identifier	taxonID	type	CVterm	format	language	title	description	additionalInformationURL	UsageTerms	rights	Owner	contributor	creator	bibliographicCitation
039587E1FFD0CE1C03130B71F86DEA19.text	039587E1FFD0CE1C03130B71F86DEA19.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Megalonychidae Ameghino 1889	<div><p>Family MEGALONYCHIDAE</p><p>(TWO-TOED SLOTHS)</p><p>• Medium-sized folivores with arboreal and suspensory habits, hook-like hands, two fingers, and strong curved Class.</p><p>• 50-90 cm.</p><p>• Neotropical Region.</p><p>• Tropical moist lowland and montane forests.</p><p>• 1 genus, 2 species, 6 taxa.</p><p>• No species threatened; none Extinct since 1600.</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/039587E1FFD0CE1C03130B71F86DEA19	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Don E. Wilson (2018): Megalonychidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 104-117, ISBN: 978-84-16728-08-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6647064
039587E1FFD1CE1E029C0E43FA86EC12.text	039587E1FFD1CE1E029C0E43FA86EC12.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Choloepus hoffmanni Peters 1858	<div><p>1.</p><p>Hoffmann’s Two-toed Sloth</p><p>Choloepus hoffmanni</p><p>French: Paresseux de Hoffmann / German: Hoffmann-Zweifingerfaultier / Spanish: Perezoso didactilo de Hoffmann</p><p>Taxonomy. Choloepus hoffmanni Peters, 1858,</p><p>“Costa Rica.” Restricted by G. G. Goodwin in 1946 to “Escazu,” San José Province, Costa Rica. Corrected by R. M. Wetzel and F. D. de Avila-Pires in 1980 to “Costa Rica, Heredia, Volcan Barba.”</p><p>Choloepus hoffmanni occurs in two disjunct areas: northern (nominate hoffmanni, agustinus, and capitalis) and southern ( juruanus and pallescens). A recent mtDNA analysis including three subspecies supported their differentiation and indicated deep divergence between lineages from northern ( hoffmanni) and southern ( juruanus and pallescens) populations. Five subspecies recognized.</p><p>Subspecies and Distribution. C.h.hoffmanniPeters,1858—fromSHondurasSEtoNW&amp;NColombia,WoftheAndes. C.h.agustinusJ.A.Allen,1913—fromNWVenezuelaSthroughCColombiatoNEcuador. C.h.capitalisJ.A.Allen,1913—SWColombiaandWEcuador. C.h.juruanusLLonnberg,1942—SWBrazilianAmazon(AmazonasandAcrestates),SEPeru,andNBolivia. C.h.pallescensLLonnberg,1928—extremeSColombia(PutumayoDepartment),EEcuador,andEPeru.DistributionofHoffmann’sTwo-toedSlothinBrazilisunclear,andfurthersurveysareneeded.TherearetwodoubtfuloutlyingrecordsfromnorthernMatoGrossoState,Brazil.TheselocalitiesarenearorwithindistributionofLinnaeus’sTwo-toedSloth(C.h. didactylus), suggesting possible misidentification.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 500-700 mm, tail 14-30 mm, ear 15-37 mm, hindfoot 100-153 mm; weight 2.7-10 kg. There is no outward sexual dimorphism. Hoffmann’s Two-toed Sloths are medium-sized and arboreal; they have long foreand hindlimbs, nearly equal in length. Forelimbs have two large, curved claws, and hindlimbs have three. Front claws average 55-65 mm and hindclaws 50-65 mm. Teeth are rootless and ever-growing and lack enamel. Incisors are absent, and premolars are indistinguishable from molars. Adult pelage ranges from yellowish, blond, buff, or tan to light brown, butit can appear shaded pale green from algae that grows on hair. Facial hair is usually lighter than hair on rest of body. Cheek and throat hairs are distinctly shorter and finer than those on neck and shoulders. Dense undercoatis lacking; abdominal hair is parted in middle and flows toward mid-dorsum. Geographical variation occurs in color and length of hairs described for adult and young Hoffmann’s Two-toed Sloths from Colombia; young sloths can have golden and light honey or dark brown hair, depending on the specific geographical location. Diploid number is 2n = 50-51.</p><p>Habitat. Primary, secondary, lowland, and montane forests. Hoffmann’s Two-toed Sloths spend most of their time in canopies of continuous forests, dominated by mature and lush trees in rainforest, dry forests, and riparian forest ecosystems. They also occur in dry forest fragments interspersed by cattle farming and agroforests; they can cross relatively open landscapes in search ofisolated feeding trees.</p><p>Food and Feeding. Hoffmann’s Two-toed Sloth is an arboreal herbivore and generalist. It eats leaves, fruits, flowers buds, twig tips, young stems, and apparently some animal material. In captivity, it eats an average of 350 g/day. Compared with three-toed sloths, Hoffmann’s Two-toed Sloths use a greater number of trees and can disperse more to find food. In Costa Rica, they can use as many as 34 different tree species as food. In forest fragments of Colombia, Hoffmann’s Two-toed Sloths were observed using and feeding preferably on Brownea ariza ( Fabaceae) during dry seasons.</p><p>Breeding. Hoffmann’s Two-toed Sloths reproduce year-round. Estrus lasts 5-7 days; ovarian cycle is ¢.25 days. A female in estrus seems to initiate mating and can approach and rub their anogenital region against a male. Gestation lasts 340-378 days; interbirth interval is c.15 months. Females give birth to single young and are not sexual mature before c.2 years of age. Young Hoffman’s Two-toed Sloths are dependent on their mothers for 139-208 days. In agroforest environments of Costa Rica, mating system is a mix of polygyny with promiscuity, and strategies of females play important roles in determining mating. Females use mate switching as a strategy to enhance genetic diversity or possibly to select high-quality males. Juveniles and subadults have similar rates of survival, which are lower than adult survival. Hoffmann’s Two-toed Sloths live up to 32 years in captivity.</p><p>Activity patterns. Hoffmann’s Two-toed Sloths are nocturnal and are usually active from 19:30 h to 05:30 h. They spend most of their time in forest canopies and descend to the ground every 3-8 days to defecate and urinate. In the wild, they are active c.11 h/day through most of the night; in captivity, activity is restricted to c.4 h/day. They spend much of their time resting and sleeping. Continuous activity ranges from 30 minutes to ten hours (average 7-6 hours) and involves foraging and grooming, mostly self-grooming.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Hoffmann’s Two-toed Sloths are solitary; they spend most of their time in forest canopies to forage, rest, sleep, and breed. They can move up to 300 m/night. Densities are 0-008-1-5 ind/ha. Mean home ranges are 2-5-21-5 ha and are highly variable, especially among adult males (1-1-139-6 ha). Interactions among individuals are rare, usually restricted to breeding activities or between mothers and their infants. Adult males are generally segregated, with most individuals maintaining exclusive use of parts of their home ranges. An average of 3-2 females occurs in home range of an adult male. In captivity, Hoffmann’s Two-toed Sloths tolerate being kept in pairs or in small groups. Female two-toed sloths can interact after parturition or during care of infants. Females carry their infants on their ventral or dorsal regions, and infants become independent c.6 months old. Dispersal seems to be female-biased.</p><p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix III (Costa Rica). Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are no major conservation threats to Hoffmann’s Two-toed Sloths, and they occur in many protected areas. Northern populations, especially in Colombia and Central America, are declining mainly because of severe habitat degradation and fragmentation. Hunting for illegal trade also is a concern; wild-caught individuals, especially young, are sold as pets to tourists in Colombia. In agroforests in Costa Rica, Hoffmann’s Two-toed Sloths are exposed to pesticides.</p><p>Bibliography. Acevedo-Quintero et al. (2011), Branford et al. (2014), Eisenberg &amp; Redford (1999), Garcés-Restrepo et al. (2017), Gardner &amp; Naples (2008), Gilmore et al. (2000, 2001), Goodwin (1946), Hautier et al. (2016), Hayssen (2011a), Herra (2015), Jones (1977), McCarthy et al. (1999), Mendoza et al. (2015), Montgomery &amp; Sunquist (1974), Moraes-Barros &amp; Arteaga (2015), Pauli, Mendoza et al. (2014), Pauli, Peery et al. (2016), Peery &amp; Pauli (2012, 2014), Plese &amp; Chiarello (2014), Plese et al. (2016), Reyes-Amaya et al. (2015), Rezende et al. (2013), Tirira (2017), Vaughan et al. (2007), Voirin et al. (2013), Wetzel (1985a), Wetzel &amp; de Avila-Pires (1980).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/039587E1FFD1CE1E029C0E43FA86EC12	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Don E. Wilson (2018): Megalonychidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 104-117, ISBN: 978-84-16728-08-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6647064
039587E1FFD2CE1E02400A40F6B3E8AD.text	039587E1FFD2CE1E02400A40F6B3E8AD.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Choloepus didactylus (Linnaeus 1758)	<div><p>2.</p><p>Linnaeus’s Two-toed Sloth</p><p>Choloepus didactylus</p><p>French: Paresseux a deux doigts / German: Eigentliches Zweifingerfaultier / Spanish: Perezoso didactilo de Linneo</p><p>Other common names: Linné’s Two-toed Sloth, Southern Two-toed Sloth</p><p>Taxonomy. Bradypus didactylus Linnaeus, 1758,</p><p>“in Zeylona.” Corrected by O.</p><p>Thomas in 1911 to Suriname.</p><p>Subspecific taxonomy requires reassessment; different authors indicate potential differentiation between western and eastern populations. Monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. NE &amp; S Venezuela (Orinoco Delta and S of the Orinoco River), the Guianas, N &amp; NC Brazil (along the Amazon River W to Maranhao and S to Para and Mato Grosso states), and into upper Amazon Basin of SW Colombia (N up to Meta and Guainia departments), E Ecuador, and NE &amp; E Peru;its S limit in W Amazonian Brazil is unclear. Additional visual records are described for SE Para State and need to be confirmed.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 540-880 mm, tail 9-33 mm, ear 20-38 mm, hindfoot 103-170 mm; weight 4-11 kg. There is no outward sexual dimorphism. Linnaeus’s Two-toed Sloth is the largest extant sloth species. It has long foreand hindlimbs, nearly equal in length. Forelegs have two large, curved claws, and hindlimbs have three. Teeth are rootless and ever-growing and lack enamel. Incisors are absent, and premolars are indistinguishable from molars. Pelage ranges from tan to buffy brown and, in the wild, can appear shaded pale green from algae that grows on hair. Face is light brown,is not furred, and has leathery texture. Throat hair is similar in color</p><p>to pectoral hair, and ventral hairis lighter than dorsal hair. Underfuris lacking, and abdominal hair is parted in middle and flows toward mid-dorsum. Young Linnaeus’s Two-toed Sloths tend to have soft and darker pelage. Diploid numbers range between 2n = 52-54 and 2n = 64-65.</p><p>Habitat. Primary and secondary tropical, moist lowland forests but up to elevations of 2400 m.</p><p>Food and Feeding. Linnaeus’s Two-toed Sloth is an arboreal herbivore and generalist. Its feeding behavior is poorly known, and most information comes from captivity. In captivity, they consume an average of 350 g/day of solid food. Coprophagy was observed in captivity. Linnaeus’s Two-toed Sloths were observed feeding at human latrines in north-eastern Peru, which could supply needed nutrients such as salt or protein from human feces.</p><p>Breeding. Linnaeus’s Two-toed Sloths reproduce year-round. Estruslasts 10-14 days, and ovarian cycles based on hormones are 4-5 weeks. Gestation lasts 330-350 days, and interbirth intervals are 14-27 months. Females give birth to single young and are not sexually mature before c¢.3 years old; males do not breed before 4-5 years old. Mating occurs abdomen to abdomen and takes place either on the ground or while hanging from a branch. Linnaeus’s Two-toed Sloths live up to 27 yearsin captivity, and one female gave birth at 25 years old. Mortality of infants in captivity is high. Females carry their infants on their ventral or dorsal regions; infants become independent at c.5 months old.</p><p>Activity patterns. Linnaeus’s Two-toed Sloths are nocturnal. They spend most of their time in forest canopiesto forage,rest, sleep, and breed. They descend to the ground to defecate every 3-5 days. In captivity, they spend 45% oftheir time sleeping, 25% foraging or grooming (mostly self-grooming), 20% resting with eyes closed, and 10% awake but inactive. When resting, they assume a sitting position hanging onto overhead support with one or more limbs or supported by hindlimbs while head and forelimbs are curled ventrally over groin.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Linnaeus’s Two-toed Sloths are mostly solitary. They move between trees through interconnecting tree crowns or using lianas. Density in French Guiana is 0-5 ind/ha. In captivity, Linnaeus’s Two-toed Sloths seem to tolerate being kept in pairs or small groups; however, fighting between two males, probably for access to a female, was observed in captivity.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Overall population trends of Linnaeus’s Two-toed Sloths are still unknown, but they are unlikely to be declining fast enough to represent a conservation threat. Linnaeus’s Twotoed Sloths occur in many protected areas, but they are probably hunted opportunistically. Considering variation in karyotypes, a taxonomic review is needed to assure appropriate conservation action.</p><p>Bibliography. Adam (1999), Chiarello &amp; Please (2014), Eisenberg &amp; Redford (1999), Gardner &amp; Naples (2008), Gilmore et al. (2000, 2001), Hautier et al. (2016), Heymann et al. (2011), Jones (1977), Moraes-Barros &amp; Arteaga (2015), Rezende et al. (2013), Taube et al. (1999), Thomas (1911b), Trinca et al. (2006), Troll, Gottschalk, Heuer et al. (2015), Troll, Gottschalk, Seeburger et al. (2013), Voirin et al. (2013), Wetzel (1985a).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/039587E1FFD2CE1E02400A40F6B3E8AD	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Don E. Wilson (2018): Megalonychidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 8 Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 104-117, ISBN: 978-84-16728-08-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6647064
