identifier	taxonID	type	CVterm	format	language	title	description	additionalInformationURL	UsageTerms	rights	Owner	contributor	creator	bibliographicCitation
03A4885AEB45FFEAFFECFEC16D7F9905.text	03A4885AEB45FFEAFFECFEC16D7F9905.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Babesia microti	<div><p>2.1.1. Babesia microti</p><p>2.1.1.1. Humans. The first case of B. microti infection in the United States was detected in 1969 in Massachusetts (Western et al., 1970). The epidemiology of human babesiosis in the United States is similar to Lyme disease with the majority of human cases diagnosed in the northeastern and upper Midwestern United States. In January 2011, babesiosis became reportable in 18 states and one city, and during 2011, 1124 confirmed and probable cases were reported from 15 of the 18 states where babesiosis is reportable (Herwaldt et al., 2012). Most (97%) of cases were reported from seven states (Connecticut, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, Rhode Island, and Wisconsin) (Herwaldt et al., 2012). Babesiosis has been reported in asplenic and spleen-intact patients, but disease is most severe in immunocompromised patients.</p><p>Infections resulting from blood transfusions have been reported and are probably responsible for sporadic cases occurring in nonendemic states (e.g., Texas, California, Washington, and Georgia) and countries (e.g., Canada) (Kain et al., 2001). From 1980 to 2010, it is estimated that 70–100 transfusion–transmitted infections occurred in the United States (Leiby, 2011). Within highly endemic areas (Connecticut, New York, and Massachusetts), seroprevalence among blood-donors ranged between 0% and 4.3% and importantly, over 50% of seropositive patients were PCR positive (Popovsky et al., 1988; Krause et al., 1991; Linden et al., 2000; Leiby et al., 2002, 2005; Johnson et al., 2009, 2012).</p><p>2.1.1.2. Reservoirs. In the eastern US, where the incidence of human babesiosis is highest, the primary reservoir is the white-footed mouse ( Peromyscus leucopus) (Anderson et al., 1991; Telford and Spielman, 1993; Stafford et al., 1999). However, infections with morphologically similar Babesia have been reported in other rodents that are sympatric with P. leucopus (e.g., meadow voles ( Microtus pennsylvanicus), short-tailed shrews ( Blarina brevicauda), brown rats ( Rattus norvegicus), Eastern cottontail rabbits ( Sylvilagus floridanus), and Eastern chipmunks ( Tamias striatus)) (Healy et al., 1976; Spielman et al., 1981; Anderson et al., 1986, 1987; Telford et al., 1990). In general, prevalences in reservoir hosts are high (&gt;25%) (Healy et al., 1976; Spielman et al., 1981; Anderson et al., 1986). A recent study by Hersh et al. (2012), described the reservoir competence for a suite of potential hosts by collecting engorged I. scapularis larvae and testing resulting nymphs for B. microti . Two strains of B. microti were detected in the nymphs, one was a strain associated with human infections, but the other was genetically unique and only found in nymphs from opossums ( Didelphis virginiana), raccoons ( Procyon lotor), and a single wood thrush (Hylocichia mustelina). For the B. microti strain associated with human infections, the white-footed mouse had the highest reservoir competence (average of 29.5% of ticks became infected) followed by short-tailed shrews and eastern chipmunks (averages of 21.9%, and 17.6%, respectively). Interestingly, masked shrews ( Sorex cinereus) also infected a high percentage of ticks, but only a limited number of ticks and hosts were tested.</p><p>In Maine, where I. scapularis is absent or rare, a B. microti that was genetically distinct from human-infecting strains was detected in a redback vole ( Clethrionomys gapperi), a masked shrew ( S. cinereus), and a short-tailed shrew (Goethert et al., 2003). Interesting data from England and Japan suggest that shrews ( Sorex spp.) are important hosts; however, few studies have been conducted on US Sorex spp. (Burkot et al., 2000; Goethert et al., 2003; Zamoto et al., 2004b; Bown et al., 2011) Many of these B. microti reservoirs are also competent reservoirs for two other zoonotic pathogens, Borrelia burgdorferi and Anaplasma phagocytophilum, so coinfections of reservoirs and ticks are common (Magnarelli et al., 2006; Abrams, 2008; Tokarz et al., 2010). Experimental or field-based studies are needed to better understand the reservoir competence of rodent species for B. microti in the Northeastern US.</p><p>Infections with B. microti, based on either morphology or PCR analysis, have been reported in rodents in the western and southeastern US where B. microti -associated human babesiosis is not known to be endemic. Recently, a high prevalence of B. microti (genetically similar to human-associated strains) was detected in cotton rats ( Sigmodon hispidus) in Florida (Clark et al., 2012). In Alaska, B. microti (genetically distinct from human-associated strains) has been detected in Northern red-backed voles ( Myodes (Clethrionomys) rutilus), tundra voles ( Microtus oeconomus), singing voles ( Microtus miurus), shrews ( Sorex spp.), and Northwestern deer mice ( Peromyscus keeni) (Goethert et al., 2006). In Colorado, B. microti was identified in 13 of 15 prairie voles ( Microtus ochrogaster) by PCR of blood or spleens (Burkot et al., 2000). Similarly in Montana, nearly half of all montaine voles ( Microtus montanus), meadow voles, and water voles ( Arvicola richardsoni) tested by blood or spleen smears were infected with B. microti, whereas none of 40 deer mice ( Peromyscus maniculatus) were infected (Watkins et al., 1991). Uncharacterized Babesia spp. have been detected in rodents from Wyoming and California (Wood, 1952; van Peenen and Duncan, 1968; Watkins et al., 1991). B. microti from microtine rodents in Alaska are phylogenetically related to strains detected in other rodent species in Montana and Maine, but these parasites were distinct from human-associated B. microti strains from the United States, Asia, and Europe (Goethert et al., 2006). Therefore, the finding of B. microti (based on morphology) in rodents in a particular geographic area might not suggest a high risk of human infection. As additional evidence that genetic characterization is needed, a small piroplasm from dusky-footed woodrats ( Neotoma fuscipes) in California was shown to be a Theileria species (Kjemtrup et al., 2001).</p><p>2.1.1.3. Vectors. In the United States, the primary vector responsible for transmission of B. microti to humans is I. scapularis . Other rodent-associated Ixodes species (e.g., I. angustus, I. eastoni, I. muris, and I. spinipalpis) are known or suspected sylvatic vectors of the parasite, or genetically related strains (Watkins et al., 1991; Burkot et al., 2000; Goethert et al., 2003; Tokarz et al., 2010). These other Ixodes spp. are primarily nidicolous and are considered low risk for transmission of B. microti to people, but rare reports of human infestation have been reported (Anastos, 1947; Damrow et al., 1989; Zeidner et al., 2000). Infection rates for adult I. scapularis in the Northeastern and Midwestern United States are typically low (&lt;3%), although rates as high as 30% have been reported (Steiner et al., 2008; Walk et al., 2009; Tokarz et al., 2010). Nymphs and adult I. scapularis can transmit B. microti to humans but transmission takes at least 48 hours of feeding, so prompt removal of ticks can prevent transmission (Piesman and Spielman, 1980; Johnson et al., 2009). Transovarial transmission has not been proven for B. microti, (Oliveira and Kreier, 1979; Walter and Weber, 1981), but results from Hersh et al. (2012) suggest it may occur for some strains as Babesia positive nymphs resulted from larvae that engorged on opossums and passerine birds which are not known to be hosts for B. microti .</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A4885AEB45FFEAFFECFEC16D7F9905	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Yabsley, Michael J.;Shock, Barbara C.	Yabsley, Michael J., Shock, Barbara C. (2013): Natural history of Zoonotic Babesia: Role of wildlife reservoirs. International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife 2: 18-31, DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2012.11.003, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijppaw.2012.11.003
03A4885AEB45FFEBFC9EF8EB6B249D86.text	03A4885AEB45FFEBFC9EF8EB6B249D86.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Babesia duncani	<div><p>2.1.2. Babesia duncani</p><p>A Babesia sp. (originally referred to as Babesia sp. WA1), morphologically indistinguishable from B. microti, was recognized in babesiosis patients from Washington and California in the early 1990s (Quick et al., 1993; Thomford et al., 1994). This parasite has been formally named B. duncani (Conrad et al., 2006) . Although morphologically similar parasites have been reported from people in California previously, it is unknown if these were B. duncani or B. sp. CA type (Scholtens et al., 1968; Bredt et al., 1981).</p><p>Importantly, cases have been documented in immunocompetent individuals with spleens as well as immunocompromised individuals and blood transfusion-acquired cases have been reported (Herwaldt et al., 2011; Bloch et al., 2012). Serological studies conducted near cases in California and Washington indicated that 3.5–16% of individuals were seropositive (Quick et al., 1993; Persing et al., 1995). Even higher seroprevalences have been reported among blood donors in several states outside the endemic range, which is likely due to movement of infected individuals or infection with one or more Babesia spp. that cross-react with B. duncani (Prince et al., 2010) .</p><p>Phylogenetic analysis of B. duncani indicated that it is in a separate clade from other Babesia species that includes B. conradae from dogs in California, a Babesia sp. from woodrats in Texas, B. lengau from cheetahs in Africa, and B. poelea and B. uriae from seabirds (Fig. 1) (Kjemtrup et al., 2000; Yabsley et al., 2005, 2006 a, 2009; Conrad et al., 2006; Bosman et al., 2010; Charles et al., 2012). This group was also related to Babesia sp. CA-type from humans in California and other Babesia from mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus) and bighorn sheep ( Ovis canadensis) in California (Kjemtrup et al., 2000), Significantly, to date, neither a reservoir nor a tick vector has been identified. Testing of numerous rodent, insectivore, and lagomorph species in Washington was uniformly negative for B. duncani (Quick et al., 1993; Persing et al., 1995).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A4885AEB45FFEBFC9EF8EB6B249D86	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Yabsley, Michael J.;Shock, Barbara C.	Yabsley, Michael J., Shock, Barbara C. (2013): Natural history of Zoonotic Babesia: Role of wildlife reservoirs. International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife 2: 18-31, DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2012.11.003, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijppaw.2012.11.003
03A4885AEB44FFEBFC84FD336C0F996E.text	03A4885AEB44FFEBFC84FD336C0F996E.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Babesia divergens	<div><p>2.2.1. Babesia divergens</p><p>The first human babesiosis case was caused by B. divergens and it occurred in Croatia (Skrabalo and Deanovic, 1957). Human cases are typically severe, especially in splenectomized individuals. To date, approximately 40 cases have been reported, primarily from France, Ireland, and Great Britain with fewer cases reported from Sweden, Switzerland, Spain, Portugal, and Croatia (Centeno-Lima et al., 2003; Moreno Giménez et al., 2006; Martinot et al., 2011). However, undiagnosed exposures do occur, as a seroprevalence of 13% was detected among Lyme disease patients in Sweden (Uhnoo et al., 1992).</p><p>Cattle are the natural host for B. divergens and infections are noted throughout Europe and possibly into North Africa (Tunisia), which corresponds with the distribution of the only known vector, Ixodes ricinus (Zintl et al., 2003) . Although cattle are the principal host, infections may have been detected in farmed reindeer ( Rangifer tarandus) in the United Kingdom; however, these infections may have been caused by Babesia capreoli (Malandrin et al., 2010) . Extensive molecular or biological characterizations of ‘‘ B. divergens ’’ samples from cervids have revealed that they are distinct and likely are B. capreoli (Adam et al., 1976; Schmid et al., 2008; Bastian et al., 2012). In addition, B. capreoli, unlike B. divergens, lacks infectivity for gerbils and splenectomized cattle (Malandrin et al., 2010). Additional studies are needed to confirm the ability of B. divergens to utilize cervids (non-splenectomized) as reservoirs (Zintl et al., 2011).</p><p>Experimental B. divergens infections have been established in a variety of splenectomized animals including chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes), rhesus macaque ( Macaca mulatta), laboratory rats, roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus), fallow deer, red deer ( Cervus elaphus), European mouflon ( Ovis orientalis musimon), and domestic sheep (Malandrin et al., 2010).</p><p>Babesia divergens shares the same vector as B. capreoli and two other zoonotic Babesia in Europe (B. sp. EU1 and B. microti). Infections have been reported in I. ricinus from Hungary, Austria, Belgium, Netherlands, Switzerland, Germany, Norway, and Estonia (Blaschitz et al., 2008; Wielinga et al., 2009; Schorn et al., 2011; Egyed et al., 2012 Lempereur et al., 2012; Oines et al., 2012). Importantly, surveys of ticks utilizing highly conserved or short regions of the 18S rRNA gene may lead to misidentification of B. capreoli and other B. divergens -like sp. as B. divergens . Transovarial transmission by I. ricinus has been documented (Bonnet et al., 2007a).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A4885AEB44FFEBFC84FD336C0F996E	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Yabsley, Michael J.;Shock, Barbara C.	Yabsley, Michael J., Shock, Barbara C. (2013): Natural history of Zoonotic Babesia: Role of wildlife reservoirs. International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife 2: 18-31, DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2012.11.003, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijppaw.2012.11.003
03A4885AEB47FFE9FFECF8CF68A99D62.text	03A4885AEB47FFE9FFECF8CF68A99D62.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Babesia microti	<div><p>2.2.4. Babesia microti and related species</p><p>2.2.4.1. Humans. Currently, only a single case of B. microti -associated babesiosis has been confirmed in Europe: a German patient with leukemia who likely became infected by a transfusion (Hildebrandt et al., 2007). Retrospective screening of blood donors for the patient revealed a single donor with a titer to B. microti . Neither person had travel history to North America or Asia. Several surveys have detected anti- B. microti antibodies in individuals in Croatia and Poland suggesting that infections are underdiagnosed (Topolovec et al., 2003; Chmielewska-Badora et al., 2012).</p><p>In Asia, human cases with B. microti -like sp. are rare and sporadic infections have been reported from Japan, Taiwan, China, and possibly India (Wei et al., 2001; Arai et al., 2003; Marathe et al., 2005). The first human case ( B. microti Kobe type) in Japan was diagnosed in a patient in 1999. This patient likely acquired the infection from an asymptomatic donor (Matsui et al., 2000; Wei et al., 2001). Previously diagnosed cases have been reported in Tawain (asymptomatic) (Shih et al., 1997) and in China (Li and Meng, 1984), but the causative agents were not well characterized. Serologic studies in Asia have indicated that unrecognized infections have occurred. In Taiwan, individuals with antibodies to B. microti have been reported (Hsu and Cross, 1977; Shih et al., 1997) and a retrospective survey of sera collected in 1985 from Japan indicated that 1.3% of 1335 samples had antibodies to B. microti Kobe type (n = 3) and B. microti Hobetsu type (n = 14), with the latter type having only been previously detected in rodents (Tsuji et al., 2001; Arai et al., 2003). Outside of Southeast Asia, antibodies to B. microti have been detected in 6% of 273 individuals from northern Turkey (Poyraz and Güneş, 2010).</p><p>2.2.4.2. Reservoirs. In Europe, natural infections of B. microti have been reported from numerous rodent and shrew species including species of yellow-necked mice ( Apodemus flavicollis), wood mice ( Apodemus sylvaticus), bank voles ( Myodes (Clethrionomys) glareolus), field voles ( Microtus agrestis), common shrews ( Sorex araneus), and Mus spp. in Germany, Poland, Croatia, Slovenia, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, and the United Kingdom (Sebek et al., 1977, 1980; Turner, 1986; Randolph, 1995; Bajer et al., 2001; Duh et al., 2003; Siński et al., 2006; Beck et al., 2011; Bown et al., 2011). Genetic characterization of various samples of B. microti has indicated that both zoonotic and presumed non-zoonotic strains are co-circulating in the same species of rodents (Beck et al., 2011).</p><p>In Asia, at least three named types of B. microti parasites (US, Kobe, and Hobetsu) have been detected in naturally infected rodents and shrews (Zamoto et al., 2004a,b; Kim et al., 2007; Qi et al., 2011). In Japan, two field mice species (Large Japanese field mice ( Apodemus speciosus) and Small Japanese field mice ( A. argenteus)) are natural hosts for B. microti Kobe type (Shiota et al., 1984; Tsuji et al., 2001; Wei et al., 2001; Saito-Ito et al., 2004, 2007). Numerous rodents and shrews are infected with B. microti Hobetsu type including Large Japanese field mice, grey red-backed voles ( Clethrionomys rufocanus), northern red-backed voles ( C. rutilus), Japanese field voles ( Microtus montebelli), long-clawed shrews ( Sorex unguiculatus), and Laxmann’s shrews ( Sorex caecutiens) (Tsuji et al., 2001). Large Japanese field mice, grey red-backed voles, and northern red-backed voles are also hosts for B. microti US-like (Zamoto et al., 2004a,b). In Taiwan and China, B. microti Kobe type or related parasites have been reported in Horsfield’s shrews ( Crocidura horsfieldii) and spinous country-rats ( Rattus coxinga), Chinese white-bellied rats ( Niviventer confucianus) and striped field mice ( Apodemus agrarius) (Saito-Ito et al., 2008). B. microti US type has been found in striped field mice and Korean field mice ( Apodemus peninsulae) from South Korea, yellow steppe lemmings ( Eolagurus (= Lagurus) luteus) from China, and Korean field mice and grey red-backed voles from Eastern Russia (Zamoto et al., 2004b). A related B. microti -like sp. has been detected in Eurasian red squirrels ( Sciuris vulgaris) (Tsuji et al., 2006).</p><p>2.2.4.3. Vectors. In Europe, the primary vector of B. microti is I. ricinus, which also transmits B. divergens and several other human and veterinary pathogens (e.g., Borrelia and Babesia). This tick is common on large mammals, including people, throughout Europe and isolated parts of western Asia and northern Africa. Infections with B. microti -like species have been reported in I. ricinus throughout the range of the tick including Switzerland, Poland, Italy, the Netherlands, Czech Republic, Estonia, Belgium, Hungary, Germany, Russia, and the United Kingdom (Alekseev et al., 2003; Hartelt et al., 2004; Rudolf et al., 2005; Sréter et al., 2005; Casati et al., 2006; Siński et al., 2006; Nijhof et al., 2007; Bown et al., 2008; Wielinga et al., 2009; Cassini et al., 2010; Burri et al., 2011; Gigandet et al., 2011; Katargina et al., 2011; Lempereur et al., 2011).</p><p>In England, both I. ricinus and I. trianguliceps can transmit B. microti -like spp. among voles but I. trianguliceps is believed to be the primary vector because exclusion of deer (with subsequent drop in numbers of I. ricinus) did not affect density of I. trianguliceps or prevalence of Babesia in voles (Bown et al., 2008). Naturally infected I. trianguliceps have also been reported in Poland and Russia (Telford et al., 2002; Karbowiak, 2004). Interestingly, B. microti was recently detected in 4.5% of 468 questing Dermacentor reticulatus from Poland, suggesting a need to investigate other potential vectors (Wójcik-Fatla et al., 2012).</p><p>In Asia, B. microti Hobetsu have been detected in questing Ixodes ovatus from Japan while B. microti US type and a B. microti type related to B. microti Kobe type have been detected in I. persulcatus from Russia and China (Saito-Ito et al., 2004; Yano et al., 2005; Sun et al., 2008; Rar et al., 2011; Zamoto-Niikura et al., 2012). In Taiwan, Ixodes granulatus transmitted a B. microti strain to laboratory rats (van Peenen et al., 1977).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A4885AEB47FFE9FFECF8CF68A99D62	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Yabsley, Michael J.;Shock, Barbara C.	Yabsley, Michael J., Shock, Barbara C. (2013): Natural history of Zoonotic Babesia: Role of wildlife reservoirs. International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife 2: 18-31, DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2012.11.003, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijppaw.2012.11.003
