stenandriopsis pauciflora (Vollesen) T. F. Daniel, McDade	<div><p>Stenandriopsis pauciflora (Vollesen) T.F.Daniel, McDade &amp; Kiel, comb. nov.</p><p>≡ Stenandrium pauciflorum Vollesen in Kew Bull. 47: 201. 1992 – Holotype: Madagascar, le long de la piste d’ Ampanihy à Ampotaka, fl. Mar 1960, Keraudren 902 (P [P00083699]*; isotypes: K [K000394697]!, P [P00083700]*).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFC18B64450BCA42977D902D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFC18B64450BCD22979290CD.text	03884F74FFC18B64450BCD22979290CD.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Stenandriopsis pungens (Benoist) T. F. Daniel, McDade & Kiel 2022	<div><p>Stenandriopsis pungens (Benoist) T.F.Daniel, McDade &amp; Kiel, comb. nov.</p><p>≡ Achyrocalyx pungens Benoist in Notul. Syst. (Paris) 12: 11. 1945 – Holotype: Madagascar, plateau de Miandraraha dans le bassin du Manombo, fl. May 1910, Perrier de la Bâthie 9507 (P [P00089284]*; isotypes: P [P00089285, P00089286]*).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFC18B64450BCD22979290CD	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFC18B644679C8029348958D.text	03884F74FFC18B644679C8029348958D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Stenostephanus cabrerae (Leonard) T. F. Daniel, McDade	<div><p>Stenostephanus cabrerae (Leonard) T.F.Daniel, McDade &amp; Kiel, comb. nov.</p><p>≡ Kalbreyeriella cabrerae Leonard in Contr. U. S. Natl. Herb. 31: 408. 1958 – Holotype: Colombia, Putumayo, Mocoa and vicinity, fl. &amp; fr. 16 Mar 1953, Schultes &amp; Cabrera 19093 (US [00136986]*).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFC18B644679C8029348958D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFC18B644679C8C293B396AD.text	03884F74FFC18B644679C8C293B396AD.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Stenostephanus gigas (Leonard) T. F. Daniel, McDade & Kiel 2022	<div><p>Stenostephanus gigas (Leonard) T.F.Daniel, McDade &amp; Kiel, comb. nov.</p><p>≡ Kalbreyeriella gigas Leonard in Contr. U. S. Natl. Herb. 31: 412. 1958 – Holotype: Colombia, Putumayo, entre Achipayacoy Mocoa, fl. &amp; fr. 25 Dec 1940, Cuatrecasas 11271 (US [00136987]*; isotypes: COL [COL000004528]*, F [V0047452F = No. 1334109]*).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFC18B644679C8C293B396AD	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFC18B64450BCC02937194CD.text	03884F74FFC18B64450BCC02937194CD.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Stenostephanus Nees	<div><p>Stenostephanus Nees in Martius, Fl. Bras. 9: 91. 1847</p><p>– Type: Stenostephanus lobeliiformis Nees.</p><p>= Kalbreyeriella Lindau in Notizbl. Bot. Gart. Berlin-Dahlem 8: 143. 1922, syn. nov. – Type: K. rostellata Lindau.</p><p>Kalbreyeriella has been distinguished from morphologically similar genera (i.e., most NW Isoglossinae, which are now included in Stenostephanus) by the combination of its spicate inflorescences, rostrate corolla buds, relatively long and narrow upper lip of the corolla, and triangular and apically acute (minutely 3-lobed) lower lip of the corolla (e.g., Leonard, 1958; Wasshausen, 2013). However, based on morphological similarities, species of Razisea and Kalbreyeriella have been suggested as better placed in Stenostephanus (Daniel, 1999) . Phylogenetic results of Kiel &amp; al. (2006) support the inclusion of Kalbreyeriella in Stenostephanus . Stenostephanus can be characterized by bilabiate, more or less tubular corollas lacking a rugula, two stamens with monothecous anthers, these held with the style adjacent to the upper lip of the corolla, staminodia lacking, and capsular fruits with the retinacula remaining attached to the fruit wall. These plants also share pollen that is banded or “girdled” (i.e., “Gürtelpollen” sensu Lindau, 1895). More recently, McDade &amp; al. (2019) subsumed a species of Costa Rican Kalbreyeriella into Stenostephanus .</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFC18B64450BCC02937194CD	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
03884F74FFC18B644679CBA29226974D.text	03884F74FFC18B644679CBA29226974D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Stenostephanus rostellatus (Lindau) T. F. Daniel, McDade	<div><p>Stenostephanus rostellatus (Lindau) T.F.Daniel, McDade &amp; Kiel, comb. nov.</p><p>≡ Kalbreyeriella rostellata Lindau in Notizbl. Bot. Gart. Berlin-Dahlem 8: 143. 1922 – Holotype: Colombia, Dep. Antioquia, Plateado, fl. 31 Mar 1880, Kalbreyer 1524 (B†, photo at F [neg. no. 8801]*; isotype: K [K000529532]!).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03884F74FFC18B644679CBA29226974D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A.;Darbyshire, Iain;Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F.;Kiel, Carrie A.	Manzitto-Tripp, Erin A., Darbyshire, Iain, Daniel, Lucinda A. McDade Thomas F., Kiel, Carrie A. (2022): Revised classification of Acanthaceae and worldwide dichotomous keys. TAXON 71 (1): 103-153, DOI: 10.1002/tax.12600, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tax.12600
