identifier	taxonID	type	CVterm	format	language	title	description	additionalInformationURL	UsageTerms	rights	Owner	contributor	creator	bibliographicCitation
03A087C4FFC5FFC4FD26FDD3E392FA93.text	03A087C4FFC5FFC4FD26FDD3E392FA93.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Cervidae (DEER) Goldfuss 1820	<div><p>Family CERVIDAE</p><p>(DEER)</p><p>• Small to large advanced ruminants with elongated head, long legs, and short tail; male typically with pair of deciduous antlers.</p><p>• 70-310 cm.</p><p>• Holarctic, Indo-Malayan, and Neotropical Regions.</p><p>• Mainly forested habitats, but also grassland, swamps, and tundra.</p><p>• 18 genera, 53 species,at least 169 extant taxa.</p><p>• 1 species Critically Endangered, 7 species Endangered, 16 species Vulnerable; 1 species and 3 subspecies Extinct in the Wild; 1 species and 1 subspecies Extinct since 1600.</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFC5FFC4FD26FDD3E392FA93	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFC7FFC6FF43FDF0E76DF804.text	03A087C4FFC7FFC6FF43FDF0E76DF804.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Elaphodus cephalophus Milne-Edwards 1872	<div><p>1.</p><p>Tufted Deer</p><p>Elaphodus cephalophus</p><p>French: Elaphode / German: Schopfhirsch / Spanish: Elafodo</p><p>Taxonomy. Elaphodus cephalophus Milne-Edwards, 1872,</p><p>Moupin, Sichuan (China).</p><p>Distinct genus closely related to Muntiacus . Three subspecies are generally recognized.</p><p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p><p>E.c.cephalophusMilne-Edwards,1872—SWChina;oldrecordsfromNMyanmar.</p><p>E.c.ichangensisLydekker,1904—SChina.</p><p>E. c. michianus Swinhoe, 1874 — SE China.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 100-120 cm, tail 7-13 cm, shoulder height 50-70 cm; weight 17-30 kg. Relatively largesized muntiacine, with shortened head, short and thin pedicles, and diminutive unbranched antlers hidden by a distinct tuft of tall hair on the top of the head. Ears and tail are small. The coat is mainly dark brown, legs are black. White marks at the base and the tip of the ear. The underside of the tail is white. The fur is coarse. Frontal ridges are weak, large upper canines are present in both sexes. Frontal glands are absent, preorbital gland very large, metatarsal glands present but small. Newborn fawns have one or two rows of faint white spots. Antlers are not shed.</p><p>Habitat. Compared to the members of genus Muntiacus, it is adapted to cooler climates. It lives in high damp forests up to the tree line and close to water, up to 4750 m above sea level.</p><p>Food and Feeding. Eats bamboo, forbs, fruit, and grass.</p><p>Breeding. Females sexually mature at about 10-12 months of age. Mating season is September-December. After about 180 days of pregnancy, in April-July, females give birth to one or two fawns.</p><p>Activity patterns. Active mainly at dawn and dusk.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Observed alone or in pairs. When disturbed it flees with cat-like jumps with tail held up and wagging. It barks like a muntjac when alarmed.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List and it is decreasing. Overhunting is a major threat.</p><p>Bibliography. Groves &amp; Grubb (1990), Harris (2008a), Ohtaishi &amp; Gao (1990), Smith &amp; Xie Yan (2008), Zhang Zejun et al. (2004).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFC7FFC6FF43FDF0E76DF804	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFC7FFC6FF42F6BDEF35FDDC.text	03A087C4FFC7FFC6FF42F6BDEF35FDDC.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Muntiacus atherodes Groves & Grubb 1982	<div><p>2.</p><p>Bornean Yellow Muntjac</p><p>Muntiacus atherodes</p><p>French: Muntjac de Bornéo / German: Borneo-Muntjak / Spanish: Muntiaco de Borneo</p><p>Taxonomy. Muntiacus atherodes Groves &amp; Grubb, 1982,</p><p>Tawau, Sabah (Borneo).</p><p>The first member of the genus probably occurred in south-western China about nine million years ago. All muntjacs are characterized by relatively long pedicles, small preorbital fossae, tusk-like upper canines; metatarsal glands are absent. The Bornean Yellow Muntjac has been confused with the sympatric M. muntjak for many decades. It has been considered a primitive species for its rudimentary tiny antlers with irregular antler cycles, but the regression of antlers may be only an extreme adaptation to environment and climate. Monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. Borneo.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 85-90 cm, tail 15-19 cm, shoulder height 65 cm; weight 14-18 kg. Small, with short slender pedicles and very short unbranched antlers (2-4 cm long). Males are slighter larger than females. The coat is predominantly yellow or yellowish-orange, with agouti-banded hairs and there is a broad dorsal stripe. The tail is dark brown dorsally; the underparts are pale yellow.</p><p>Habitat. Uses both primary and secondary forests. It seems absent from mountains.</p><p>Food and Feeding. Eats leaves, buds, forbs, seeds, fruits, and grass.</p><p>Breeding. Nothing is known.</p><p>Activity patterns. Active all day, with a tendency to be diurnal.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Observed alone or in pairs.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Still widespread, locally common but probably decreasing (especially in the Indonesian part of the island).</p><p>Bibliography. Dong (2007), Groves &amp; Grubb (1982, 1990), Payne &amp; Francis (2005).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFC7FFC6FF42F6BDEF35FDDC	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFC7FFC6FAB5FDDAEE63F31D.text	03A087C4FFC7FFC6FAB5FDDAEE63F31D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Muntiacus reevesi (Ogilby 1839)	<div><p>3.</p><p>Reeves’s Muntjac</p><p>Muntiacus reevesi</p><p>French: Muntjac de Chine / German: China-Muntjak / Spanish: Muntiaco de Reeves</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus reevesi Ogilby, 1839,</p><p>Canton (China).</p><p>Because of the relatively high number of chromosomes of the karyotype this species is considered a primitive muntjac. According to a genetic study, together with M. vuquangensis it forms one of two clades; according to a second study it forms a distinct lineage not closely related to other muntjacs. Its scientific and common name honorJ. Reeves, a naturalist and Assistant Inspector of Tea for the British East India Company, who worked for 19 years in China. Two subspecies are recognized.</p><p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p><p>M.r.reeves:Ogilby,1838—SEChina.</p><p>M. r. micrurus Sclater, 1875 — Taiwan.</p><p>The subspecies from mainland China was introduced into England in the early 20" century.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 70-80 cm,tail 12-13 cm, shoulder height 45-50 cm; weight of adult males 14-15 kg and of adult females 12-13 kg. Males are on average 15% heavier than females. A small-sized muntjac with rounded ears. The tail is relatively short, chestnut dorsally, white below. The summer coatis red-brown, the winter coat is gray-brown. Males have a black stripe up each frontal ridge and pedicle, forming a V on the forehead. Fawn coat has ocher spots, which disappear by two months. A large preorbital sac, frontal glands, rear interdigital gland and (in males) a preputial gland are present. Upper canines are around 6 cm long in males, of which one third is hidden in the alveolus; females have smaller upper canines, about 1-7 cm long, of which one third extends out of the alveolus. Antlers of adults are short and simple, 4-8 cm long, on pedicles 5-8 cm high. They generally have a very small basal brow tine and distally they tend to curve inward. Pedicles begin to grow at 5-7 months of age; first antlers appear at 8-11 months, generally minute spikes without a coronet. Subsequent antler sets grow in summer, are clean in September, and are cast in May. Hooves are very small, about 3 cm long. The diploid number of chromosomesis 46.</p><p>Habitat. In the original range it prefers dense temperate, subtropical, and tropical forests and scrub, at 200-400 m above sea level. Sometimesit also frequents alpine grasslands up to 3500 m above sea level. Introduced populations in England are particularly common in dense habitat with a good diversity of vegetation.</p><p>Food and Feeding. As a typical concentrate selector, it browses leaves and shoots and eats fruits.</p><p>Breeding. Females attain puberty precociously, at 6-7 months of age. Breeding occurs throughout the year, with fawns born in any month. Females are polyestrous with a mean cycle of 14-15 days. After a gestation of 210 days, females give birth to one fawn weighing about 1-2 kg. Since a postpartum estrus is common, females may give birth every eight months. Fawns are weaned in four months. At six months of age they attain 60% of the final weight, at 18 months they reach 90% of their adult weight. Males may disperse at about 5-6 months, sometimes later. Reeves’s Muntjac can live to a maximum of 13 years.</p><p>Activity patterns. It is active all day, with five distinct periods of feeding in 24 hours.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. As a slinker, it generally moves with the head held down. When alarmed it lifts the tail, showing the white underneath. Usually home ranges are small, 10-30 ha, but can be up to 100 ha, generally larger in males. Males are territorial, with a defended area encompassing the home ranges of some females. Some territoriality is also evident in females, whose core areas are exclusive. It is basically a solitary species, sometimes observed in pairs or small family groups. Adult males are probably weakly serially polygynous, forming temporary tending bonds with estrous females.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, mainly for its large range and its occurrence in many protected areas. It is decreasing, due to the industrial exploitation of hides and continuous habitat loss. In China it is considered vulnerable but it is not protected at a national scale. The population established in England, is now quite common, increasing and expanding its range to other parts of Great Britain. In 2005 the total estimate for this population was 118,000 individuals.</p><p>Bibliography. Apollonio et al. (2010), Chapman (2008), Chapman et al. (1997), Leasor et al. (2008), McCullough et al. (2000), Miura (1984), Pei Kurtis &amp; Liu Hwanwun (1994).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFC7FFC6FAB5FDDAEE63F31D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFC6FFC7FA76F9AAEC6EF3B1.text	03A087C4FFC6FFC7FA76F9AAEC6EF3B1.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Muntiacus crinifrons Sclater 1885	<div><p>7.</p><p>Black Muntjac</p><p>Muntiacus crinifrons</p><p>French: Muntjac noir / German: Schwarzer Muntjak / Spanish: Muntiaco negro</p><p>Other common names: Hairy-fronted Muntjac</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervulus crinifrons Sclater, 1885,</p><p>Ningpo, Zhejiiang (China).</p><p>For more than a century only five specimens were known. It is closely related to M. gongshanensis and sometimes confused with it. Monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. Zhejiang and neighboring areas, E China.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 90-110 cm, tail 20 cm, shoulder height 55 cm; weight 20-25 kg. Females are slighter larger than males. Large-sized muntjac, with a rufous or golden-yellow long-haired frontal tuft, pointed ears;tail relatively long and fringed with white hair. Pedicles are 7-9 cm long, antlers are 7-8 cm long. The diploid number of chromosomes is 9 (males) and 8 (females).</p><p>Habitat. It lives in mountain forests with abundant undergrowth, sometimes also in scrubland. Up to 1000 m above sea level. The forests consist of a mosaic of deciduous broadleaf, evergreen, and bamboo patches with dense undergrowth and subtropical monsoon conditions.</p><p>Food and Feeding. Its diet consists of leaves, twigs, fruits, forbs, grasses.</p><p>Breeding. Females attain puberty at about twelve months of age. Breeding is aseasonal. After about 210 days of pregnancy, females give birth to a single fawn. In one study, some lactating females were found carrying fetuses, implying that post-partum estrus is possible in this species.</p><p>Activity patterns. Nothing is known about activity in this species.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Black muntjacs are solitary and territorial, but little is known of their movements. Secretions from the frontal and preorbital glands are rubbed against vegetation to mark territories. When the territory of a male Black Muntjac is invaded, he defendsit using the tusk-like upper canines to drive out the invader.</p><p>Status and Conservation. CITES Annex I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The total population was assessed in late 1990s at 7000-8500 individuals. The Black Muntjac is declining; overhunting and habitat loss and degradation continue to represent important threats. Habitat fragmentation is responsible for a genetic differentiation among subpopulations.</p><p>Bibliography. Amato et al. (2000), Groves &amp; Grubb (1990), Harris (2008), Lan Hong et al. (1995), Lu Hogee &amp; Sheng Helin (1984), Smith &amp; Xie Yan (2008), Wang Wen &amp; Lan Hong (2000), Wu Hailong et al. (2006, 2007).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFC6FFC7FA76F9AAEC6EF3B1	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFC6FFC7FF08F812E487F279.text	03A087C4FFC6FFC7FF08F812E487F279.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Muntiacus feae Thomas & Doria 1889	<div><p>5.</p><p>Fea’s Muntjac</p><p>Muntiacus feae</p><p>French: Muntjac de Fea / German: Tenasserim-Muntjak / Spanish: Muntiaco de Fea</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervulus feae Thomas &amp; Doria, 1889,</p><p>Thagata Juva, Tenasserim (Myanmar).</p><p>Genetic analyses agree in considering this muntjac as a sister species to M. gongshanensis / M. crinifrons . The name refers to the Italian zoologist and explorer L. Fea. Monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. W Thailand and adjacent Myanmar; dubious reports from N Myanmar and S China.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 90-100 cm, tail 10-17 cm, shoulder height 50-60 cm; weight 20-22 kg. Females are heavier than males. Medium-sized, with short, bright yellow frontal tuft, rounded ears; pedicles 4-5 cm long, antlers 5-6 cm long. Tail relatively long, fringed with white hair. The coat is dark brown speckled with yellow; legs dark; forehead and pedicles yellowish; black stripes on pedicles. The diploid number of chromosomes is 14 (males) and 13 (females).</p><p>Habitat. Seems to prefer evergreen forests of hills and mountains, inhabiting upland evergreen, mixed, or shrub forest at mid-elevations. They are also found in teak plantations.</p><p>Food and Feeding. It feeds on leaves and fruits, with some grasses and shoots as well.</p><p>Breeding. Females reach puberty at about one year of age. The young are usually born in dense vegetation, remaining hidden until able to travel with the mother. Males may compete for access to females by sparring with antlers or fighting using their fang-like canines, although little is known directly about mating in this species. Males likely defend a territory that encompasses that of several females, as in other muntjacs.</p><p>Activity patterns. Fea’s Muntjac may be either diurnal or nocturnal, but little is known regarding its behavior in the wild.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Nothing is known, but appears to be solitary, like other muntjacs.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List due to doubts about the validity of many reports of the species, and, thus, about its geographic and ecological range and conservation status.</p><p>Bibliography. Groves &amp; Grubb (1990), Grubb (1977), Soma et al. (1987), Tanomtong et al. (2005), Timmins, Steinmetz, Pattanavibool &amp; Duckworth (2008).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFC6FFC7FF08F812E487F279	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFC6FFC7FA74FEBAE152FA2C.text	03A087C4FFC6FFC7FA74FEBAE152FA2C.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Muntiacus gongshanensis Ma 1990	<div><p>6.</p><p>Gongshan Muntjac</p><p>Muntiacus gongshanensis</p><p>French: Muntjac de Gongshan / German: Gongshan-Muntjak / Spanish: Muntiaco de Gongshan</p><p>Taxonomy. Muntiacus gongshanensis Ma, 1990,</p><p>Mijio, Gongshan county (Yunnan, China).</p><p>Closely related to M. erinifrons, the divergence of these two species is a relatively recent event. Monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. S China (Yunnan) and N Myanmar; possibly SE Xizang, NE India, and Bhutan.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 90-110 cm, tail 20 cm, shoulder height 55 cm; weight 20-25 kg. Medium-sized; similar to the Black Muntjac (M. c¢rinifrons) but with males lacking the frontal tuft; females have a crown tuft more prominentlaterally than centrally. The coat is brown, with back and tail dark brown, the head pale brown with dark lines on pedicles. Antlers relatively short. The diploid number of chromosomesis 2 n =9 (males) and 8 (females).</p><p>Habitat. The Gongshan Muntjac prefers evergreen, lowland forests.</p><p>Food and Feeding. Nothing is known, but likely a partially omnivorous browser.</p><p>Breeding. No information for this species, but most other tropical muntjacs bear a single young, aseasonally.</p><p>Activity patterns. Nothing is known forthis species; other muntjacs range from diurnal through crespucular to nocturnal.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. No data for this species, but likely solitary, as in other species of muntjacs.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List, probably decreasing. Hunting appears to be the major threat.</p><p>Bibliography. Amato et al. (2000), Huang Ling et al. (2006), Ma Shilai et al. (1990), Timmins, Duckworth &amp; Zaw (2008a), Wang Wen &amp; Lan Hong (2000).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFC6FFC7FA74FEBAE152FA2C	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFC6FFC7FF0DFEBDE573F8A5.text	03A087C4FFC6FFC7FF0DFEBDE573F8A5.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Muntiacus vuquangensis (Do Tuoc, Vu Van Dung, Dawson, Arctander & Mackinnon 1994)	<div><p>4.</p><p>Giant Muntjac</p><p>Muntiacus vuquangensis</p><p>French: Muntjac géant / German: Riesenmuntjak / Spanish: Muntiaco gigante</p><p>Other common names: Large-antlered Muntjac</p><p>Taxonomy. Megamuntiacus vuquangensis Tuoc et al., 1994,</p><p>Vu Quang Nature Reserve (Vietnam).</p><p>Some individuals belonging to this species were observed several decades ago but they were interpreted as large-sized specimens of M. muntjak . It has only recently been recognized as a new species. The phylogenetic relationships with other muntjacs have been studied, but with contrasting results; a Chinese team considered it in the same clade with M. reevesi, but an American study suggested more affinities with the M. rooseveltorum clade. Monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. Annamite Mts (LLaos &amp; Vietnam) and E Cambodia.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 110-115 cm, tail 17 cm, shoulder height 65-70 cm; weight 34 kg. The largest species of muntjac, with a short, broad, triangular tail; stout and short pedicles; antlers relatively long (about 23 cm in length, up to 28-5 cm) with a well-developed brow tine (on average 8 cm in length). The coat is yellow-brown to tan; white spot on knee in males.</p><p>Habitat. It is possibly tied to the evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of the Annamite Range, and normally occurs below 1000 m above sea level, although it has been found at altitudes from 500 m to 1200 m. Although seemingly a denizen of primary forest, it has also been observed in second growth.</p><p>Food and Feeding. It is a browser and a fruit-eater.</p><p>Breeding. Little is known, but only single young have been observed with females. A female Giant Muntjac was pregnant with a 165 g fetus in January.</p><p>Activity patterns. The periods of activity have not been documented, butit is likely diurnal, like most other muntjacs.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Although virtually unstudied, adults seem to be solitary.</p><p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, due to the restricted range, the very low density, and presumably the small and decreasing total population. The Giant Muntjac continues to be threatened by heavy hunting pressure, as well as by habitat degradation due to logging and slash-and-burn agriculture.</p><p>Bibliography. Amato et al. (2000), Bauer (1997), Duckworth (1998), Evans etal. (2000), Schaller &amp; Vrba (1996), Timmins et al. (1998), Timmins, Duckworth &amp; Long (2008c).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFC6FFC7FF0DFEBDE573F8A5	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFC6FFC0FA72F327E21CF470.text	03A087C4FFC6FFC0FA72F327E21CF470.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Muntiacus muntjak (Zimmermann 1780)	<div><p>8.</p><p>Red Muntjac</p><p>Muntiacus muntjak</p><p>French: Muntjac indien / German: Muntjak / Spanish: Muntiaco rojo</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus muntjak Zimmermann, 1780,</p><p>Java.</p><p>Some authors have recently proposed recognizing three species, M. muntjak of the Malaysian and Sundaic region, M. montanus of the Sumatran mountains, and M. vaginalis of south and south-eastern continental Asia, mainly on the basis of different karyotypes and small differences in coat coloration. Until further study of the phylogenetic relationships, we will continue to treat them as one species. Ten subspecies are recognized.</p><p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p><p>M.m.muntjakZimmermann,1780—PeninsularMalaysia,Sumatra,Java,Bali,Borneoandseveralassociatedsmallerislands.</p><p>M.m.annamensisKloss,1928—SLaos,SVietnam,andCambodia. M.m.aureusC.H.Smith,1826—Pakistan,N&amp;CIndia. M.m.curvostylisGray,1872—Myanmar,Thailand. M.m.malabaricusLydekker,1915—SIndiaandSriLanka. M.m.menglalisWang&amp;Groves,1988—SChina(SYunnan);possiblyalsoinneighboringMyanmar,Laos,andVietnam. M.m.montanusRobinson&amp;Kloss,1918—Sumatranhighlands. M.m.nigripesG.Allen,1930—HainanI. M.m.vaginalisBoddaert,1785—Nepal,Bhutan,NEIndia,andBangladesh.</p><p>M. m. yunnanensis Ma &amp; Wang, 1988 — S China (from C &amp; N Yunnan and S Sichuan to S Fujian &amp; Guangdong).</p><p>Forms from mainland Asia have been introduced into the Andaman Is.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 90-120 cm, tail 17-19 cm, shoulder height 50-70 cm; weight 20-28 kg (up to 35 kg in Vietnam andJava). Sexes are of equal size. Mediumto large-sized muntjacs, with long pedicles (8-15 cm in length) and thick frontal ridges; antlers generally well developed (8-20 cm; up to 27 cm long), typically with a short brow tine; the tips of the antlers tend to curve inwards. The coat is reddish, with paler, sometimes whitish or grayish underparts. The tail is orange to red-brown; in subspecies montanus it is dark brown. Two black lines along antler pedicles extend down to the face. Fawns are spotted. Two straightslits on the face indicate the pair of frontal glands. Antler cycles are synchronized at the local level. Antler casting generally occurs in a three-month period with a peak in April-May. The lowest number of chromosomes of any mammal; diploid number is 7 or 9 (males) and 6 or 8 (females).</p><p>Habitat. It is a flexible forest-dwelling species that lives in deciduous and evergreen forests, old-growth and secondary forests, in exotic commercial plantations, sometimes in grasslands and croplands close to the forest edge. On Hainan Island it uses shrubland and savanna and tends to avoid woods. Normally found up to 1000-1500 m above sea level, in Himalayas up to 3000-3500 m.</p><p>Food and Feeding. The Red Muntjac eats mainly fruits, buds, young leaves, small seeds, twigs, and sometimes green grass near the forest edge. It has been described as a major dispersal agent of fruit-producing plants.</p><p>Breeding. Females may reach puberty at 8-10 months of age. They are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of about 18 days. Breeding occurs in all months of the year. The length of pregnancy is about 210 days. Females have a postpartum estrus and the interbirth interval may be only eight months. Females give birth to a single fawn weighing 1.2-1. 5 kg. Weaning occurs very precociously at 70 days. Potential maximum longevity is around 17 years of age. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and clouded leopards (Neofelis spp.) are the main predators.</p><p>Activity patterns. It is active all the day, more at dawn and dusk.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. It is very secretive, usually moving in a network of pathways in dense cover. Males have relatively large home ranges encompassing those of a few females. In Nepal males have mean home ranges of 7 km?; female ranges are 6 km?*. Red Muntjacs do not seem strictly territorial, with exclusive areas, but exhibit site-specific dominance. Males spend much time in scent marking and may be aggressive with individuals of the same sex. These muntjacs are essentially solitary, but not asocial; and it is possible that a local population forms some kind of social unit held together by a complex net of scent. The maximum number of animals observed together is four, generally undera fruiting tree or around a small waterhole. Groups of two individuals are a mating pair or mother and her young.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, two forms have been asessed independently; the race from the Sumatran mountains (montanus) was classified as Data Deficient and the mainland populations as Least Concern. It appears to be fairly resilient to hunting and habitat degradation and it is still common in most of its range, possibly decreasing. Its meat is among the most consumed in south and south-eastern Asia.</p><p>Bibliography. Acharjyo &amp; Patnaik (1984), Barrette (1977, 2004), Dubost (1971), Nagarkoti &amp; Thapa (2007), Odden &amp; Wegge (2007), Schaller (1967), Timmins, Duckworth, Hedges et al. (2008).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFC6FFC0FA72F327E21CF470	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFC1FFC0FA49FBFFEED7F7DF.text	03A087C4FFC1FFC0FA49FBFFEED7F7DF.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Muntiacus puhoatensis Trai 1997	<div><p>10.</p><p>Puhoat Muntjac</p><p>Muntiacus puhoatensis</p><p>French: Muntjac de Pu Hoat / German: Vietnam-Muntjak / Spanish: Muntiaco de Pu Hoat</p><p>Taxonomy. Muntiacus puhoatensis Trai, 1997,</p><p>Puhoat, Nghe An province (Vietnam).</p><p>The systematic status of this speciesis still very doubtful, as it is known only from the type specimen. It belongs to the rooseveltorum species complex;it could be simply a synonym of M. truongsonensis or M. rooseveltorum . Monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. NW Vietnam; possibly neighboring Laos.</p><p>Descriptive notes. No specific body measurements available. Small-sized, morphologically similar to the Annamite Muntjac. The coat is reddish.</p><p>Habitat. Recorded in closed canopy evergreen forest above 900 m above sea level.</p><p>Food and Feeding. Nothing is known, as the species is based on a partial specimen obtained with no ecological data.</p><p>Breeding. Unknown, see above.</p><p>Activity patterns. Unknown, see above.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Unknown, see above.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List for the lack of certainty about its taxonomic identity.</p><p>Bibliography. Binh Chau (1997), Francis (2008), Timmins &amp; Duckworth (2008a).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFC1FFC0FA49FBFFEED7F7DF	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFC1FFC0FF42F46EEEBAFBF9.text	03A087C4FFC1FFC0FF42F46EEEBAFBF9.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Muntiacus putaoensis Amato, Egan & Rabinowitz 1999	<div><p>9.</p><p>Leat Mungac</p><p>Muntiacus putaoensis</p><p>French: Muntjac de Putao / German: Burma-Muntjak / Spanish: Muntiaco de Putao</p><p>Taxonomy. Muntiacus putaoensis Amato, Egan &amp; Rabinowitz, 1999,</p><p>Atanga, Putao (Myanmar). It belongs to the rooseveltorum species complex. The name comes from its diminutive size, small enough to be wrapped in a leaf of Phrynium. Monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. NE India and N Myanmar.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Few measurements available. Shoulder height 40 cm, weight 12 kg. Males and females of equal size. Smallest of the muntjacs, with short pedicles about 3 cm long, tiny unbranched antlers 1-4 cm in length, often hidden by fur. Coat reddishbrown, legs and face slightly darker. The tail is orange-red dorsally. Preorbital fossa relatively large. Females have prominent upper canines. Fawns possibly unspotted.</p><p>Habitat. Forest-dweller, it has been recorded from 700 m to 1200 m above sea level.</p><p>Food and Feeding. It feeds on browse and fruit. Stomach contents examined from specimens in Myanmar revealed mainly fruit remains.</p><p>Breeding. Both pregnant and lactating females have been taken in May, in Myanmar.</p><p>Activity patterns. Nothing is known, but similar muntjacs are frequently crepuscular, with others both diurnal and nocturnal.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Nothing is known.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List for the lack of certainty about morphology, taxonomy, distribution, and ecology. Evidence of persistent hunting by local people suggests that numbers may be decreasing.</p><p>Bibliography. Amato, Egan &amp; Rabinowitz (1999), Amato, Egan &amp; Schaller (2000), Datta et al. (2003), James et al. (2008), Rabinowitz et al. (1999), Timmins, Duckwork &amp; Zaw (2008b).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFC1FFC0FF42F46EEEBAFBF9	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFC1FFC0FA4FF7DAEF12F38B.text	03A087C4FFC1FFC0FA4FF7DAEF12F38B.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Muntiacus truongsonensis (Giao, Tuoc, Eric [Wikramanayake], Dung et al. in Ha 1997)	<div><p>11.</p><p>Annamite Mungac</p><p>Muntiacus truongsonensis</p><p>French: Muntjac des Truong Son / German: Annam-Muntjak / Spanish: Muntiaco de Truong Son</p><p>Other common names: Annamite Dark Muntjac</p><p>Taxonomy. Caninmuntiacus truongsonensis Giao et al, 1997,</p><p>Quang Nam province (Vietnam).</p><p>The systematic status ofthis speciesis also still unclear. It belongs to the rooseveltorum species complex. Monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. Laos and Vietnam; possibly also in S China (Yunnan).</p><p>Descriptive notes. No specific body measurements available. Small, estimated shoulder height of about 40 cm; estimated body weight of 15 kg. With short pedicles (4 cm in length) and tiny unbranched antlers (about 2 cm long). The coatis dark brown to black, with an orange-brown frontal tuft; ocher color on face and throat. The tail is relatively long and dark brown dorsally.</p><p>Habitat. More common in evergreen wet forests over 1000 m above sea level.</p><p>Food and Feeding. Browser and fruit-eater.</p><p>Breeding. Nothing is known of the breeding system.</p><p>Activity patterns. There are no ecological data available for this species.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Nothing is known; see above.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust, possibly decreasing for overhunting.</p><p>Bibliography. Francis (2008), Giao et al. (1998), Timmins, Duckworth &amp; Long (2008b).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFC1FFC0FA4FF7DAEF12F38B	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFC1FFC1FA4DF30DE117FD14.text	03A087C4FFC1FFC1FA4DF30DE117FD14.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Muntiacus rooseveltorum Osgood 1932	<div><p>12.</p><p>Roosevelts’ Muntjac</p><p>Muntiacus rooseveltorum</p><p>French: Muntjac des Roosevelt / German: Roosevelt-Muntjak / Spanish: Muntiaco de Roosevelt</p><p>Taxonomy. Muntiacus rooseveltorum Osgood, 1932,</p><p>Muong Yo (Laos).</p><p>It was collected for the first time by H. G. Coolidge in 1929 during the Kelley-Roosevelt Asiatic Expedition and was dedicated to the brothers Kermit and Theodore Jr., who sponsored and led the scientific mission. It was rediscovered in 1996. Monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. Laos, possibly also in Viet nam and S China.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Nospecific body measurements available. Small muntjac, estimated shoulder height of about 40 cm, with short pedicles (4 cm in length) and tiny unbranched antlers (about 2 cm long). Females with well-developed upper canines. The coat is dark brown to black, with an orange-brown frontal tuft; ocher color on face and throat. The tail is brown dorsally.</p><p>Habitat. More common in forests over 1000 m above sea level.</p><p>Food and Feeding. Browser and fruit-eater.</p><p>Breeding. As with several other species of muntjac, the lack of systematic clarity makes it impossible to obtain reliable ecological data.</p><p>Activity patterns. Nothing is known; see above.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Nothing is known; see above.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust, possibly decreasing because of overhunting.</p><p>Bibliography. Amato, Egan &amp; Schaller (2000), Amato, Egan, Schaller, Baker et al. (1999), Francis (2008), Timmins, Duckworth &amp; Long (2008a).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFC1FFC1FA4DF30DE117FD14	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFCDFFCCFF42FE4FE271F40F.text	03A087C4FFCDFFCCFF42FE4FE271F40F.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Axis axis Erxleben 1777	<div><p>13.</p><p>Chital</p><p>Axis axis</p><p>French: Cerf axis / German: Axishirsch / Spanish: Axis</p><p>Other common names: Axis Deer, Indian Spotted Deer</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus axis Erxleben, 1777,</p><p>Banks of Ganges, Bihar (India).</p><p>The genus Axis appeared in China at the end of the Miocene. The monophyly of Axis has been questioned repeatedly but the most recent genetic analyses have confirmed it. Monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. India, S Nepal, S Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. Chital have been introduced in Europe (Croatia, Ukraine, Moldova), Armenia, the Andaman Is, New Guinea, Australia, USA (California, Texas &amp; Hawaii), Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 150-155 cm for males (adult bucks), and 140-145 cm for females (does), tail 25-30 cm, shoulder height 85-95 cm (bucks) and 70-80 cm (does); weight of adult bucks 70-85 kg (up to 110 kg) and of adult does 45-60 kg (up to 70 kg). Hooves are 4-7 cm long. Adult bucks are on average 40-60% heavier than does. Medium-sized elegant deer heavily spotted in all seasons. The coat is reddishfawn flecked with small white spots; white throat patch, whitish underparts, a dark band around the muzzle, and a dark dorsal stripe. Males carry a dark chevron over the face. Face and neck of does are paler. Long hairs at the distal end of the preorbital gland, normally folded inwards. Males have an elongated penis sheath. Preorbital, metatarsal, and rear interdigital glands are present. Adult males have lyre-shaped, long, three-tined antlers, with a brow tine and an inward-oriented trez tine. Antlers are on average 65-75 cm long, with records of 95-110 cm. Pedicles begin to grow at about twelve months of age and grow into spikes. Yearling bucks cast their antlers at 20-22 months of age. Antler cycles lack seasonality. In southern India adult bucks attain peak hard antlers in May-June, yearlings and subadults later.</p><p>Habitat. Chital are typical of the grassland-forest ecotone. They prefer moist and dry forest areas adjoining grassland or scrubland; they are also present in swampy meadows close to forests, riparian forests, and teak plantations. They tend to avoid dense forests and mountains.</p><p>Food and Feeding. Chital are flexible intermediate feeders with a tendency to graze. Up to 190 plant species are recorded as consumed at the Indian subcontinental scale. They eat grasses, but also forbs, leaves, flowers, and fruits. Chital tend to use more wooded habitat during the cool-dry season and early summer (November-May), where they find browse and fruit, and use more open grassland with the monsoon rains and the flush of plant growth. In Sundarbans they are known to feed also on crabs.</p><p>Breeding. Females reach puberty at 10-14 months. They are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 18-19 days. Males are physiologically mature at 14-16 months. Mating may occur throughout the year, with higher activity from March to July. After a pregnancy of 231-235 days, does give birth to a single fawn weighing 3-4 kg. Weaning occurs at 5—6 months of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 21 years of age. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the major predators.</p><p>Activity patterns. Active mainly around dawn and dusk, with two major resting periods, one before dawn and the other at midday.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Males have home ranges of about 200-350 ha, females of about 150-250 ha. It is a social species. The basic social unit is the family group consisting of the mother, the fawn, and the offspring of the previous year. Two or three families form fluid, temporary herds of 6-12 animals, often accompanied by subadult males and visited by adult bucks. Aggregations of more than 150-200 individuals are known in abundant pastures during rainy season or near water reservoirs in summer.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List for its relatively wide range and the network of protected areas. Due to overhunting and habitat loss Chital declined dramatically up to 1970; then they became more stable and sometimes locally abundant. The general demographic trend is unknown, but in some areas is still decreasing. In Bangladesh they are restricted to the Sundarbans.</p><p>Bibliography. Ables (1974), Azad et al. (2005), Barrette (1985, 1991), Chapple et al. (1993), Duckworth et al. (2008), Geist (1998), Gilbert et al. (2006), Mishra &amp; Wemmer (1987), Miura (1981), Moe &amp; Wegge (1997), Ouithavon et al. (2009), Raman (1997, 1998), Sankar &amp; Acharya (2004a), Schaller (1967).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFCDFFCCFF42FE4FE271F40F	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFCDFFCCFF47F388E06AF745.text	03A087C4FFCDFFCCFF47F388E06AF745.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Axis porcinus (Zimmermann 1780)	<div><p>14.</p><p>Hog Deer</p><p>Axis porcinus</p><p>French: Cerf cochon / German: Schweinshirsch / Spanish: Axis porcino</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus porcinus Zimmermann, 1780,</p><p>West Bengal (India).</p><p>Sometimes it iS put in a separate genus, Hyelaphus. Two subspecies are recognized.</p><p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p><p>A.p.porcinusZimmermann,1780—Pakistan,NIndia,Nepal,Bhutan,Bangladesh,andMyanmar.</p><p>A. p. annamiticus Heude, 1888 — S China (Yunnan), Thailand (reintroduced), and Cambodia; formerly also Laos and Vietnam but may be extinct there now.</p><p>Tt was introduced some centuries ago in Sri Lanka, and more recently into Australia, and South Africa.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 140-150 cm for males (adult bucks), and 130 cm for females (does), tail 17-21 cm, shoulder height 65-75 cm (bucks) and 55-65 cm (does); weight of bucks 40-55 kg (up to 95 kg) and of does 30-40 kg. Adult bucks are on average 35% heavier than does. Medium-sized, relatively short-legged deer; males have prominent pedicles and relatively short three-tined antlers. Face moderately short,tail relatively long. The coat is yellow-brown to dark brown in summer, grayish-brown in winter; underparts dark, tail brown dorsally, white underneath. Newborn fawns are normally spotted, but in Cambodia and Vietnam they lack spots. Some spots may persist in adults. Adult antlers are generally 30-45 cm long (up to 61 cm), with a brow tine and fork. Antler casting occurs mainly between November and April.</p><p>Habitat. Lowland wet or moist tall grasslands, often associated with rivers: in South Asiaits original range fits with the Indo-Gangetic alluvial floodplain. It avoids closedcanopy forests.</p><p>Food and Feeding. Primarily a grazer of young grasses, but also feeds on herbs, flowers, fruits, and young leaves.</p><p>Breeding. Females reach puberty at 8=12 months. They are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 18-19 days. Males are physiologically mature at 14-16 months. Mating may occur throughout the year, with higher activity from July to November and a peak in September—October. Males search widely for receptive females and guard them temporarily. After a pregnancy of about 230 days, does give birth to a single fawn weighing 2-3 kg. Weaning occurs at six months of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 21 years. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and crocodiles are the main predators.</p><p>Activity patterns. Active during early morning, early evening, and late evening hours. When under heavy hunting pressure, it becomes nocturnal.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Males have home ranges of about 50-80 ha, females of about 40-60 ha. It is essentially a solitary species. Mean group sizes are normally 2-3 individuals. Males are often alone. Groups are mating pairs or small families, mother and fawn, or mother, fawn, and female yearling. Temporary aggregations of 20-80 individuals are seen in rich pastures.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Subspecies annamiticus CITES Annex I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Since the 1950s Hog Deer have undergone a dramatic decline due to habitat conversion (the Terai floodplains are among the most fertile lowlands of Asia) and direct persecution. By the mid-1980s it became extinct in Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam; in Bangladesh and possibly in South China a few dozens survived. More recently the Cambodian population collapsed. In Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bhutan, Hog Deer are declining at a slowerrate.</p><p>Bibliography. Biswas (2004), Dhungel &amp; O'Gara (1991), Moore &amp; Mayze (1990), Odden &amp; Wegge (2007), Odden et al. (2005).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFCDFFCCFF47F388E06AF745	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFCDFFCDFA4FF6BBE511FDBD.text	03A087C4FFCDFFCDFA4FF6BBE511FDBD.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Axis kuhlii (Temminck 1836)	<div><p>15.</p><p>Bawean Deer</p><p>Axis kuhlii</p><p>French: Cerf de Kuhl / German: Bawean-Schweinshirsch / Spanish: Axis de Bawean</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus kuhlii Temminck, 1836,</p><p>Bawean Island.</p><p>It has often been treated as a subspecies of A. porcinus and more recently it has been related to the extinct A. lydekkerii of Pleistocene. Fossils document an ancient occurrence in Java. The scientific name refers to the German naturalist H. Kuhl, who visited the East Indies in 1820-1821. Monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. Bawean I, offJava.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 130-140 cm, tail 17-20 cm, shoulder height 60-70 cm; weight of adult bucks 40-60 kg. Medium-sized short-legged deer with a bushy tail; males with prominent pedicles and relatively short three-tined antlers 30-45 cm in length. The coat is brown. Newborn fawns are not spotted. Pedicles begin to grow at six months of age, the first set of antlers at about eight months of age.</p><p>Habitat. It is more common in hilly secondary forests.</p><p>Food and Feeding. Primarily feeds on forbs and grasses but also on leaves and twigs.</p><p>Breeding. Males may reproduce in every month of the year. Mating season peaks between July and December and births between February and June. Pregnancy lasts about 225-230 days. There is a postpartum estrus; interbirth intervals are about nine months. Feral dogs and pythons are the main predators.</p><p>Activity patterns. Mainly nocturnal.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. It is typically solitary.</p><p>Status and Conservation. CITES Annex I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. In the 1960s—-1970s hunting and conversion to teak plantations caused a decline of the population, which now numbers around 300-500 individuals. Hunting ban began in 1977.</p><p>Bibliography. Blouch &amp; Atmosoedirdjo (1987), Groves &amp; Grubb (1987), Meijaard &amp; Groves (2004), Semiadi, Pudyatmoko et al. (2008), Semiadi, Subekti et al. (2003).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFCDFFCDFA4FF6BBE511FDBD	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFCCFFCDFF01FD23E21EF941.text	03A087C4FFCCFFCDFF01FD23E21EF941.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Axis calamianensis (Heude 1888)	<div><p>16.</p><p>Calamian Deer</p><p>Axis calamianensis</p><p>French: Cerf des Calamian / German: Calamian-Schweinshirsch / Spanish: Axis de Calamianes</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus calamianensis Heude, 1888,</p><p>Calamian Islands.</p><p>It has previously been treated as a subspecies of A. porcinus . Monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. Calamian Is (Busuanga, Calauit, Culion, Marily &amp; Dimaquiat).</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body on average 130 cm, tail 20 cm, shoulder height 60— 75 cm; weight 35-50 kg. Medium-sized, relatively long-legged deer with a bushy tail; males have prominent pedicles and short three-tined antlers 20-30 cm in length. The coat is tawny brown, with legs much darker than body; the muzzle is whitish.</p><p>Habitat. It lives in grasslands, open woodlands, secondary forests.</p><p>Food and Feeding. It primarily feeds on forbs and grasses but also on leaves and twigs.</p><p>Breeding. Females attain puberty at about 8-15 months of age. After a gestation of around 222-226 days they give birth to a single fawn weighing 1.1-6 kg. Fawns are able to suckle an hour after birth. Weaning occurs after 4-6 months.</p><p>Activity patterns. It is diurnal and crepuscular.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. It is often observed in small groups.</p><p>Status and Conservation. CITES Annex I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. In 1996 the total population size was estimated at 550 animals. It is decreasing; hunting pressure and agricultural expansion are major threats.</p><p>Bibliography. Groves &amp; Grubb (1987), Villamor (1987, 1991), Wemmer (1998).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFCCFFCDFF01FD23E21EF941	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFCCFFCDFF03F872E062F40B.text	03A087C4FFCCFFCDFF03F872E062F40B.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Dama dama Frisch 1775	<div><p>17.</p><p>Common Fallow Deer</p><p>Dama dama</p><p>French: Daim d'Europe / German: Dambhirsch / Spanish: Gamo</p><p>Other common names: European Fallow Deer</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus dama Linnaeus, 1758,</p><p>Sweden.</p><p>The first known species in the genus Dama, D. clactoniana, appeared in Europe in the Middle Pleistocene, about 600,000 years ago. Dama is probably an Upper Pliocene genus adapted to savanna-like and open woodland habitats of Europe, and the first representatives are not yet unanimously identified among the many medium-sized deer of that period. The first D. dama occurred in Europe about 200,000 years ago. During the first part of the last glaciation its range shrank and the species took refuge in southern Europe and Anatolia. The post-glacial range may have been reduced to Anatolia. Neolithic and Bronze Age records from Macedonia and Bulgaria, and later from Greek islands, may be interpreted as the first translocations by humans. The Greeks and others probably contributed to an artificial dispersal on central and western Mediterranean coasts, including North Africa. Romans introduced Common Fallow Deer to some areas of mainland Europe and to Great Britain. When separated from D. mesopotamica, Common Fallow Deer can be considered monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. Formerly Anatolia, Turkey, then has been introduced into Europe from ancient times and later into many other countries in North and South America, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji Is. The distribution map includes both the native range in Anatolia and the European continent with its old introductions.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 145-155 cm for males (adult bucks), and 130-145 cm for females (does), tail length 16-19 cm, shoulder height 85-95 cm (bucks) and 70-80 cm (does); post-rutting weight of adult bucks 50-80 kg and of adult does 35-50 kg. Adult bucks are on average 40-60% heavier than does. Medium-sized deer with short and high head. Males have a prominent and mobile larynx (Adam’s apple) and a brush of hairs from the elongated penis sheath. The rump patch is conspicuous, white with a black upper edge. The tail is relatively long, black above and white below. The tail and the black stripe bordering the rump patch form an inverted anchor. The summer coat is typically reddish-brown, with white spots on the back and the upper half of the flanks; the underside of the head and neck and the lower parts of the legs are whitish, the chest and the belly are white; a black dorsal stripe extends from the nape to the end of the tail; a horizontal white line borders the middle of the flank and an oblique line fringes the rear portion of the haunch. The winter coatis gray-brown, with spots barely detectable or absent. Three other color variants are commonly observed: “menil” (a paler coat pattern retaining spots in winter), black (actually dark brown), and white. Molts in May-June and September—October. Newborn fawns are spotted. Preorbital, front and rear interdigital, metatarsal and (in males) preputial glands are present. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth; molars erupt at 5-22 months of age. Antlers of adult bucks (four years and older) are typically well palmated; above the trez tine the beam develops a broad thin palm with terminal short points (spellers). Pedicles begin to grow at 7-9 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are always spikers, with antlers 5-20 cm long. At 7-10 years antlers attain their full size. Adult antlers are on average 50-65 cm long, with records of 80-86 cm. Velvet shedding occurs in August, antler casting mainly in April. Antler regression usually occurs at 13-14 years of age, sometimes as early as ten years. Hooves are elongated and pointed, 8 cm long in adult bucks and 5-6 cm in does, with toe pads covering almost half of the hoof.</p><p>Habitat. Very flexible, it is often associated with open broadleaved woodlands with adjacent open ground, but it can also live in conifer plantations or Mediterranean scrubs. Cold temperatures and long-lasting snow cover are limiting factors. Up to 800-1000 m above sea level in the Alps and Apennines, up to 1500 m and more in the Pyrenees.</p><p>Food and Feeding. As an intermediate feeder with a relatively large rumen, it is a preferential grazer, feeding on grass and ground vegetation among trees, and herbs and forbs in neighboring fields. In Mediterranean habitats browsing leaves and buds of shrubs and trees may become particularly important.</p><p>Breeding. Most females attain puberty at 16 months of age; the minimum body weight compatible with reproduction is low, around 32 kg. Bucks reach physiological sexual maturity at about 16 months of age, but do not begin to mate before 3-4 years of age. Rutting season is in October. Does are polyestrous, with cycles of 22 days and a receptive time of only 15 hours. Males move into female areas and start competing to establish display grounds. Bucks are particularly flexible in adopting mating strategies. The most frequent one seems to be the defense of a single permanent territory, with males establishing non-contiguous rutting stands. But at least six other mating systems have been documented: temporary defense of stands, multiple stands (2-3 bucks in contiguous territories), leks (collective arenas with 5-25 bucks in symbolic display territories of few square meters), harem defense, multimale dominance groups (with the highest-ranking buck tolerating other males but achieving most matings) and following (pursuing single estrous does). Rutting bucks emit a series of repeated short groans up to exhaustion; they lose as much as 15-20% of their pre-rut weight. The gestation lenght is generally 229-234 days. Fawning season peaks in late May—early June. Does give birth to one fawn, weighing on average 4-5 kg; male offspring are about 10% heavier than females. After ten days the fawn accompanies its mother. Allosucking, i.e. mothers permitting fawns of other females to nurse, has been observed. Weaning occurs at 8-9 months of age. Bucks reach their full body weight at 5-6 years of age, and does attain final size at 3—4 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 15-16 years, with records of 20 years. Maximum longevity in captivity is 25 years of age. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) are the main predators.</p><p>Activity patterns. It is active all day, alternating 6-8 periods of feeding, ruminating, resting, and moving. More diurnal when it is less disturbed, more crepuscular when disturbance is high.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Common Fallow deer walk and trot; pronking is exhibited when alarmed. They are able to jump to 1-7-2 m. They tend to have relatively small home ranges, generally of 70-200 ha. Home ranges can overlap extensively. It is a social species. The basic unit is the family group, one or two adult females with their fawns of the current year and yearling does. Female groups are tolerant and open and can coalesce in larger herds. Males are solitary or form less stable bachelor groups. Groupsize varies according to the habitat, being larger in more open environments. Transitory aggregations of up to 200 animals are sometimes observed in open land on feeding grounds. Males and females tend to live apart most ofthe year.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and increasing. It is rare and with a very restricted present range in its original post-glacial refugium in south-western Turkey, limited to the Termessos National Park near Antalya. The Greek island of Rhodes hosts a small ancient introduced population. In Europe it is a very common species, with a discontinuous range; in 1975 it numbered about 120,000 individuals, increased to 530,000 in 2005; about 162,000 are annually harvested.</p><p>Bibliography. Apollonio, Andersen &amp; Putman (2010), Apollonio, Festa-Bianchet et al. (1992,), Chapman, D.I. &amp; Chapman, N.G. (1975), Chapman, N.G. &amp; Chapman, D.l. (1980), Langbein &amp; Putman (1992), Langbein &amp; Thirgood (1989), Langbein et al. (2008), McElligot &amp; Hayden (2000), Siefke &amp; Stubbe (2008), Ueckerman &amp; Hansen (1994).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFCCFFCDFF03F872E062F40B	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFCCFFCEFA74F388E498F98A.text	03A087C4FFCCFFCEFA74F388E498F98A.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Dama mesopotamica (Brook 1875)	<div><p>18.</p><p>Persian Fallow Deer</p><p>Dama mesopotamica</p><p>French: Daim de Perse / German: Mesopotamien-Damhirsch / Spanish: Gamo persa</p><p>Other common names: Mesopotamian Fallow Deer</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus mesopotamicus Brooke, 1875,</p><p>Iran.</p><p>It has often been considered a subspecies of the Common Fallow Deer ( D. dama). The northern part of the distribution was contiguous to the refugium range of the Common Fallow Deer. Monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. Iran and Israel (reintroduced). The map includes both the native relict population and the reintroduced ones.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 180-190 cm for males (adult bucks), 160-170 cm for females (does), tail 16-20 cm, shoulder height 100-110 cm (bucks), 90 cm (does); weight 120-140 kg (adult bucks) and 70-80 kg (adult does). Adult bucks are on average 50% heavier than does. Larger than the Common Fallow Deer, with minor differences in the color pattern of the coat and a distinct antler conformation. The dark upper edge of the rump patch is less developed and the shorter tail appears whitish except for the dark medial line, which is very thin. The naked rhinarium has a slightly different shape. The antlers are shorter, about 50-55 cm long, more robust, with a very short brow tine, a bez tine and a trez tine; some flattening is present in the lower half of the beam.</p><p>Habitat. The relict population in south-western Iran occurs in riparian woods of poplars, willows, and tamarisk.</p><p>Food and Feeding. As an intermediate feeder living in thickets and scrublands it is probably more a browser of leaves and buds.</p><p>Breeding. Rutting season in south-west Iran peaks in late August-September, with most of the births in March. Antler casting peaks in late February—early March.</p><p>Activity patterns. It is mainly crepuscular and nocturnal.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Mainly solitary or lives in small groups.</p><p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Originally its range included Palestine, Syria, Iraq, and Iran, and it was introduced into Cyprus about 8300 years ago. It has been represented in Assyrian and ancient Persian bas-reliefs and in an Armenian carpet. The two remnant wild populations (in Dez and in Karkeh Wildlife Refuges, south-west Iran) are on the verge of extinction, numbering a few dozen animals. Predators include Striped Hyenas (Hyaena hyaena), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), and feral dogs. The populations in enclosures in North Iran and in Israel, a total of about 700 individuals, are slightly increasing.</p><p>Bibliography. Bar-David et al. (2005), Chapman &amp; Chapman (1975), Haltenorth (1959), Jantschke (1990), Masseti et al. (2008), Rabiei (2008), Uerpmann (1987).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFCCFFCEFA74F388E498F98A	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFCFFFCEFF42F83FE173F8E8.text	03A087C4FFCFFFCEFF42F83FE173F8E8.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Rusa unicolor (Kerr 1792)	<div><p>19.</p><p>Sambar</p><p>Rusa unicolor</p><p>French: Cerf sambar / German: Sambar / Spanish: Sambar</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus unicolor Kerr, 1792,</p><p>Sri Lanka.</p><p>Deer of this genus are characterized by deep lachrymal pits, robust rugose threetined antlers, dark coat, and relatively long tail. Current Sambar originated in early to middle Pleistocene, possibly from R. hilzheiment. Five subspecies are recognized.</p><p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p><p>R.u.unicolorKerr,1792—India,Nepal,Bhutan,Bangladesh,andSriLanka.</p><p>R.u.brooketHose,1893—Borneo.</p><p>R.u.cambojensisGray,1861—mainlandSEAsia,fromSChina(includingHainanI)andMyanmartoMalayPeninsula.</p><p>R.u.equinaG.Cuvier,1823—Sumatra,andseveralsmallerassociatedIs.</p><p>R. u. swinhoer Sclater, 1862 — Taiwan.</p><p>Introduced to Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and USA.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 160-210 cm, tail 25-33 cm, shoulder height 110-160 cm; weight of males 180-270 kg (up 350 kg) and of females 130-230 kg (90 kg in Taiwan). Large-sized deer with relatively large ears, bushy, blackish long tail; males with short pedicles and long, massive, and rugose antlers. The coat is brown with shaggy and coarse hairs. The belly is darker than the back. Females have paler coats. Newborn fawns are unspotted. Both sexes have a throat mane. Preorbital, metatarsal, and caudal glands are present. The preorbital gland is conspicuous and eversible. There is a “sore spot” on the throat, presumably a dermal gland associated with rut. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Molars erupt at 2-30 months. Antlers of adults are three-tined, with a long, acutely angled brow tine and a high second point that with the main beam forms a terminal fork. Antlers are generally 70-100 cm long (45 cm in Taiwan), but records of 120-128 cm are known. The first antler set develops in yearling stags and consists of two spikes. Subadults 2-3 years old have two-tined antlers consisting of the main beam and a brow tine; the surface is smooth. Maximum antler size is attained at 7-10 years of age. The peak of antler casting occurs in January-February in Taiwan, in April-May in Bandipur (India), and in summer in Rajastan. In Nepal stags in hard antlers are seen during any month of the year.</p><p>Habitat. It occurs in a variety of forest habitats, from arid, dry, and moist deciduous forests, to pine and oak forests and evergreen forests at tropical latitudes, and also in montane woodlands of temperate latitudes. It seems to prefer well-watered moist deciduous forests on hilly terrain. It occurs up to 3800 m above sea level.</p><p>Food and Feeding. It is basically a grass-roughage feeder and tends to graze green grass, but itis very flexible and may switch to browse leaves, buds, flowers, and fruit. In India it has been recorded eating 130-180 species of plants.</p><p>Breeding. Females attain puberty at 18-24 months of age; in captivity, with high levels of nutrition puberty can occur at seven months of age. Males begin to reproduce at four years of age. Hinds are polyestrous, with a mean estrous length of 18 days. After a gestation of 248-259 days hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 5-9 kg. Mating occurs at least seven months of the year, with a peak in October-December. In Taiwan, at temperate latitudes, the rutting season is from June to January with a peak in August—October. Stags do not defend a harem of hinds; groups of males aggregate temporarily with female groups, establishing a hierarchy of access to receptive females, with subadults at the periphery. Males thrash vegetation with their antlers, wallow, rub their necks on trunks, scrape large stomping grounds, and urinate. Calves remain hidden in thick vegetation for their first three months. Sambar live to a maximum of 17-24 years of age, in captivity up to 26-28 years. Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (P. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators. Sambar readily face wild predators defensively, exhibiting a low-head posture, stomping, and barking.</p><p>Activity patterns. It is mainly crepuscular and nocturnal and spends a total of 4-6 hours per day feeding.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Males have home ranges of about 4-15 km?, females of 2-3 km? males are more mobile, especially during the long rutting season, when they visit different female groups. In mountainous areas deer may descend in winter to lower elevations. The Sambar is a barely social species. Females form small family groups, often consisting of a mother, the young-of-the-year, and a female yearling. Adult males are mainly solitary. Subadult males sometimes form small groups close to females. Aggregations of more than ten animals are seen during the monsoon season in foraging areas and in summer near waterholes. In Sri Lanka, with higher food availability, groups of 30-40 animals are regularly observed.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List for the rapid decline of the last thirty years. It is rare in Bangladesh, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam, and it is decreasing in Cambodia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo. More stable in India and Nepal and slightly increasing in Taiwan, where hunting has been banned since 1989. Habitat encroachment and overhunting continue to represent the main threats.</p><p>Bibliography. Acharjyo (1982), Geist (1998), Johnsingh &amp; Sankar (1991), Leslie (2011), Ngampongsai (1987), Sankar &amp; Acharya (2004b), Schaller (1967).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFCFFFCEFF42F83FE173F8E8	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFCFFFCFFAB4F8EDE779FD39.text	03A087C4FFCFFFCFFAB4F8EDE779FD39.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Rusa timorensis (Blainville 1822)	<div><p>20.</p><p>Javan Deer</p><p>Rusa timorensis</p><p>French: Cerf de Timor / German: Mahnenhirsch / Spanish: Sambar de Java</p><p>Other common names: Maned Sambar, Rusa Deer, Sunda Sambar, Timor Deer</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus timorensis de Blainville, 1822,</p><p>Timor Island.</p><p>Seven subspecies are usually recognized, but their legitimacy is debatable.</p><p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p><p>R.t.timorensisdeBlainville,1822—TimorI.</p><p>R.t.djongaVanBemmel,1949-MunaandButonIs.</p><p>R.t.flovesiensisHeude,1897—Flores1.</p><p>R.t.macassaricaHeude,1896—Sulawesi.</p><p>R.t.moluccensisQuoy&amp;Gaimard,1830—MoluccanIs.</p><p>R.t.renschiSody,1932—Bali.</p><p>R. t. russa Muller &amp; Schlegel, 1845 — Java.</p><p>Possibly it is native only to Java and Bali islands, introduced into Lombok, Flores, Sumbawa, Sumba, Timor, Sulawesi, and Moluccan Islands in ancient times. It was introduced during the last centuries in many locations, including New Guinea, Aru Islands, New Britain Is, Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Mauritius, and Comoro Is. The map represents the native range and the oldest introductions.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 150-180 cm (males) and 140-170 (females), tail 25 cm, shoulder height 95-110 cm (males) and 85-100 (females); weight of males 70-135 kg and of females 50-90 kg. Males are 40-70% heavier than females. Medium-sized deer with relatively long and narrow tail; males have relatively slender and less rugose antlers, with a brow tine pointing forward and a trez tine in a median position. Males develop a conspicuous neck mane. The coat is dark brown to graybrown. Underparts are paler than back. Females are paler than males. Newborn fawns are unspotted. Adult antlers are 50-80 cm long, with records of 95 cm. Antler casting peaks in December—January, velvet shedding in May-June. Pedicles begin to grow at about 5-9 months of age. The first antler set begins to develop at 7-11 months of age.</p><p>Habitat. It is basically a tropical grassland species, but very adaptable, with populations living in forests, shrubs, and marshes, from sea level to 900 m above sea level.</p><p>Food and Feeding. It has an extensive diet, feeding on grasses, herbs, leaves, and bark.</p><p>Breeding. Females attain puberty at 7-15 months of age. Males are able to reproduce at about 24 months of age. Hinds are polyestrous, with a mean estrous length of 18 days. Javan Deer seems to breed at any time of the year, with a rutting peak from June to September. After a gestation of 249-253 days hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3-5 kg. The Leopard (Panthera pardus) is the main predator.</p><p>Activity patterns. It is primarily diurnal.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. It is a gregarious species, with males and females forming distinct groups except during the rutting season. Herds may comprise up to 25 individuals.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. It may be locally common, but the global trend in its native range is negative, due to habitat loss, habitat degradation, and poaching.</p><p>Bibliography. de Garine-Wichatitsky et al. (2005), Hedges et al. (2008), Van Mourik (1986), Woodford &amp; Dunning (1992).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFCFFFCFFAB4F8EDE779FD39	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFCEFFCFFF0CFCBEE5FAF800.text	03A087C4FFCEFFCFFF0CFCBEE5FAF800.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Rusa alfredi (Sclater 1870)	<div><p>21.</p><p>Philippine Spotted Deer</p><p>Rusa alfredi</p><p>French: Cerf d'Alfred / German: Prinz-Alfred-Hirsch / Spanish: Sambar manchado de Filipinas</p><p>Other common names: Prince Alfred's Sambar, Visayan Spotted Deer</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus alfredi Sclater, 1870,</p><p>Philippines.</p><p>This species has been treated for decades as a dwarf island form of R. unicolor . The scientific name refers to Prince Alfred, son of Queen Victoria, who sent a specimen to P. L. Sclater. Monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. Panay and Negros Is, in W Visayas, Philippines.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 130 cm, tail 12 cm, shoulder height 65-75 cm; weight of males around 40 kg. Small to medium-sized deer with a narrow skull and pointed face. Ears relatively small. Fur fine, soft, and dense. The coat is dark brown with beige and whitish spots and a blackish spinal band. Head and neck darker, underparts cream. White on chin and lowerlip. Antlers of adults three-tined and 25 cm in lenght.</p><p>Habitat. It is now restricted to steep slopes of dipterocarp forests.</p><p>Food and Feeding. It feeds on leaves, buds, forbs, young grasses, and fruits.</p><p>Breeding. Females attain puberty at about twelve months of age. Breeding occurs all year. Mating season peaks in November-December, births in May-June. Gestation is around 240 days. Females give birth to a single fawn.</p><p>Activity patterns. Mainly nocturnal.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. It is not very social, with males mostly solitary and females with their fawns.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Hunting and logging for plantations and agriculture have drastically fragmented its range and decreased its population.</p><p>Bibliography. Cox (1987), Grubb &amp; Groves (1983), Oliver et al. (1991).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFCEFFCFFF0CFCBEE5FAF800	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFCEFFCFFA74FEBDEC37F801.text	03A087C4FFCEFFCFFA74FEBDEC37F801.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Rusa marianna (Desmarest 1822) Desmarest 1822	<div><p>22.</p><p>Philippine Brown Deer</p><p>Rusa marianna</p><p>French: Cerf des Philippines / German: Philippinen-Hirsch / Spanish: Sambar de Filipinas</p><p>Other common names: Philippine Deer, Philippine Sambar</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus mariannus Desmarest, 1822,</p><p>Mariana Islands (introduced).</p><p>Previously included in R. unicolor . Three subspecies are recognized.</p><p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p><p>R.m.mariannaDesmarest,1822—Luzon|andassociatedsmallerIs.</p><p>R.m.barandanaHeude,1888—MindoroI.</p><p>R. m. nigella Hollister, 1813 — Mindanao, Basilan, Samar, and Leyte Is.</p><p>In addition to its native range, introduced populations of this species are found on the islands of Guam, Saipan and Rota in the Mariana Is and Pohnpei in the Caroline Is. The Philippine Brown Deer was also introduced to the Japanese Bonin Islands, where it later became extinct.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 140 cm, tail 8-12 cm, shoulder height 55-70 cm; weight 40-60 kg. Small to medium-sized dark brown deer with an unspotted coat, darker above, paler on underparts and on legs. Fawns unspotted soon after birth. Very small ears. Adults have relatively short three-tined antlers, 20-40 cm in length. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth (upper canines absent). Broad lower central incisors and narrow lateral incisiform canines.</p><p>Habitat. It formerly occurred in primary and secondary forests up to 2900 m above sea level, including wooded lowlands and forested slopes.</p><p>Food and Feeding. Philippine Brown Deer generally favor forest edges or clearings, browsing on a variety of vegetation such as grasses, leaves, fallen fruit, and berries. In areas where it has been introduced, the Philippine Brown Deer causes significant damage to indigenous ecosystems, preventing forest regeneration as well as eating large amounts of crops.</p><p>Breeding. Breeding most commonly occurs from September to January, with females giving birth to a single fawn marked with pale spots, which disappear after a few weeks.</p><p>Activity patterns. The Philippine Brown Deer becomes active in the evenings and continues to feed throughout the night until dawn. They spend most of the day resting, hidden in dense vegetation.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. During the mating season, females may form small groups of up to eight individuals, but the males remain solitary and are aggressive.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red Lust. It is declining throughout most of its range, due to hunting and deforestation. The Mindoro population is severely threatened by habitat loss. Despite portions of this species’ range being located in protected areas in the Philippines, poor enforcement allows widespread illegal logging activity, mining, and conversion of land to agriculture.</p><p>Bibliography. Grubb &amp; Groves (1983), Oliver, MacKinnon, Ong &amp; Gonzales (2008), Wemmer (1998).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFCEFFCFFA74FEBDEC37F801	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFCBFFCAFF6EFE2CEC70F9A5.text	03A087C4FFCBFFCAFF6EFE2CEC70F9A5.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Cervus nippon Temminck 1838	<div><p>23.</p><p>Sika Deer</p><p>Cervus nippon</p><p>French: Cerf sika / German: Sikahirsch / Spanish: Sika</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus mnippon Temminck, 1838,</p><p>Japan.</p><p>The first true members of the genus Cervus probably appeared in Central Asia and then in Europe during early Pliocene, about 3-5 million years ago. Sika Deer originated in the early Middle Pleistocene in northern China, shifting southward during glaciations. Genetic research has found two lineages, a northern one and a southern one, present both on the mainland and in Japan. Japan was colonized in two different invasions, one by the northern group, possibly via the Sakhalin land bridge, and one by the southern group via the Korean land bridge. Sika Deer have a long tradition of human manipulation (through farming, artificial selection, and translocations). Traditional taxonomy considers at least ten subspecies, whose validity is questionable.</p><p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p><p>C.n.nipponTemminck,1838—SJapan(SHonshu,Shikoku,Kiushu,NRyukyu,andseveralsmallerassociatedIs).</p><p>C.n.centralisKishida,1936—CJapan(N&amp;CHonshu).</p><p>C.n.grassianusHeude,1884—NChina(Shanxi);possiblyextinctinthewild.</p><p>C.n.kopschiSwinhoe,1873—SEChina.</p><p>C.n.mandarinusMilne-Edwards,1871—NChina(Hebei&amp;Shandong);possiblyextinctinthewild.</p><p>C.n.mantschuricusSwinhoe,1864—Ussuriland(RussianFarEast),NEChina(Heilongjiang),andpossiblyNorthKorea.</p><p>C.n.pseudaxisGervais,1841—NVietnam;probablyextinctinthewild.</p><p>C.n.sichuanicusGuo,Cheng&amp;Wang,1978—SWChina(Sichuan&amp;Gansu).</p><p>C.n.taiouanusBlyth,1860—Taiwan.</p><p>C. n. yesoensis Heude, 1884 — N Japan (Hokkaido).</p><p>It was anciently introduced to Solo I (Philippines) and in 17" century to Kerama Is (Ryukyu Is, Japan). Also introduced in 19" and 20" centuries into British Is, mainland Europe (Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Poland, western Russia, and Ukraine), Armenia, Azerbaijan, Madagascar, New Zealand, and USA.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head body 120-190 cm for males (stags) and 110-160 cm for females (hinds), tail 10-18 cm, shoulder height 65-115 cm (stags) and 60-95 cm (hinds); weight of adult stags 30-140 kg and adult hinds 20-90 kg. The heaviest animals occur in Ussuriland and Hokkaido (with records of 176 kg for stags and 108 kg for hinds), the lightest in southern Japan. Adult stags are on average 40-70% heavier than hinds. Sika Deer of the northern lineage are larger than those of the southern one. Medium-sized deer with a slightly stocky appearance and a relatively short head. The rump patch is white outlined in black and can be flared as an alarm signal. The tail is white dorsally, often with a thin medial black line. The summer coat is chestnut, with distinct white spots. The winter coat is gray or almost black, and males have a neck mane. Molts in April-May and September—October. Newborn calves are spotted. Preorbital, metatarsal, and subcaudal glands are present. Preorbitals produce a milky fluid. Metatarsals are whitish or grayish, very distinct on the hocks. Sika Deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Teeth erupt at 4-21 months of age. Antlers of adult stags are typically four-pronged, with a basal (brow) tine, a trez tine, and a terminal fork. The crown is very rarely present, and the bez tine is always absent. In small-sized populations adult stags have three-tined antlers. Pedicles begin to grow at 6-7 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are typically “spikers,” with unbranched antlers 7-15 cm long. At 6-7 years antlers of Sika Deer attain their full size. Antlers of adults are on average 30-75 cm long, but there are records of 98 cm for antler beam length. In adult stags velvet shedding occurs in late August—early September, antler casting in April-May.</p><p>Habitat. Typical of woodland with dense undergrowth and adjacent open ground. It is sensitive to snow depth; more than 40 cm is limiting. Up to 3000 m above sea level.</p><p>Food and Feeding. It is a mixer feeder with a tendency to graze graminoids and other coarse plants such as dwarf bamboo, but it exhibits large variation in the diet. In central and southern Japan the deer mainly browse on evergreen broadleaved plants. In winter they also eat fruits and seeds.</p><p>Breeding. Females tend to reach puberty at 16-18 months of age. Stags generally begin to compete for access to females when they are 4-5 years old. Rutting season peaks between September and October. Females have estrous cycles of 18-20 days and receptive periods of 12-36 hours. Stags may adopt different mating strategies; they can defend rutting territories, collect a harem, or enter the female range and pursue estrous hinds. Cases of lekking behavior have been reported in introduced populations in Central Europe. Rutting stags scar tree trunks, making vertical grooves; they thrash the ground and the vegetation and emit a quite distinctive call, a repeated high-pitched whistle. During rut stags lose 25% of their weight on average. The gestation length is generally 222-237 days and calving season peaks in May-June. Hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3-7 kg on average, depending on the subspecies. At about ten days of age the calf begins to eat its first solid food. Lactation lasts about six months. Stags reach their full weight at about 6-8 years of age, hinds at 3-5 years. Normally they live a maximum of 15-16 years. In captivity they reach a maximum longevity of 25 years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) are the main predators; in the Ussuriland of eastern Siberia they may be preyed upon by Tigers (Panthera tigris) and Leopards (P. pardus).</p><p>Activity patterns. Peaks of activity are at dawn and dusk.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. It is a short-winded saltatorial species. Normal jumps are 3-4 m in length, maximum up to 8 m in length and 1-7 m in height. In sedentary populations home ranges are usually 10-50 ha, but larger if food resources decline. In mountainous areas Sika Deer tend to be migratory, moving to lower elevation during winter, covering mean distances of 35 km between summer and winter ranges. It is a moderately social species, living in small groups or solitarily. Sexes are strongly segregated. Hinds and their offspring form family groups; males are often alone or in small fluid bands. Temporary associations can be observed in favored feeding areas.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and increasing, but this is mostly due to the overabundant Japanese population. The Russian population in Ussuri is stable at 8500-9000 animals. In South Korea it is extinct, in North Korea very rare or extinct. In Taiwan it became extinct in the wild in 1969; it was reintroduced with captive animals in 1988-1989 and is now stable. In Vietnam it is extinct in the wild and very rare in zoos and collections. In China there are a few small, scattered populations. According to one source there are fewer than 1000 Sika Deer in China and all populations are declining. Another survey gives a total of 8500 animals in eight provinces. The dramatic decline of the Sika Deer in continental Asia is a consequence of overhunting (for meat and hides, but also for antler velvet, blood, organs) and habitat loss. Three subspecies are possibly extinct in the wild: grassianus, mandarinus, and pseudoaxis. The population estimates for some introduced populations in 2005 were 25,000 individuals for Ireland and 27,000 for Great Britain.</p><p>Bibliography. Apollonio et al. (2010), Bartos et al. (1998), Baskin &amp; Danell (2003), Feldhamer (1980), Feldhameret al. (1985), Geist (1998), Groves (2006), Groves &amp; Smeenk (1978), Hayden et al. (1994), Lu Xiaoping et al. (2006), McCullough et al. (2009), Miura (1984), Putman (2008), Suzuki et al. (2001), Zejda &amp; Babicka (1983).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFCBFFCAFF6EFE2CEC70F9A5	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFCBFFCBFA6BF91EE77CFCB3.text	03A087C4FFCBFFCBFA6BF91EE77CFCB3.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Cervus wallichii G. Cuvier 1823	<div><p>24.</p><p>Central Asian Red Deer</p><p>Cervus wallichii</p><p>French: Cerf de Wallich / German: China-Rothirsch / Spanish: Ciervo asiatico</p><p>Other common names: Hangul (hangl/u), MacNeill's Red Deer (macneilli), Shou (wallichii)</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus wallichii G. Cuvier, 1823,</p><p>Lake Mansarovar (S Tibet).</p><p>For decades the red deer complex, including European and North African Red Deer ( C. elaphus), Central Asian Red Deer ( C. wallichii), and Eastern Asian and North American Wapiti (C. canadensis), was considered as only one species. Several genetic studies have recently tried to clarify the taxonomy of this species complex, but their results are not always concordant. Two or three main clades are genetically distinguishable. C. wallichii is the most primitive representative of the red deer complex lineage. The scientific name refers to the Danish naturalist N. Wallich, who was superintendent of the Botanical Garden of the East India Company in Calcutta. Here three subspecies are recognized.</p><p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p><p>C.w.wallichi:G.Cuvier,1823—SWChina(SEXizang),Bhutan.</p><p>C.w.hangluWagner,1844—NIndia(Kashmir).</p><p>C. w. macneilli Lydekker, 1909 —C &amp; SW China (N Qinghai, Gansu, Shaanxi, W Sichuan &amp; E Xizang).</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 190-205 cm for males (stags) and 180-195 cm for females (hinds), tail length 8-12 cm, shoulder height 125-145 cm (stags) and 110-120 cm (hinds); weight of stags 150-240 kg and hinds 110-170 kg. Large-sized deer, with basically a five-tined antler plan, large ears, a short neck mane, a shorttail, massive haunches, and large broad hooves. The rump patch and the tail coloration vary among subspecies. Antlers tend to have a terminal transverse fork and a well-developed bez tine. The “Hangul” (hanglu) has a small rump patch bordered below by a broad black band and a dark tail. The belly is whitish, legs and chest are dark. The “Shou” ( wallichii) seems to have a rump patch of variable size, often divided by a dark line. Thetail is whitish. The belly is gray, the lips are pale gray. “MacNeill’s Red Deer” (macneilli) has a narrow white rump patch that expands dorsally into a broad black croup patch, and a dark tail. The lips are gray-brown. This subspecies often has six-tined antlers.</p><p>Habitat. Hanguls live in moist temperate forest. Shous occur in scrublands and alpine grasslands at 4300-4900 m above sea level. MacNeill’s Red Deeris found in montane conifer forest, willow-rhododendron scrublands, and alpine meadows.</p><p>Food and Feeding. As mixed feeders they may graze grasses and forbs, then turn to browsing leaves and twigs.</p><p>Breeding. The rutting call begins as a roar but ends in a Wapiti-like bugle. The calving season of the Hangul peaks in July-August.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. They are saltatorial, able to move with agility on steep slopes in scrub vegetation. They are gregarious, with large family groups. The rare Shou has been seen recently in herds of up to 55 animals.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Hangul CITES Appendix I. Considered a subspecies of the C. elaphus complex by IUCN and thus not evaluated on The IUCN Red Lust. It is a very rare species, possibly threatened, the Hangul declined from 2000 animals in 1947 to less than 200 animals in the early 1970s, then increased to 1000 by 1989, but dropped again to 150-200 in the last decade. The Shou was considered extinct and rediscovered in a few localities of south-east Tibet (Xizang) in 1995. The status of MacNeill’s Red Deer is unknown. Poaching and pressure from stock grazing continue to be significant threats.</p><p>Bibliography. Dolan (1988), Dolan &amp; Killmar (1988), Geist (1998), Groves (2003, 2006), Schaller (1998), Wemmer (1998).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFCBFFCBFA6BF91EE77CFCB3	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFCAFFD4FF0CFC38E54BFAB5.text	03A087C4FFCAFFD4FF0CFC38E54BFAB5.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Cervus elaphus Linnaeus 1758	<div><p>25.</p><p>Western Red Deer</p><p>Cervus elaphus</p><p>French: Cerf élaphe / German: Rothirsch / Spanish: Ciervo</p><p>Other common names: Barbary Red Deer (barbarus), Bukhara Red Deer (bactrianus), Caspian Red Deer/Maral (maral), Tarim Red Deer (yarkandensis), Thyrrenian Red Deer (corsicanus)</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758,</p><p>Sweden.</p><p>Red deer appeared in Europe in late Early Pleistocene, about 900,000 years ago. They were large-sized deer bearing five-tined antlers with a terminal fork, replaced in Middle Pleistocene by deer characterized by antlers with a terminal crown. For decades the red deer complex, including European and North African Red Deer ( C. elaphus), Central Asian Red Deer ( C. wallichii), and Eastern Asian and North American Wapiti (C. canadensis), was considered as only one species. The general body shape, the conspicuous rump patch, and the occurrence of the bez tine in the antler are common traits. But the various forms differ in many characteristics (degree of sexual dimorphism, coat coloration, antler conformation, behavior postures, vocalizations) and have only partial interfertility. Several genetic studies have recently tried to clarify the taxonomy of this species complex, but their results are not always concordant. Two or three main clades are genetically distinguishable. The analysis of mtDNA revealed in the western part of the distribution range three main lineages: a western one that during the last glacial maximum (about 20,000 years ago) survived in an ice-free refugium in Spain and southern France, an eastern one subsisting in South-eastern Europe (Carpathians and Balkans) and a third lineage possibly living then in Italy and now represented only by “Thyrrenian Red Deer” (corsicanus) and “Barbary Red Deer” (barbarus). With the end of the last glaciacion most of Europe was recolonized from the western refugium. It is probable that the Thyrrenian Red Deer derives from introductions by man from mainland Italy into Sardinia about 8000 years ago. Barbary Red Deer of North Africa, could have been translocated there in ancient times. Here six subspecies of Western Red Deer are recognized.</p><p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p><p>C.e.elaphusLinnaeus,1758—GreatBritainandcontinentalEurope.</p><p>C.e.bactrianusLydekker,1900—WTurkestan(Kazakhstan,Uzbekistan,Tajikistan&amp;NAfghanistan).</p><p>C.e.barbarusBennett,1833—AtlasMts(Algeria,Tunisia).</p><p>C.e.corsicanusErxleben,1777—Corsica(extinct,reintroducedin1985),Sardinia.</p><p>C.e.maralGray,1850—Anatolia,Caucasus,andNWIran.</p><p>C. e. yarkandensis Blanford, 1892 — E Turkestan (S Xinjiang, China).</p><p>It has been introduced into Chile, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 180-205 cm for males (stags) and 165-180 cm for females (hinds), tail 14-16 cm, shoulder height 105-130 cm (stags) and 95-115 cm (hinds); post-rutting weight of stags 110-220 kg and hinds 75-120 kg. The heaviest animals occur in the Carpathians and Bulgaria (with records of 350 kg lean weight for stags and 200 kg for hinds), the lightest in the Scottish Highlands, southern Spain, Sardinia, and Mesola Wood (Italian Peninsula). Adult stags are on average 50-70% heavier than hinds. Large-sized deer with large head and elongated snout. There are two main genetic groups: a western advanced one (typically with six-tined antlers with a terminal crown, from Europe to Iran) and an Asian primitive one (with five-tined antlers, from the Aral Sea to the Tarim Basin). The rump patch is relatively small, orange on the upper portion, whitish on the lower part, and bordered below in dark brown. The tail is orange and relatively short. The summer coat is reddish or reddishbrown, with grayish legs and whitish belly. The winter coat is grayish-brown; adult stags have a thick neck mane and the belly is heavily stained black. Molts in April-May and September—October. Newborn calves have a brown coat with scattered white spots on the sides, which are lost after 2-3 months. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. The preorbitals are particularly well developed and open in young calves and in rutting stags. Red deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Permanent teeth erupt at 5-25 months of age. Antlers of adult stags are long, cylindrical, and typically well branched, with two basal tines (brow and bez) and a terminal cup-like “royal” crown or an upper fork. Pedicles begin to grow at 9-10 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are typically “spikers,” with unbranched antlers 5-40 cm long. At 8-13 years the antlers of Western Red Deer attain their full size. In high quality populations antlers are on average 90-105 cm long, with a brutto weight (antler pair plus skull) of 6.6-5 kg, but there are records of 130-140 cm for antler beam length and of 18-21 kg for trophy mass. There are normally 5-7 tines per antler beam, with records of 16 in the wild and 24 in parks. In less productive habitats (Scottish Highlands, Sardinia, Mesola Wood, North Africa) antlers are on average only 60-70 cm in length, with 3-4 tines per beam. In adult stags velvet shedding occurs in July, antler casting in late February-March. Antler regression occurs at 15-16 years of age, sometimes earlier. Hooves are 9-11 cm long in adult stags and 7-8 cm in hinds, with toe pads occupying one third of the hoof.</p><p>Habitat. Originally associated with the interface between woodland and grassland, but highly adaptable. It also lives in Mediterranean maquis scrub, in alpine summit meadows, and in the treeless moorlands of Scotland. It prefers broadleaved woodlands interspersed by large meadows. Up to 2800 m above sea level on the Alps. In west-central Asia it occurs in woody and shrubby thickets along riverbanks in desert areas.</p><p>Food and Feeding. As an intermediate feeder with a relatively large rumen,it tends to eat a mixed diet of about 30% grass and sedges and about 65% browse, without significant differences among seasons. Fruits and seeds are important items in autumn. It is a very versatile species, consuming up to 300 different species of plants. The two sexes tend to differ in diet composition, hinds eating higher quality food. Stags eat on average 14-16 kg and females around 9-10 kg offresh vegetation per day. Actual food intake follows appetite cycles related to photoperiod and hormones, which are highest in March—June and lowest in late September-December. Lactating hinds more than double their energy requirements.</p><p>Breeding. In good quality habitats most females attain puberty at 16 months of age. In less productive habitats sexual maturity may be postponed by at least one year. Stags reach puberty at about 16 months, but can actually begin to reproduce at five years of age. Rutting season is in September—October. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 18 days. During estrus they are receptive for only 6-24 hours. Conceptions are well synchronized, occurring for 80% of females within 3-4 weeks. Stags leave their summer quarters and move to their traditional rutting stands, where they try to collect and defend a harem against other stags. Competition among stags is high, with some failing completely to reproduce and others able to father up to a dozen or more calves in a season. Stags are involved in roaring contests, dominance displays, and overt fights, with a real risk of serious injury, or more rarely, death. During rut stags lose as much as 15-20% of their pre-rut weight and up to 80% of body fat. The mean length of gestation is 235 days. Before giving birth, hinds leave their group and move away from their usual core areas, looking for better cover. Calving season peaks in May-June. Hinds almost invariably give birth to one calf, which weighs on average 8-9 kg (about 6-5 kg in Scottish moorlands). Male calves are about 5% heavier than females. For the first 7-10 days calves are kept hidden, usually lying in tall vegetation, then begin to follow their mother. During the first few days calves are fed ten times a day. From five days to 90 days they are nursed eight times, and after that, four times a day. Lactating hinds produce 2-4 liters of milk per day, with a peak 50 days after parturition and a decline after three months. By 15-18 days of age calves have doubled their birth weight. They begin to ingest their first vegetation at ten days, and at one month they feed more regularly on plants. Weaning occurs at 6-9 months (November—February). Stags can typically breed for 3-5 years, peaking in Scotland at 7-10 years of age (possibly at 9-12 years in continental Europe). Hinds have a much longer reproductive life span, of up to 12-16 years. The sexes have also a differential pattern of body growth; stags do not reach their full body weight before 8-9 years of age, whereas hinds attain adult size at 3-6 years. Normally Western Red Deerlive to a maximum of 17-18 years, with records of 22 years for stags and 26 for hinds. Main predators are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx).</p><p>Activity patterns. It is active all the day, with peaks at dawn and in early evening, alternating 6-8 periods of foraging, ruminating, resting, and moving from place to place. It dedicates 7-12 hours to feeding. Human disturbance increases nocturnal activity.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Western Red Deer have home ranges of variable size, according to sex and habitat; sometimes they occupy only 2-5 km?, sometimes 8-40 km” and more. Adult stags tend to be more mobile and to have separate seasonal ranges. In mountains part of the population can be sedentary, part can make short distance movements, and part can be migratory, moving 10-60 km to reach lower pastures in the winter and high feeding areas in summer. Ranges are normally undefended. Red deer are social animals. The basic social unit is the matrilineal family group, with a dominant old hind associated with her daughters, granddaughters, and their dependent offspring. Stags segregate from hinds for most of the year and form small, less stable, bachelor bands. In woodlands, female family groups can split into smaller units; in open habitat they may unite with neighboring hind groups. During winter and early spring several groups can form temporary large aggregations in open ground.</p><p>Status and Conservation. “Bukhara Red Deer” (bactrianus) CITES Annex I and Barbary Red Deer CITES Annex III. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (under C. elaphus complex), but it can be considered as not currently at risk and globally increasing. During the 18" and the 19" century overhunting with modern weapons resulted in a drastic contraction of the distribution range and abundance in most parts of Europe. Strict rules for culling, the enforcement of laws with precise hunting seasons, and reintroductions combined to produce an increase in range and numbers. This has become particularly evident since the 1950s-1960s. At the beginning of the 20" century in the Italian Peninsula only a small population in the Po River delta (Mesola Wood) survived. Thanks to the natural recolonization from neighboring countries of the Alpine region and releases, in 1970 deer numbered 3000 individuals. The number grew to 41,000 in 2000 and 57,000 in 2005. In all of Europe, excluding Russia, Western Red Deer numbered 1-25 million individuals in 1985 and 2-4 million in 2005. The annual harvest grew in the same period from 270,000 to 500,000 individuals. Densities are normally 1-5 ind/km?, sometimes up to 15 ind/km?*; higher numbers often imply supplementary feeding. Densities are artificially raised to unnaturallevels (up to 100 ind/km?) to increase revenues from hunting. The Western Red Deeris extinct in Albania and in the Near East (Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Syria). Four subspecies are still rare: the Thyrrenian Red Deer, the Barbary Red Deer, the Bukhara Red Deer, and the “Tarim Red Deer” (yarkandensis). Thyrrenian Red Deer faced a dramatic decline in the 20™ century, disappearing from Corsica in 1969 and decreasing to a minimum population size of 100 animals in Sardinia in 1970. Deforestation,fires, and poaching with guns and snares were the main causes. Red Deer from Sardinia have recovered slowly, numbering 6000 animals in 2005. In 1985 a reintroduction program was started in Corsica. Barbary Red Deer became extinct in Morocco by 1932, and in early 1960 only a few dozen animals survived in forests in the Atlas Mountains between Algeria and Tunisia. More effective protection allowed a recovery in Algeria and Tunisia, and in 1994 a reintroduction was begun in Morocco. The Bukhara Red Deer originally lived in the basins of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers. Tree felling, cattle grazing, and overhunting led to a rapid decline during the 19" century. In early 1900 it disappeared from Syr Darya. In the mid-1960s the population reached a minimum of 350-400 animals; in the early 1980s it had grown to 1100. The Tarim Red Deer of Chinese Xinjiang had a declining population of 4000-5000 in 1991, scattered along the Tarim and Karakash rivers.</p><p>Bibliography. Apollonio et al. (2010), Butzler (1986), Carnevali et al. (2009), Clutton-Brock &amp; Albon (1989), Clutton-Brock et al. (1982), Danilkin (1999), Gebert &amp; Verheyden (2008), Gill (1990), Mattioli, Fico et al. (2003), Mattioli, Meneguz et al. (2001), von Raesfeld &amp; Reulecke (1988), Skog et al. (2009), Sommeret al. (2008), Staines et al. (2008), Wagenknecht (1986), Zachos &amp; Hartl (2011).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFCAFFD4FF0CFC38E54BFAB5	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFD5FFD4FF60FA22EFD5F46A.text	03A087C4FFD5FFD4FF60FA22EFD5F46A.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Cervus canadensis Erxleben 1777	<div><p>26.</p><p>Wapiti</p><p>Cervus canadensis</p><p>French: Cerf wapiti / German: Wapiti / Spanish: Uapiti</p><p>Other common names: Elk (in North America); Alashan Wapiti (alashanicus), lzubra/Manchurian Wapiti (xanthopygus), Merriam'’s Wapiti (merriami), Tule Elk (in California)</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus canadensis Erxleben, 1777,</p><p>E Canada.</p><p>Here four subspecies are recognized. Two subspecies (the Siberian and the American ones) are more advanced, more associated to open habitats, with longer antlers and more contrasted coat markings. Wapiti likely originated in Beringia (NE Siberia-Alaska) during the last glaciation and about 12,000 years ago migrated westward into south Siberia and eastward into North America.</p><p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p><p>C.c.canadensisErxleben,1777—NorthAmerica.</p><p>C.c.alashanicusBobrinskii&amp;Flerov,1935—NChina(HelanShanMts,Ningxia&amp;NeiMongol).</p><p>C.c.sibiricusSevertzov,1873—fromTienShantoAltaiandWBaikal(KirgyzstanandNXinjiangtoSSiberiaandNMongolia).</p><p>C. c. xanthopygus Milne-Edwards, 1867 — SW Siberia, Ussuriland, and Manchuria.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 210-240 cm for males (bulls) and 190-230 cm for females (cows), tail 10-16 cm, shoulder height 145-165 cm (bulls) and 130-150 cm (cows); postrutting weight 220-400 kg (bulls) and 150-250 kg (cows). The heaviest animals occur in southern Canada and northern USA (with records of 470-530 kg lean weight for bulls and 345 kg for cows), the lightest in Nei Mongol (Inner Mongolia), the Ussuri region, and California. Adult bulls are on average 30-60% heavier than cows. Large-sized deer with a large, pale rump patch extending into the croup, a short tail, and a six-tined antler plan. The color patterns of the coat and especially of the rump patch vary by subspecies. In the primitive “Alashan Wapiti” (alashanicus) the rump patch is white below and yellow-brown above, dorsally bisected by a dark stripe and laterally bordered by a dark rim that fades out in the upper portion; the tail is white and dark. In the other primitive subspecies, the “Izubra Wapiti” (xanthopygus) the rump patch is orange or reddish, laterally bordered on the lower half by a dark rim; the tail is orange. In the Siberian and North American advanced subspecies the large rump patch is pale yellowish, with a short tail of the same color. In advanced Wapiti both males and females develop a neck mane, with extentions onto the nape and the withers; the head, neck, and legs are dark and the back and flanks are paler in color. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. Red deer have a permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Molars erupt at 7-28 months of age. The antlers of stags are six-tined and are typically long, bending backward at the fourth tine (“dagger”). The terminal part of the beam branches serially. The third tine (trez) is relatively short, the fourth is long. Pedicles begin to grow at 9-10 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings may be “spikers” or may have forked or more complex antlers. At about ten years antlers attain their full size. They are on average 85-130 cm long, with a brutto weight (antler pair plus skull) of 6-12 kg, but there are records of 164 cm for antler beam length and of 19-24 kg for trophy mass. Relative antler mass is lower than in Western Red Deer ( C. elaphus). Wapiti rarely grow extra tines. In adult bulls velvet shedding occurs in August, antler casting in February— March. Hooves are 11-13 cm long in adult bulls and 10-12 cm in cows.</p><p>Habitat. Alashan and Izubra Wapitilive in forests; Siberian and North American Wapiti are adapted to open grasslands, prairies, and steppes. High flexibility and lack of competition have allowed North American Wapiti to colonize moist cold forests, dry conifer forests, mixed conifer-broadleaved forests, and chaparral scrub. Snow deeper than 70-75 cm is a limiting factor. Wapiti occur up to 1900 m above sea level in the Altai, 3300 m in the Alatau, and 3100 m in the Rocky Mountains.</p><p>Food and Feeding. It is mainly a grazer, feeding on grasses, sedges, and forbs and supplementing the diet with twigs and leaves in winter. Alashan and Izubra Wapiti tend to eat higher proportions of browse.</p><p>Breeding. Puberty may be attained by females at 16-28 months of age, depending on the physical condition. Males reach physiological sexual maturity at 16 months of age but usually begin to have a chance to breed when they are five years old. Rut occurs in September—October. Cows are seasonally polyestrous, with cycles of 21 days. Adult bulls move to the traditional rutting grounds and compete to defend a harem. Siberian and American bulls emit bugles, high-pitched rutting calls. Izubra bulls have a modified bugle with lower frequencies. Bulls spray urine on their chests, wallow, dig ground, and horn vegetation. The courtship posture is peculiar, with the head raised high and antlers tilted upwards. During the rut bulls lose up to 20% oftheir pre-rut body weight. The mean length of gestation is 247 days. Calving season peaks in May-June. Cows give birth to a single calf weighing 11-17 kg. Forthe first ten days calves are hidden and suckled 4-6 times a day. Weaning occurs at 6-9 months of age. Breeding life span in bulls is restricted to 3-5 years; cows may reproduce up to 12-16 years. Bulls do not reach their full body weight before 7-9 years of age, but cows attain adult size at 3-6 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 17-18 years. The main predator is the Gray Wolf (Canis lupus). Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) and (in North America) Pumas (Puma concolor) may prey on adults. Lynxes (Lynx spp.), Wolverines (Gulo gulo) and (in North America) Black Bears (U. americanus) and Coyotes (C. latrans) may kill calves.</p><p>Activity patterns. Active all the day with peaks at dawn and dusk.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. It is a cursorial long-legged deer, able to run at high speed in open ground. Bulls are more mobile than cows and have larger home ranges. In the mountains, some or all of the population may be migratory. Animals move 50-65 km on average from higher summer ranges to lower winter ranges. These seasonal migrations can be longer, up to 140 km in the Altai and Sayan Mountains and up to 130-180 km in the Rocky Mountains. Wapiti are social, with matrilinear family groups and small bands of bachelor bulls. In open ground, many groups form large aggregations, up to 400-500 animals in summer, up to 800-1500 in winter.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Until recently often considered a subspecies of the Red Deer and thus not evaluated on The IUCN Red List, but could be classified as not currently at risk and globally increasing. In North America from the second half of the 18" century to the late 19" century it was actively persecuted and disappeared from vast regions. In the early 1900sit reached the minimum population size, around 90,000 individuals. Active protection by means of national parks and refuges and law enforcement, and massive translocation programs, contributed to a recovery and range expansion. In the late 1980s the total population size was estimated at 800,000 animals; it grew to about one million in the late 1990s. Annual harvest in North America is around 200,000 individuals. Californian Wapiti, known as “Tule Elk,” had dropped to 2-5 individuals in 1875;strict protection and transplants contributed to the recovery of the population, which in 1971 numbered 500 animals in three herds and in 2010 numbered 3900 in 22 herds. In the late 1990s there were 8000-10,000 deer in Mongolia and around 160,000 in Siberia and Ussuriland. The status of Alashan Wapiti of northern China is unknown.</p><p>Bibliography. Baskin &amp; Danell (2003), Bender et al. (2003), Bender &amp; Haufler (1999), Boyce (1989), Boyce &amp; Hayden-Wing (1979), Crete &amp; Daigle (1999), Danilkin (1999), Flook (1970), Geist (1998), Gill (1990), Haigh (2001), McCullough (1969), Peek (2003), Struhsaker (1967), Thomas &amp; Toweill (1982), Wolfe (1982).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFD5FFD4FF60FA22EFD5F46A	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFD7FFD6FF5EFF4AE228F461.text	03A087C4FFD7FFD6FF5EFF4AE228F461.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Cervus albirostris Przewalski 1883	<div><p>27.</p><p>White-lipped Deer</p><p>Cervus albirostris</p><p>French cerf à museau blanc German Weißlippenhirsch Spanish Ciervo hociblanco Other common names Thoıold s Deer</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus albirostris Przewalski, 1883,</p><p>Nan Shan, Humboldt’s Mountains, bansu (.</p><p>is sometimes classiﬁed m4 distinct ge nus, Pnzuıalslıh Earlier thought to be related to sambaß (Rfßﬂ) › bl" “WTPVQlogical, behavioral, and geﬂﬂic 81141 'WS align this species with the red deu' clade. wzsﬁzzwwvzdbwzvﬂewzlsﬂ » Russian office.Fìttexplorer of Polish origin. in 1879. W. G. 'l'l\omld collected two i n' v specimens in 1891 and send them to Euro’): Distribution. E Tibetan Plateau (E Xizang. w Ggmurgnghah W “Chuan 8‘ Nwyunnan).</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body on average ioo cm for males (stags) and 180 cm for females (hinds), tail lengt 12-13 cm, shoulder height 120-130 cm (stags) and 110- 120 cm (hinds); weight 190-220 kg (stags) and 90-150 kg (hinds). Stags are on average 60% heavier than hinds. Large-sized deer with a large face and relatively short legs. The rump patch large and reddish. The tail relatively short. The ears are long, pointed, and fringed with white. Hooves are short and broad. The coat is grayish-brown; the muzzle, chin, and upper throat are white. There is a pale ring around the eyes. The pelage is stiff, thick, and coarse. Newborn calves are spotted; the spots fade precociously at 1 - 5 months of age. Preorbital and metatarsal glands are well developed. Pennanent dentition of 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Molars erupt at 3-30 months of age. Antlers of adult stags are long, typically with ﬁve points, a brow tine, a high trez tine, a dagger, and a tenninal fork. At full size the antler beam is 90-95 cm long. Yearling males are normally spikers, and subadults 2-3 years old are three- to four-tined. The largest antlers of adults have up to seven tines and are 130-133 cm long. ln adult stags velvet shedding occurs in September and antler rnclinrr in Mzffrhanﬁr Hıbitﬁt. lt is a high-elevation specialist, living in rhododendron scrub and alpine grasslands above spruce forests, at 3500-5100 m above sea level. The short legs, massive haunches, and broad hooves allow it to use steep terrain.</p><p>Food and Feeding. t is classiﬁed as an intermediated feeder, with a tendency to graze. prefers grasses and sedges but also eats leaves and shoots of woody plants. lts diet includes al least 95 species of plants.</p><p>Breeding. Females attain puberty at 18-30 months of age. Males reach sexual maturity at about 18 months but do not begin to reproduce before four years of age. Gestation is about 246 days. Rutting season peaks in October. Stagsjoin female groups and maintain microscale harems within the large mixed group or tend individual estrous hinds, without strong competition or oven aggression from other males. lnjune hinds separate themselves from the group and seek an isolated place to give birth. The newborns weigh about 9 kg and are precocial. Half an hour after birth they are able to stand up and within a couple of hours they begin to move away from the birth site. After two weeks calves follow their mothers and rejoin the group. Maximum known longevity in the wild is nine years for stags and twelve years for hinds. They can attain 19 years of age in captivity. Main predators are Gray Wolves (Cams lupus) and Snow Leopards (Panthera unria).</p><p>Activity patterns. 1t is diurnal and active all day, with peaks at dawn and dusk.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Thanks to its robust build and specialized hooves, it is very agile on steep terrain. t is also a good swimmer. 1 t has been described as a nomadic species, moving slowly across vast areas to feed and to shelter from harsh weather. In autumn the deer descend from high summer ranges to low winter ranges. highly gregarious, forming large herds of 25-35 individuals on average. Males and females tend to live separately for most of the year, mixed groups are mainly observed during the rutting season. Aggregations of up to 100-170 animals have been recorded in recent times and up to 800 were documented in the past.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classiﬁed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red Lust. Hunting, poaching, and competition with domestic stock (yaks, sheep, and goats) have dramatically reduced the distribution range and population size. Hunting has been prohibited since 1989. ln 1999 there were an estimated 15,800 individuals. A more recent estimate is around 7000 animals. Poaching for meat, antlers, and organs, and competition with livestock are still important threats.</p><p>Bibliography Harris (2008c) Harris 8i Loggers (2004) Hams 8i MIIer (1995) Kay at al (1993) Koizumi er al (1993) Lesley (2010), Mıura er al (1993) Schaller (1998) Sheng à Ohtaıshı (1993)</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFD7FFD6FF5EFF4AE228F461	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFD7FFD6FF5AF31CE147F72A.text	03A087C4FFD7FFD6FF5AF31CE147F72A.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Elaphurus davidianus Milne Edwards 1866	<div><p>28.</p><p>Pere David's Deer</p><p>Elaphurus davidianus</p><p>French ert du Père David Gaiman Davidshiisch Spenleh Ciervode Padre David</p><p>Taxonomy. Elaphurus davidíanus Milne Edwards, 1866,</p><p>Imperial Hunting Park near Peking.</p><p>The genus appeared in the Late Pliocene of China and japan. Some genetic studie have related to Ruœruus aldi. lts scientiﬁc and common names refer to Père A. David. French Lazarite missionary and naturalist. who was able to collect the ﬁrst skins in 1865. Monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. Reintroduced into E China since 1985; main inirocduced populations marked on the map.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-hody 195-210 cm for males (adult stags) and 180-190 cm for females (hinds), tail length 35 cm, shoulder height 120-140 cm (stags) and 110-120 cm (hinds); weight of 169-220 kg (stags) and 140-170 kg (hinds). Males are on average 40% heavier than females. A large-sized deer, with short neck, elongated and narrow head, large eyes, long legs, and long tail with a terminal tuft. The lachrymal pits are large. The permanent dentition is 34 teeth and the incisors are specialized for grazing. In summer, the coat is reddish-brown with a black dorsal stripe; the winter pelage is grayish-brown with the underside bright cream. Stags have a throat mane. Newborn calves are spotted. Only the preorbital gland is present. Males have very peculiar antlers, consisting of a very short basal beam and two shafts, an almost vertical branched foreshaft and a simpler, backward-pointing hindshaft with thorn-like snags Antler casting occurs in November—January, velvet shedding in April-May. Hooves are large and splayed.</p><p>Habitat. Plains, grasslands, and reed marshes.</p><p>Food and Feeding. It primarily feeds on grasses, reeds, and leaves.</p><p>Breeding. Females attain puberty at 14-26 months of age. They are seasonally nolyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 18-20 days. Stags begin to compete for reproduction at four years of age. Mating season occurs in june-August. Stags join the female groups and compete to defend a harem. They roar, adorn their antlers with soil and vegetation, spray urine, and wallow. At high density they may adopt a lekking behavior. A stag following an estrous hind makes slow, rhythmic left-right antler movements (“swaggering”). After a gestation of 283-287 days, hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 11-12 kg in March-April. The calf can stand after 40 minutes and nurses after one hour; it remains hidden for around five days. The white spots on its coat fade after two months. Weaning occurs at 6-10 months of age. Normally Pere David's Deer live to a maximum of 18 years of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 23 years.</p><p>Activity patterns. It is diurnal and crepuscular.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. It is very agile on moist ground and spends a lot of time in water. It can swim well. It is a social species, forming male and female groups. Mixed-sex groups are present only during the mating season.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Extinct in the Wild on The IUCN Red List. It became extinct a long time ago, perhaps 1800 years ago, and was preserved by the Chinese Emperor in his Imperial Hunting Park not far from Beijing. After the extermination of the last animals in the Hunting Park in 1900, the species was saved by a captive breeding program begun in England by the Duke of Bedford. In 1985-2002 the reintroduction into China took place. Currently, there are in China 53 herds, with a total of more than 2000 individuals. Four localities have the most numerous herds: Milu Park in Beijing, Dafeng Reserve, Tian’ezhou Wetland Reserve, and Yuanyang.</p><p>Bibliography. Beck &amp; Wemmer (1983), Geist (1998), Jiang Zigang et al. (2000), Schaller &amp; Hamer (1978), Wemmeret al. (1989), Zeng Yan et al. (2007).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFD7FFD6FF5AF31CE147F72A	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFD7FFD7FA41F652E52FF6B4.text	03A087C4FFD7FFD7FA41F652E52FF6B4.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Rucervus eldii (M'Clelland 1842)	<div><p>29.</p><p>Brow-antlered Deer</p><p>Rucervus eldii</p><p>French: Cerf d'Eld / German: Leierhirsch / Spanish: Ciervo de Eld</p><p>Other common names: Eld's Deer; Sangai (eldii), Thamin (thamin)</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus eldii M’Clelland, 1842,</p><p>Manipur, Assam (India).</p><p>The genus Rucervus generally encompasses three species: Brow-antlered Deer, Barasingha (R. duvaucelit), and the extinct Schomburgk’s Deer ( R. schomburgki). They are all specialized grass-eaters with highcrowned, uniquelyfolded cheek teeth. The molars have relatively large columns and prominent styles and pillars. Recent genetic analyses have questioned the monophyly of the genus and Brow-antlered Deer might not be related closely to the other two species. It has been sometimes placed in Cervus or in a distinct genus, Panolia. The scientific and the other common name ofthis species refers to L. P. D. Eld, British officer, whofirst observed and described it when he was Assistant to the Commissioner of Assam in 1838. Three subspecies are recognized.</p><p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p><p>R.e.eldisM’Clelland,1842—NEIndia(Manipur).</p><p>R.e.siamensisLydekker,1915-Vietnam(couldbeextinct),Laos,Cambodia,andHainanI.</p><p>R. e. thamin Thomas, 1918 — Myanmar.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head body 160-170 cm for males (stags) and 140-150 cin for females (hinds); tail 22-25 cm, shoulder height 115-130 cm (stags) and 90-100 cm (hinds); weight 90-125 kg (adult stags) and 60-80 kg (adult hinds). Males are about 60% heavier than females. Medium to large-sized deer; male antlers have a very long brow tine that forms a continuous curve with the main beam. The skull has a deep lacrimal pit. The coat is reddish-brown abeve, whitish underneath. The tail is brown above. Females are paler. Males develop a neck mane during the rutting season. Preorbital, metatarsal, rear interdigital, and subcaudal glands are present. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Antlers of adult stags are about 90-100 cm long. with a record of 112 cm. The main beam first grows backwards, thep outwaids, and terminates in a forward curve. Toward the tip the beam tends to develop several small tines. Antler cycles are synchronized; antler casting occurs in May-June and velvet cleaning is in December. The Indian subspecies “Sangai” (¢ldii) has splaying hooves with cornified skin on the back of the digits, an adaptation for waiking on moist ground.</p><p>open</p><p>Habitat. In India Brow-antlered Deerlive in: floating marshes. In South-east Asia it occurs in open-grass-dominated habitats, such as lowland open-canopy deciduous dipterocarp forests with grass understory and adjoining grassland patches. In Hainan Island it mainly occursin dry grassland with sparse trees and scrubland. In the recent pastit lived also in the pine savanna of Laotian plateaus.</p><p>Food and Feeding. It tends to be a grazer of grasses and forbs and also feeds on leaves, flowers, and fruits.</p><p>Breeding. Females reach puberty at about 16 months of age. They are seasonally polyestrous with estrous cycles of 16-19 days and mean receptive periods of about 16 hours. Males attain physiological sexual maturity at about twelve months. For a tropical deer, breeding is very concentrated. Mating season occurs in 60-90 days between February and May (peak March-April), and calving season is in October-November. After a pregnancy of 240 days, hinds give birth to a single calf weighing 3.5-6 kg. At 10-15 days calves begin to eat grasses; at one month they follow their mother; at 50 days they begin to consume plants more regularly. Weaning occurs at 5-7 months of age. Primary predators are Tigers (Panthera tigris), Leopards (FP. pardus), and Dholes (Cuon alpinus).</p><p>Activity patterns. It is more active in early morning and early evening.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Where studied, males have home ranges of about 9 km? and females of 7 km ®*. Maleslive for most of the year as solitary animals; females form small family groups with their fawns. During the rut in the hotdry season the most common groups are multimale mixed sex groups of aboutsix individuals; these may sometimes coalesce into larger herds of 50-70 or more.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Cites Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Owing to hunting and habitat loss, the Brow-antlered Deer’s historical range has been contracted significantly and fragmented. The Indian subspecies eldii is reduced to a single population in the Keibul Lamjao National Park, whereit is slowly increasing from a minimum of 14 animals in 1975 to about 180 in 2004. The “Thamin” (thamin) of the central plain of Myanmar,still occurs in several localized areas and has been reintroduced in Thailand. The most eastern subspecies, siamensis, is scattered in small populations (one or two in Laos, a few in Cambodia, one on Hainan Island). In Vietnam it may be extinct and in mainland China (Yunnan) it is certainly extinct.</p><p>Bibliography. Aung et al. (2001), Balakrishnan et al. (2003), Blakeslee et al. (1979), Gee (1961), McShea et al. (2001), Song Yanling &amp; Zeng Zhigao (2003), Timmins &amp; Duckworth (2008b), Wemmer &amp; Grodinsky (1988), Wemmer &amp; Montali (1988), Zeng Zhigao et al. (2005).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFD7FFD7FA41F652E52FF6B4	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFD6FFD7FF05F62EE037F906.text	03A087C4FFD6FFD7FF05F62EE037F906.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Rucervus duvaucelii G. Cuvier 1823	<div><p>30.</p><p>Barasingha.</p><p>Rucervus duvaucelii</p><p>French: Cerf de Duvaucel / German: Barasingha / Spanish: Ciervo de Duvaucel</p><p>Other common names: Swamp Deer; Eastern Barasingha (ranjitsinhi), Hard-ground Barasingha (branderi), Wetland Barasingha (duvaucelii)</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus duvauceli G. Cuvier, 1823,</p><p>N India.</p><p>It is closely related to the extinct Schomburgk’s Deer ( R. schomburgki). Its scientific name refers to the French naturalist A. Duvaucel, who explored India. Three subspecies are recognized.</p><p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p><p>R. d. duvaucelii G. Cuvier, 1823 — N India, S Nepal.</p><p>R. d. branderi Pocock, 1943 — C India.</p><p>R. d. ranpitsinhi Groves, 1982 — NE India.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 180-190 cm, tail 14-19 cm, shoulder height 120-135 cm for males (stags) and 115 cm for females (hinds); weight of adult stags 170-200 kg (up to 270 kg) and adult hinds 140-145 kg. Stags are about 30% heavier than hinds. Largesized deer with a relatively short tail, large and rounded ears. The coat is basically golden brown to reddish-brown in summer, with a dark brown dorsal stripe and whitish underparts. In winter the coatis grayish-brown. Males have a poorly developed neck mane. Newborn calves are spotted. Antlers are dichotomously branched in the upper third of the beam, and each branch is also dichotomously branched. Most adults have five to name “barasingha" means twelve-pointed in six times per beam; the common llong: up lo 104 cm. Pedicles begin to grow Hindi. Adult antlers UC generally * 60-80 cm are z antlers spikes. Antler cyles are iocally synchrtr at about:seven months. The first g “am ¡n April, in ranjitsinhi in October. nilnıl in subspecies dui-imizlu antler casti and in in May-June. or sandy grasslands; also in forests</p><p>Habitat. Barasinghas occur mainly in marschy glades. Nonhem subspecies inhabit ﬂooded with an abundant grass layer and gmss lives in dry grassland bordering tall gmsslandﬁ The open central Indian subspecies sal forest. on grasses and aquatic plants'</p><p>Food and Feeding, Pnmarily a feeding grazer. of Females age. They are apparently monoestrous.</p><p>Breeding' reach suberty at mo vears ' Maung î occurs ın October-January in Males begin ze to rfpwduce - rrom tour years of subspecies ranjitsinhi, I rn December-Febnrary rn branderi2. duvaucelii, in April August in Males move m mdiuoml] nmmg 'where bugling_ and wallowing_ are common. ground; After f abo 1 250 ds' give birth to a single fawn weighing around a pmgnancy „ da“ hi" 7 kg. CÁI-; remain hidden for 10-Weaning occurs at six months ofage. Maxic 15 days. mum longevity in captivity is 21 of age. _ Tigers (Panthera _ tigris) are the main_ preda- years tom of adults. Goldenjarkals (Canis aumuzfomcümes kl" calves and Yearllngs-</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. a gregarious species. Males form small male groups and females small family groups. During the rutting season Barasinghas form mixed-sex groups. Aggregations of up to 250 animals are observed.</p><p>Activity patterns. Active during early morning, afternoon, and early evening.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Originally it was widely distributed in the grasslands of the Indo-Gangetic plain and the lowlands bordering the southern Himalaya, from Pakistan to southern Nepal, Assam, and Sundarbans to central India. In the early 20" century it was exterminated in the Sundarbans and during the 1930s-1960s suffered a dramatic reduction of its range due to conversion of vast areas to agriculture. There are now a total of 3500-5100 individuals in small isolated populations in northern and central India and south-western Nepal. It is extinct in Pakistan. The northern subspecies duvaucelii is the most numerous. In Nepalit persists only in two localities, Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve (with 1700 animals) and Royal Karnali-Bardiya Wildlife Reserve (with 50-100 individuals). In Assam the population of Kaziranga National Park grew from 200-250 deer in 1966 to 750 in 1984, then declined to 400-500 in 2004. In central India the subspecies branderi which survives only in the Kanha National Park increased from 50-65 animals in 1966 to 300-350 in 2004. Habitat degradation, competition with livestock, and poaching are major current threats outside well-secured protected areas.. Bibliography. Groves (1982), Martin (1977), Moe (1994), Qureshi et al. (2004), Schaller (1967), Wegge et al (2006).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFD6FFD7FF05F62EE037F906	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFD6FFD0FA08F710E71BFB57.text	03A087C4FFD6FFD0FA08F710E71BFB57.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Hydropotes inermis Swinhoe 1870	<div><p>31.</p><p>Chinese Water Deer</p><p>Hydropotes inermis</p><p>French: Hydropote / German: Chinesisches Wasserreh / Spanish: Ciervo acuatico</p><p>Taxonomy. Hydropotes inermis Swinhoe, 1870,</p><p>Yangtze River (China).</p><p>Two subspecies are recognized.</p><p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p><p>H.i.inermisSwinhoe,1870—EChina.</p><p>H. i. argyropus Heude, 1884 — Korean Peninsula.</p><p>Introduced into England.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 90-100 cm, tail 6-7 cm, shoulder height 50-55 cm; weight of adult males 11-15 kg and adult females 12-15. 5 kg. Females are on average 10-15% heavier than males. Small-sized deer with relatively long legs, short tail, and large erect ears. Males are antlerless but provided with long curved upper canines. The canines of females are five times smaller and not visible in the field. The summer coat is reddish-brown, the winter coat is paler and thick. The chin is pale, the nose is black and surrounded by an area of white. Molts in May and October. Fawns have pale spots, lost after two months. Preorbital, interdigital, and inguinal glands are present. Permanent molars erupt at 1-14 months.</p><p>Habitat. In the original rangeit lives nearrivers, lakes, and coasts with reeds and other tall grasses. In England it prefers the ecotone between woodland and grassland, using the wood for cover and open land for feeding.</p><p>Food and Feeding. Classified as a concentrate selector (browser), it can shift to an intermediate feeding pattern. In England it prefers tender parts of grasses, sedges forbs, and woody plants.</p><p>Breeding. Puberty is precociously attained at 6-7 months. Rutting season is mainly in December. Does are receptive for 24 hours. The mean length of gestation is about 168 days. Does can give birth to 1-5 fawns, usually 1-3, weighing at birth 0-6-1 each. Allosucking has commonly been observed in semi-captivity. Fawns are weaned after just three weeks. but lactation may last 4-5 months. At six months of age they reach 70-80% of the adult weight, at 18 months they attain 97% of the final body mass. Normally they live to a maximum of 7-8 years of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 13 years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are the main predators.</p><p>Activity patterns. Several bouts of feeding in a 24hour period, with peaks in early morning and evening.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Home ranges are small, generally of 20-50 ha. Males may be seasonally territorial, marking ground with glandular secretions, urine, and piles of feces during rutting season. It is a strictly solitary animal, which tends to minimize physical contacts with other conspecifics. Grouping is very rare, temporary, with no durable links between individuals. Maternal bonds last at most 4-5 months, but contacts between mothers and young begin to become infrequent after three weeks from parturition.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Formerly its distribution range included Korea and eastern China (from Jilin in the north-eastern part of the country to Guangxi in the south-eastern part). After a rapid contraction of its range in the last decades, now the species survives only on the western coast of Korea and in central-eastern China, around the eastern portion of the Yangtze Basin. Habitat destruction and poaching are the main threats. It has been kept in Woburn Park, England, since 1896; the first animals in the wild were sighted in 1945. In 2004 there were about 1500 free-living Chinese Water Deer in England.</p><p>Bibliography. Cooke &amp; Farrell (2008), Dubost et al. (2008, 2011a, 201 1b), Sun &amp; Dai (1995), Sun &amp; Xiao (1995), Zhang (2000).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFD6FFD0FA08F710E71BFB57	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFD1FFD1FF5FFA77E24AF9CE.text	03A087C4FFD1FFD1FF5FFA77E24AF9CE.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Capreolus capreolus Gray 1821	<div><p>32.</p><p>Western Roe Deer</p><p>Capreolus capreolus</p><p>French: Chevreuil d'Europe / German: Reh / Spanish: Corzo</p><p>Other common names: European Roe Deer</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus capreolus Linnaeus, 1758,</p><p>Sweden.</p><p>The Western Roe Deeris recorded in Europe from the Middle Pleistocene, about 600,000 years ago. It was present on most of the continent during Interglacial and mild stages of glacial periods. During the last glacial maximum, 21-15,000 years ago, roe deer retreated to a few ice-free refugia in the Mediterranean region and in South-eastern Europe. About 9600 years ago, the deer began to recolonize Western, Central, and Northern Europe, possibly from one eastern glacial refugium. Due to substantial morphological homogeneity, most recent authorities consider the species as monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. Most of Europe (excluding Iceland, Ireland, and Mediterranean Is), Caucasus, and Near East.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 107-127 cm,tail 1.5-3 cm, shoulder height 65-84 cm; postrutting weight 20-30 kg for males (adult bucks) and 17-29 kg for females (adult does). Bucks are on average 5-10% heavier than does. The heaviest animals are found in Scandinavia and the Baltic countries, the smallest in Mediterranean habitats of Spain and Italy and in cold alpine valleys. It is an elegant small deer with long neck, relatively short trunk, and rump higher than withers. The area around the muzzle is black, the lips and chin are white. The winter coat is grayish. Bucks have a large, white, kidney-shaped rump patch; in does the rump patch is heart-shaped and there is a prominent tuft of hairs close to the vulva. The summer coatis reddish, without a clear rump patch. The faces of bucks have a variable admixture of colors, from dark brown to grayish, sometimes with a whitish area toward the muzzle. The molt to summer coat occurs in April-June, and to winter coat in September—October. Newborn fawns have a brown coat flecked with black and with white spots on sides and back; the spots start to fade at six weeks and disappear by about five months. Preorbital glands are absent; metatarsal glands are brown and distinct; interdigital glands are well developed. An important glandular area, called the “frontal organ” by the first describers, is present on the forehead and between the pedicles of bucks. In late spring and summer, these sudoriferous glands produce a secrection used to mark territories. Western Roe Deer have a permanent dentition of 32 teeth; the teeth erupt at 3-13 months of age. Antlers are short (16-23 cm on average in adult bucks) and light, typically three-pointed, rugged by pearling in the lower half and with a well-developed burr. The basal anterior point (brow tine) is absent, replaced by a central one. Pedicles are close and the pair of antlers is often lyre-shaped. Pedicles grow precociously at about four months. Fawns normally develop their first rudimentary antler set (bony buttons or tiny spikes 1-2 cm long) at 6-7 months. These are retained for about two months. A second set of antlers begins to grow immediately, and is clean of velvet by May-June; yearling antlers are often spikes 10-14 cm long, but can be also have twoor three-pointed beams. Fawn males that weigh less than 14 kg by theirfirst winter do not develop antlers. Their first set, generally 3-5 cm spikes, appears the following spring. At 3-6 years antlers attain their full size. Regression begins by eight years. In adult bucks velvet shedding occurs in March-April, antler casting in October-November. Hooves are 4-5 cm long, narrow, pointed, with toe pads extending right out to the tips.</p><p>Habitat. The body structure, with the hindquarters higher than the shoulders, makes Western Roe Deer particularly adapted to moving in thick vegetation. Originally it was associated with early successional stages of the forest, young tracts of woods and scrubland. During the Neolithic Revolution, when a transition occurred from huntinggathering to agriculture and settlements, progressive forest fragmentation and the creation of wood clearings, meadows, and cultivated areas, gave Western Roe Deer new opportunities. The higher proportion of forest edge in the mosaic landscapes typical of traditional agriculture was particularly suitable to the species. Today Western Roe Deer occur in a wide variety of habitats, from the maquis scrub of the Mediterranean coast to the boreal forests of Scandinavia, and from Scottish moorlands to modern farmland with scarce cover. They live in the Alps up to 2400 m. Northern and north-eastern range limits seem to be largely determined by snow depth. The heavy foot loading and the low chest height makeit difficult to move in snow more than 40 cm deep.</p><p>Food and Feeding. Western Roe Deer are typical selective feeders or concentrate selectors, preferring soft food rich in soluble carbohydrates, proteins, and water. They have a relatively small rumen (4-6 1) and abomasum, and large salivary glands and liver; they are able to detoxify secondary plant metabolites. They are opportunistic and flexible deer, consuming up to 370 plant species at the regional level and about 1000 at the continental scale. Buds, shoots, and leaves of shrubs and deciduous trees, and green leaves and flowers of forbs (dicotyledon herbs) are particularly important; seeds and fruits are also eaten, especially in autumn. It seems that roe deer have physiological mechanisms that allow soluble carbohydrates to avoid microbial fermentation in the rumen and to be directly absorbed in the small intestine. With the onset of vegetation growth in spring, metabolic rate and food intake increase, reaching a peak during early lactation and the rutting period in summer; in winter basal metabolism and appetite decline. Daily food intake is 2—4 kg of fresh vegetation. Since roe deer have very scarce body reserves of fat, they need to obtain most nutrients directly from their food. This requires a greater tolerance for food of low nutritional quality, especially in winter, which is unusual for a browser. Special adaptations of the salivary glands make roe deer, unlike most herbivores, insensitive to toxic effects of high concentrations of tannins.</p><p>Breeding. Females attain puberty at 14 months of age and normally begin to reproduce immediately. Males reach physiological maturity at the same age but generally begin to participate in reproduction only at 2-3 years of age. Mature spermatozoa are present from March to October, but the rutting season is restricted to mid-July-mid-August. Females are monestrous, becoming receptive only for 36-48 hours during mid-summer, without the possibility of being fertilized a second time. Adult bucks follow olfactory traces of does, evaluate their status using the vomeronasal organ, and, having spotted a receptive doe, begin a courtship pursuit. This consists initially of a long chase in large circles, then in close runs in small circles or figure eights. Bucks remain with a doe for 2—4 days, and then move to find other estrous does residing in the neighborhood. During rut bucks lose about 10% of their weight. Females can take an active role in mate selection by making excursions out of their home range,visiting a territory holder, and mating with him. Fertilization is followed by a five-month period of “embryonic diapause.” The fertilized ovum penetrates into the uterus without implanting in the endometrium, reaching a blastocyst stage 0-1 mm in diameter, resulting in a blastula 5 mm in diameter. Implantation of the embryo occurs in January. The true gestation period lasts about 150 days, with the birth season in May-June. Does give birth to 1-3 fawns; in most of Europe two is the rule, but in Scandinavia, where mothers are particularly heavy, triplets are common, and in Mediterranean habitats frequently only one fawn is produced. Newborn fawns weigh on average 1.3-1. 9 kg, doubling their mass by 10-15 days. During the first weeks they remain hidden and in case of danger they “freeze”; their mother eats and rests about 50-150 m away. They are fed 5-9 times a day during the first month, 2-4 times during the second, and 1-2 times during the third month. Lactation lasts about three months. They begin to ingest their first leaves at about ten days and feed completely on vegetation by early September. At one month they are active for 1-1-5 hours per day. At weaning they synchronize the rhythms of activity with those of their mother. At 7-8 months males begin to be slightly heavier than females. At 3—4 years, roe deer attain full adult size. At eight years they enter senescence. Normally they live to a maximum of 10-12 years, with records of 14 years for bucks and 18 years for does. In populations subjected to hunting, averagelife expectancy is less than three years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) are the main predators; foxes may prey on young fawns.</p><p>Activity patterns. The small size of the stomach requires the deer to feed frequently, generally 9-11 times during a 24hour day. Roe deer are active all day, alternating periods of foraging, ruminating, resting, and moving. Feeding bouts at dawn and dusk have the longest duration.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Western Roe Deer are cursorial and saltatorial, able to jump up to 5 m in length and 2-5 m in height. The deer are typically sedentary, with home ranges averaging 5-7 km? in wooded habitats and 8-10 km? in open habitats. Adult bucks from 2-3 years of age are territorial between April and August. When population density is low, defended territories are strictly exclusive. At high density they show some overlap, with each buck preserving a core area. Territories are defended and patrolled by means of self-advertisement, threat displays, and, more rarely, overt fights. Bucks mark by using olfactory and opticalsignals,i.e. rubbing saplings with forehead, fraying plants with antlers, and scraping ground with hooves. There can be about 90 scrapes per hectare and about 95 rubs and frayings per hectare. A buck can retain his territory for 5-7 years. When aged bucks lose their territory, they restrict their movements to a small area or become nomadic. Yearling bucks and sometimes two-year-old subadults are non-territorial and relatively mobile; some of them, known as “peripherals,” occupy a small range within the buffer zone between the territories of two adults, and others, known as “satellites,” associate with a territorial buck who tolerates a subordinate. In Scandinavia and the Alps, in areas where a snow depth gradient exists, part of the population tends to move to valley bottoms in late autumn and remain until spring, making small 4-12 km migrations. Western Roe Deer are not very social, living alone or in small groups. Bucks are solitary during the territorial period (late spring and summer), does in the last part of their pregnancy and at parturition time. From September to February adult does tend to form small groups of 2—4 animals, with their offspring, and occasionally with an adult buck. Two family units can form matrilinear clans of 6-8 animals, sometimes coalescing in larger fluid aggregations, especially in open habitats (meadows, farmland). Larger groups are particularly common in snowy winters and at the onset of spring, with the first green vegetation. Early spring aggregations are temporary and fragile, since adult bucks begin to be aggressive, to determine their rank order, to displace yearlings, and then to move to their territory.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Presently the Western Roe Deer is the most common deer species in Europe, numbering about nine million head, of which 2-9 million are annually harvested. Densities are normally 5—=25 ind/km?, with maximums of 50-70 ind/km?. In the Near East it is extinct in Lebanon and Israel (where a reintroduction program was begun in 1997). During Mesolithic times in Europe it was probably less abundant than the Western Red Deer ( Cervus elaphus), confined to thick woods, glades, and clearings. But habitat changes caused by humans give it new opportunities. During the Medieval and Renaissance periods, roe deer hunting generally was not restricted to nobles or reigning houses. Overhunting was responsible for a significant decline in the species across most of Europe between the 17" century and the first half of the 20" century. The reinforcement of laws, the recovery of natural habitats, and reintroductions, coupled with the extreme ecological flexibility of the Western Roe Deer and its high reproductive potential, made possible a recolonization of vast areas and an increase in density. Populations in Mediterranean regions such as southern Italy and Spain are still threatened by poaching, feral dog predation, competition with livestock, and genetic pollution.</p><p>Bibliography. Andersen et al. (1998), Apollonio et al. (2010), Danilkin &amp; Hewison (1996), Melis et al. (2009), San José &amp; Lovari (1998), Sempéré et al. (1996), Sommer et al. (2009), Stubbe (1990).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFD1FFD1FF5FFA77E24AF9CE	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFD0FFD1FF02F9C8EE31F72D.text	03A087C4FFD0FFD1FF02F9C8EE31F72D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Capreolus pygargus (Pallas 1771)	<div><p>33.</p><p>Eastern Roe Deer</p><p>Capreolus pygargus</p><p>French: Chevreuil de Sibérie / German: Sibirisches Reh / Spanish: Corzo siberiano</p><p>Other common names: Siberian Roe Deer</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus pygargus Pallas, 1771,</p><p>river Sok, Trans-Volga region (Russia).</p><p>Here two subspecies are recognized.</p><p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p><p>C.p.pygargusPallas,1771—fromEuropeanRussiatoCSiberiaandYakutia.</p><p>C. p. tianschanicus Satunin, 1906 — from Kazakhstan to SE Siberia, C &amp; NE China, and the Korean Peninsula.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head body 125-145 cm, tail 2-4 cm, shoulder height 82-94 cm; weight 35-50 kg for males (adult bucks) and 32-47 kg for females (adult does). The heaviest animals are found in the Urals, Altai Mountains, and Yakutia (bucks up to 60-65 kg); the smallest possibly in China. It is a relatively large roe deer, with mostly uniform coat coloration. Facial markings are generally absent and the metatarsal glands are the same color as the legs. The antlers, which average 28-33 cm long on average in adult bucks, are well spread apart at the tips, but the pedicles are farther apart than in the Western Roe Deer ( C. capreolus). The winter coat is gray or, in southern populations, graysh-brown, with a white rump patch. The summer coatis reddish. The molts occur in spring and autumn. Newborn fawns are spotted. The karyotype exhibits 1-14 additional Bchromosomes.</p><p>Habitat. Eastern Roe Deerlive in forests with clearings and in treeless steppes with tall grass. They are particularly adapted to severe weather, tolerating temperatures from —60°C (Siberia) to more than 40°C (Central Asia). They occur up to 3300 m above sea level on mountain ranges. Snow depth more than 50 cm is a limiting factor.</p><p>Food and Feeding. As browsers, roe deer prefer herbaceous dycotyledons and woody species. In winter they feed on twigs, dry herbs, mosses, and lichens.</p><p>Breeding. Females attain puberty at about one year of age. Males tend to begin to reproduce by two or three years of age. Rut takes place in August and September. Females are described by Russian scientists as polyestrous, contrary to Western Roe Deer. They exhibit an embryonic diapause, with the implantation occurring in earlyJanuary. Around June, does typically give birth to two fawns weighing 1.8-2. 2 kg. Newborn fawns suckle within 30 minutes after birth and walk within 40 minutes. For the first two days they remain hidden in vegetation and if disturbed they tend to freeze. Fawns begin to experiment eating plants when they are 5-10 days old, but continue to nurse for 4-5 months. Eastern Roe Deer live a maximum of 11-12 years. The main predators are Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx); in some areas they are also preyed upon by Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) and Siberian Tigers (Panthera tigris). Natural mortality due to climatic factors (frigid temperature, snowy winters) may affect population dynamics.</p><p>Activity patterns. Eastern Roe Deer are active all day, alternating bouts of feeding, ruminating, resting, and moving, at least 4-7 times in 24 hours. Animals are particularly active at dusk and dawn.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. It is saltatorial and cursorial with low endurance. Annual home ranges can be 1-5 km?®, but in some less productive regions can reach 10-15 km?In the Amur region and Siberian Far East, annual mass migrations of 100-300 km (up to 500 km) occur to avoid deep snow and reach productive habitats. The migrations to winter quarters in September—October can take up to 40 days; the return usually takes place in March-April. Roe deer are solitary or weakly social, forming small matrilinear groups in autumn and winter with an adult doe as a leader. Mass migrations are conducted by family groups aggregated into large herds. Adult bucks are solitary and territorial during late spring and summer.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List but decreasing. Although it is still widespread,it is declining due to overhunting. Formerly its range extended to Belarus and Ukraine. During the 19" century it was subjected to particularly heavy hunting pressure in Russia, and half a million were killed annually. Illegal hunting for meat and antlers is still frequent in Siberia. Logging and poaching are threatening the populations living in the Korean Peninsula.</p><p>Bibliography. Baskin &amp; Danell (2003), Danilkin (1995, 1999), Danilkin &amp; Hewison (1996), Randi et al. (1998), Sokolov &amp; Gromov (1990), Xiao Chaoting et al. (2007).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFD0FFD1FF02F9C8EE31F72D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFDDFFDCFFB4FE48EE7DF8A4.text	03A087C4FFDDFFDCFFB4FE48EE7DF8A4.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Alces alces (Linnaeus 1758) Gray 1821	<div><p>34.</p><p>Moose</p><p>Alces alces</p><p>French: Elan / German: Eich / Spanish: Alce</p><p>Other common names: Elk (in Europe); Caucasian Moose (caucasica)</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus alces Linnaeus, 1758,</p><p>Sweden.</p><p>Early Alceini appeared in the Middle Miocene of central Siberia, about three million years ago. Modern Moose first occurred early in the Late Pleistocene, about 100,000 years ago, in Eurasia, and entered North America only about 10,000-14,000 years ago. The analysis of mtDNA revealed three haplogroups, one entirely Asian, one primarily European, and one North American. North-eastern Siberia can be identified as the origin of all the extant lineages. East Siberian and Alaskan Moose have similar body size and antler design but are not closely related. The race caucasica (Vereshchagin, 1955) from the Caucasusis extinct. Eight extant subspecies are recognized.</p><p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p><p>A.a.alcesLinnaeus,1758—fromScandinavia,Finland,BalticstatesandPolandEtotheYeniseyRiver.</p><p>A.a.americanaClinton,1822—ECanada(COntariotoNewfoundland).</p><p>A.a.andersoniPeterson,1950—fromBritishColumbiatoMinnesotaandOntario.</p><p>A.a.buturliniChernyavsky&amp;Zhelesnov,1982—NESiberiaandKamchatka.</p><p>A.a.cameloidesMilne-Edwards,1867—NMongolia,Ussuriland,NManchuria.</p><p>A.a.gigasMiller,1899—AlaskaandYukon.</p><p>A.a.pfizenmayeriZukowsky,1910—fromCSiberiatoStanovoyMtsandCherskiyMts.</p><p>A. a. shirasi Nelson, 1914 — from S Alberta to Wyoming and Utah.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 250-300 cm for males (bulls) and 240-290 cm for females (cows), tail 12-16 cm, shoulder height 190-210 cm (bulls) and 185-200 cm (cows); weight of adult bulls 300-600 kg and adult cows 280-460 kg. The heaviest animals occur in eastern Siberia and Alaska (with records of more than 770 kg for bulls and 600 kg for cows), the lightest in the Amur region and Manchuria (with some bulls weighing just 260 kg). Bulls are on average 25-30% heavier than cows. The largest extant deer, with massive trunk, short neck, shoulder hump, long and pendulous nose, very small bare rhinarium, long dewlap (“bell”) from the throat; large head and elongated snout, long legs. The coat is prevailingly dark brown with grayish legs. The tail is short and of the same color as the rump. Molts in May and September. Newborn calves have a reddish-brown unspotted coat. Suborbital, tarsal, and interdigital glands are present. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Permanent teeth erupt at 6-19 months of age. Antlers of adults are typically palmated, but a simpler design without any flattening is the rule in Manchuria and common in Europe. Pedicles appear at 4-5 months after birth; their apices, generally simple, minute buttons, ossify at 6-7 months and cast at 10-11 months. The second antler set, simple spikes or forked beams (in Alaska sometimes already with traces of palmation) develop at about 13-14 months and are cast the following February—March. At 7-11 years antlers attain their full size. In good quality populations of Europe, antlers of adult bulls have a span of 105 cm on average and a brutto (skull plus antlers) weight of 10 kg (with records of 145 cm and 18.5-20 kg); in Alaska mean antler span is 145 cm and antler mass is about 20 kg, with records of 205 cm and 30-35. 8 kg. In adult bulls velvet shedding occurs in September, antler casting in December, and the beginning of the new antler growth in April. Hooves are 13-18 cm long and 11-14 cm broad in adult bulls, with the pads extending right outto the tip of the hoof.</p><p>Habitat. Boreal forests, mixed forests of the northern temperate zone, especially with damp, marshy areas. In Alaska also tundra. Up to 1700 m above sea level on the Altai Mountains. Snow depth more than 70 cm and mean temperature in summer higher than 14°C are limiting factors. Males tend to select habitats with greater food abundance. Females select areas with better concealment cover.</p><p>Food and Feeding. As a browser, it feeds on the vegetative parts of trees, shrubs, dwarf shrubs, herbs, and aquatic plants, preferring birch, alder, and willow. Adult daily consumption is about 10-30 kg of fresh vegetation.</p><p>Breeding. In good quality habitats most females attain puberty at 16-17 months of age. Males reach physiological sexual maturity at the same age, but in naturally structured populations yearling and subadults are excluded from breeding by dominant bulls and begin to reproduce only at five years of age; in heavily hunted populations with a low proportion of adults, subadults have a good chance of mating. Rutting season is in September—October. Typically an adult male locates and defends an estrous female until he mates with her, and then he moves on in search of other females (“tending bond mating system”). In tundra the dominant bull tends to herd and defend a group of females (“harem mating system”). Bulls thrash antlers on vegetation, rub trees, dig rutting pits, and urinate and wallow,salivating copiously. Females are polyestrous, with cycles on average of 24 days. During estrus they are receptive for 15-26 hours. Estrous females rub trees and visit rutting pits dug by males and wallow in them. Bulls lose 9-18% of their weight during the rut. Gestation lasts on average 234 days, with the birth season in May-June. Cows give birth to one or two calves, weighing on average 10-12 kg in Europe and 14-18 kg in Alaska; their mass doubles in about two weeks. Mothers remain within 50 m of their offspring for 5-7 days. Calves are nursed 7-9 times during the first days and four times at about 50 days of age. At 2-3 weeks calves begin to ingest solid food and at one month, half of their diet consists mostly of plants. Lactation lasts about 4-5 months. Final weight is attained at about eight years by bulls and four years by cows. Senescence occurs from 12-13 years onward. Normally they live to a maximum of 16-19 years, with records of 21 years for bulls and 25 for cows. In captivity the maximum longevity recorded is 27 years of age. In populations subjected only to natural mortality, average life expectancy in protected areas can be about seven years. In populations subjected to hunting, average life expectancy can decline to about three years. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) are the main predators.</p><p>Activity patterns. It is active though the day, with peaks at dawn and dusk and 5-8 feeding bouts for a total of 9-13 hours in summer and 6-8 hours in winter.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Moose have a specialized trotting gait, by which they glide over obstacles with little energetic cost. They can reach a speed of 60 km /h. Sedentary Moose have home ranges of 2-90 km®. A segment of the population can be migratory, moving 10-30 km on average, normally to reach areas with shallower snow and better food availability in winter. Migrations can sometimes be much longer, up to 200 km in North America, up to 300-500 km in Siberia. Natal dispersal can be up to 180-250 km. The Moose is not particularly gregarious. The basic social unitis a female with her young offspring. Bulls are generally solitary and tend to spatially segregate from cows for most of the year. In open terrain in Alaska predation risk favors some grouping behavior.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. In the early Holocene the European Moose extended its range to Great Britain, the Pyrenees, and the Alps. In the early Middle Ages it disappeared from the last relict areas of western Central Europe,its range restricted to Fennoscandia and Eastern Europe. At the beginning of the 19" century Moose suffered a drastic decline due to overhunting and disappeared from the Caucasus. In the last 50 years European Moose populations have increased dramatically. In Europe there are at least 440,000 individuals, possibly more than half a million, of which about 214,000 are harvested every year.Vagrant individuals are currently recorded in Central and South-eastern Europe, from Germany to Croatia and Romania. A few very small populations are now established in South Czech Republic and North Austria. In North America the original population was estimated at about one million; overexploitation caused a decline to around 500,000 in 1948, but in 1960 the number had grown to more than 900,000 and is now again about one million. Annual harvest in late 1990s was about 85,000 individuals.</p><p>Bibliography. Apollonio et al. 2010, van Ballenberghe (1982), Baskin &amp; Danell (2003), Bowyer, Stewart et al. (2001), Bowyer, van Ballengerghe &amp; Kie (2003), Cederlund et al. (1988), Crete &amp; Daigle (1999), Ericsson et al. (2001), Franzmann et al. (2008), Garel et al. (2006), Gasaway et al. (1987), Hundermark &amp; Bowyer (2004), Nygrén (1986), Nygrén et al. (2007), Schmolcke &amp; Zachos (2005).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFDDFFDCFFB4FE48EE7DF8A4	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFDDFFDDFAB1F70FEF6BF800.text	03A087C4FFDDFFDDFAB1F70FEF6BF800.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Rangifer tarandus (Linnaeus 1758)	<div><p>35.</p><p>Caribou</p><p>Rangifer tarandus</p><p>French: Renne / German: Ren / Spanish: Reno</p><p>Other common names: Reindeer (in Europe)</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus tarandus Linnaeus, 1758,</p><p>Lapland, Sweden.</p><p>The oldest evidence of the genus Rangifer dates back to the late Pliocene, about two million years ago, in Alaska. “Reindeer” were present in Siberia and Central Europe from the Middle Pleistocene, about 650,000 years ago. The analysis of mtDNA revealed three main haplogroups, possibly representing three separate populations during the last glacial period. The main population lived in Siberia and Beringia and has contributed to the gene pool of all the extant subspecies. One small refugial population supposedly lived in Western Europe and the other in eastern North America. The word caribou derives from the Micmac Indian term “xalibu,” which means “pawer,” “shoveller,” in reference to the habit of digging snow for obtaining food. Taxonomists are not concordant on the number of subspecies. Here ten subspecies are recognized.</p><p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p><p>R.t.tarandusLinnaeus,1758—Norway.</p><p>R.t.caribouGmelin,1788—SCanada(fromSYukontoLabradorandNewfoundland)andNWUSA(NEWashington,NIdaho&amp;WMontana).</p><p>R.t.fennicusLonnberg,1909—FinlandandNWRussia(Karelia).</p><p>R.t.groenlandicusLinnaeus,1767—Alaska,NCanada,WGreenland.</p><p>R.t.pearsoniLydekker,1903—NovayaZemlya(Russia).</p><p>R.t.pearyiJ.A.Allen,1902—CanadianArcticIs.</p><p>R. t. phylarchus Hollister, 1912 — Russian Far East (Amur region, Okhotsk area, Sakhalin, Kamchatka).</p><p>R.t.platyrhynchusVrolik,1829—Svalbard(Norway).</p><p>R.t.sibiricusMurray,1866—NSiberiantundra,RussianArcticIs.</p><p>R. t. valentinae Flerov, 1933 — Ural Mts (Russia), Altai Mts, Mongolia.</p><p>Feral Icelandic population originated from animals introduced from Norway in 1771; they have been introduced also into South Georgia Is (in 1911-1912 and 1925) and Kerguelen Is (in 1955).</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 185-210 cm for males (bulls) and 170-195 cm for females (cows), tail 14-16 cm, shoulder height 90-135 cm (bulls) and 70-100 cm (cows); post-rutting weight 65-170 kg (adult bulls) and 55-110 kg (adult cows). Males can reach 210-240 kg, females 140 kg. Size dimorphism very variable. Males are on average 30-90% heavier than females. A medium to large-sized deer, with long neck, rump, and legs, and short ears and tail. The rhinarium is furred. Hooves are wide, crescentshaped and splayed; the dewclaws are relatively large and low, providing a large surface to support the body. Toe pads are spongelike in summer, tightened and sharp-edged in winter. Both sexes have an inflatable laryngeal air sac; it is larger in males. The coat is made of particularly dense hair, of variable color, from grayish-brown to white. Males have a well-developed neck mane. The coat of the newborn calf is unspotted. There are three main ecotypes: a large-bodied forest form, a medium-sized tundra form, and a small, short-legged, whitish high Arctic ecotype. Preorbital, nasal, tarsal, interdigital, and caudal glands are present. Permanent dentition is 34 teeth, with rudimentary upper canines. Molars erupt fom 4-26 months of age. Males bear large antlers 90-120 cm long, with flattened and multipointed brow and bez tines. Most females develop simple, light-weight antlers 30-45 cm long. Pedicles begin to grow very early, at 7-10 days of age, and the first set of antlers (a pair of spikes 10-40 cm long) begins to grow at just 4-6 weeks, finishes growing at about five months of age, and is cast off at 11-12 months. Adult bulls clean their antlers in September and cast them in November—January. The new antler set begins to grow 1-2 months later. Adult cows retain their antlers though the winter and cast them in March-May. The species has the largest relative antler mass, with bulls of 230-240 kg carrying up to 15 kg of antler weight. The longest antler beams are 140-150 cm.</p><p>Habitat. Mountain summit meadows, open taiga, tundra, and high Arctic desert up to 2700-3000 m above sea level. It can tolerate temperatures as low as -60°C and suffers when the temperature exceeds 15°C. More than 60-80 cm of snow impedes movements.</p><p>Food and Feeding. The main diet consists of lichens, moss, ferns, grasses, leaves, and shoots of shrubs and trees (especially willow and birch). Lichens are particularly important in winter. Occasionally they may also feed on animal matter such as lemmings, fish, and bird eggs. To reach ground lichens in winter they dig craters in the snow.</p><p>Breeding. Most females first conceive at 28-29 months of age. In highly productive habitats, some female calves can attain puberty at about six months of age. Rutting season is in September—October. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 18-19 days. During estrus they are receptive for 12-24 hours. In tundra conceptions are synchronized, with a 7-10 day peak; in woodland habitat they tend to be less synchronous. Tundra bulls form tending bonds within large mating aggregations. Woodland and high Arctic bulls tend to practice harem defense. During rut adult males lose as much as 20-25% of their weight. The gestation lenght is generally 221-237 days. The cow gives birth to a highly developed calf of 4-9 kg (2.5-3 kg in Svalbard), able to stand up one hour after birth and to follow its mother after 5-7 hours (precocial follower-type young). Calves are born with the ability to regulate body temperature. During the first days they nurse every 18 minutes. The milk is rich in fats and proteins. After one week the calf begins to eat lichens, at two weeks it doublesits weight, and at 4-5 months of age it is weaned. Bulls reach their full body weight at six years of age while cows attain adult size at four years. Senescence occurs at about 11-12 years of age. Normally they live to a maximum of 15-18 years. The maximum longevity in captivity is 22 years of age. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Wolverines (Gulo gulo), and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) are the main predators. Juvenile mortality is high: Brown Bears (Ursus arctos), ravens, and eagles may prey on calves.</p><p>Activity patterns. Cycles of activity of 4-5 hours, more active in summer than in winter. They are not crepuscular. In the summer, insects (oestrid flies, mosquitoes) may severely affect activity patterns and also impact body weight and reproduction.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. It is the most cursorial deer, able to run up to 80 km /h in open country and swim up to 11 km /h. In woodland habitats it tends to be sedentary, but sometimes makes small to medium-scaled movements, up to 50-100 km. In tundra it is typically migratory; in Taymyr migrations are 1000-2000 km long, in Yakutia 600-700 km. Animals cover 20-50 km per day. It is a highly gregarious species, particularly in open habitats. The basic social unit is the family group with females and calves. Males form small bands. Groups may coalesce in larger aggregations. Migratory Caribou can form impressive moving herds of 50,000-500,000. During migrations, 100,000 Caribou may move through an area of 30 km?®.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and stable. East Greenland Caribou and Caribou of the Queen Charlotte Islands (once considered subspecies and known respectively as neogroenlandicus and dawsoni) were exterminated in the first decades of 20" century. In Northern Europe wild Reindeer numbered 26,000 in 2005. Feral Reindeer introduced to Iceland number about 1000 animals. In 1999 the population size in the Russian Federation was estimated at 1-1 million individuals. In Mongolia there are fewer than 1000; in China there are a few hundred, probably of domestic origin. In the early 1980s the total population in North America was 2-3-2-8 million animals. The number grew to four million in nearly 200 herds in 2000. Annual harvest in late 1990s was around 120,000 individuals. In a recent survey of 58 major herds around the world, 34 were reported as declining, eight as increasing, and 16 had no trend data. The simultaneous decrease of many herds is coincident with and could be a result of global warming and human-induced landscape changes. In North America, the Caribou is threatened by onshore petroleum explorations. Poaching is important in the Russian Federation. Hybridization with semi-domestic Reindeeris another threat. Natural densities are very low, 0-5 ind/ km?, but during migrations animals can reach 19,000 ind/km?®. Reindeer were domesticated about 3000 years ago in Fennoscandia and Russia.</p><p>Bibliography. Baskin &amp; Danell (2003), Blake et al. (1998), Crete &amp; Daigle (1999), Cronin et al. (2005), Geist (1998), Lincoln &amp; Tyler (1994), Loe et al. (2007), Miller (2003), Reimers et al. (2005), Roed (2005), Roed et al. (2008), Schaefer &amp; Mahoney (2001), Vors &amp; Boyce (2009), Williams &amp; Heard (1986).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFDDFFDDFAB1F70FEF6BF800	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFD9FFD9FF4FFE1BE372FE04.text	03A087C4FFD9FFD9FF4FFE1BE372FE04.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann 1780)	<div><p>36.</p><p>White-tailed Deer</p><p>Odocoileus virginianus</p><p>French: Cerf de Virginie / German: WeilRwedelhirsch / Spanish: Ciervo de cola blanca</p><p>Other common names: Florida Key Deer (clavium)</p><p>Taxonomy. Dama virginiana Zimmermann, 1780,</p><p>Virginia (USA).</p><p>The first Odocoileus appeared about four million years ago. The current subspecies arrangement is completely unsatisfactory and needs revision. Thirty-eight subspecies are traditionally recognized.</p><p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p><p>O.v.virginianusZimmermann,1780—fromVirginiatoMississippiandGeorgia.</p><p>O.v.acapulcensisCaton,1877—coastalSCMexico.</p><p>O.v.borealisMiller,1900-SECanadaandNEUSA.</p><p>O.v.cariamuBoddaert.1784-FrenchGuianaandNEBrazil.</p><p>O.v.carrnimlsGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-NMexico(CarmenMts,Coahuila).</p><p>O.v.chiriquemisJ.A.Allen,1910-Panama.</p><p>O.v.clamumBarbour&amp;G.M.Allen,1922-SEUSA(HeridaKeys).</p><p>O.v.couesiCoues8:Yarrow,1875fromNevada(SWUSA)toNWMexico.</p><p>O.v.cumxsawhuHummelinck,1940-LesserAntilles(Curaçao1).</p><p>O.v.dacolensısGoldman8:Kellogg,1940fromBritishColumbia8cAlberta(SWCanada)toColorado8cSDakota(NUSA).</p><p>O.v.gnudoliiGay8cGervais,1846-C8:EColombia,WVenezuela,ÊEcuador,andNPeru.</p><p>O.v.gymnotisWiegmann,1833fromEVenezuelatoSuriname.</p><p>O.v.hillonmsisGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(HiltonHeadI,SouthCarolina).</p><p>O.v.IeucumsDouglas,1829-NWUSA(CoastalWashington8cOregon).</p><p>O.v.macmurusRaﬁnesque,1817fromSMinnesotatoCLouisiana(USA).</p><p>O.v.margarita:Osgood,1910-Venezuela(IslaMargarita).</p><p>O.v.mcilhennyiEW.Miller,1928-SUSA(coastalTexas8:Louisiana).</p><p>O.v.mexıcanusGmelin,1788-CMexico.</p><p>O.v.miquihuanensisGoldman8cKellogg,1940-NCMexico.</p><p>O.v.nelsoniMerriam,1898-SMexico,Guatemala.</p><p>O.v.rugribarbisGoldman8:Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(Blackbeardl.Georgia).</p><p>O.v.oaxacensisGoldman8cKellogg,1940-SMexico(Oaxaca).</p><p>O.v.ochrourusBailey,1932-SWCanadaandNWUSA(innerWashingtonandOregonioWyoming).</p><p>O.v.muelaBangs,1896-SEUSA(NWFlorida).</p><p>O.v.pmıvıanusGray,1874-PeruandNWBolivia.</p><p>O.v.rothschildiThomas,1902-Panama(Coibal).</p><p>O.v.semmalusGoldman&amp;Kellogg,1940-SEUSA(Florida).</p><p>O.v.smaloaeJ.AAllen,1903-CWMexico.</p><p>O.v.launnsulaeGoldman8cKellogg,1940-EUä(Bulls1,NonlrCarolina).</p><p>O.v.taranusMeams,1898-CUSA(fromNebraskatoNewMexicoandTexas).</p><p>O.v.thomasiMerriam,1898-SEMexicoandGuatemala.</p><p>O.v.loltecusSaussure,1860-SMexico.</p><p>O.v.lmpualzsCabrera,1918coastalColombiaandEcuador.</p><p>O.v.truerMerriam,1898fromBelizetoCostaRica.</p><p>O.v.ustusTrouessart,1910innerEcuador.</p><p>O.v.venalorıusGoldman8cKellogg,1940—EUSA(HuntingIs,SouthCarolina).</p><p>O.v.vememıasGoldman8:Kellogg,1940—NEMexico.</p><p>O. v. yuaıtanensıls Hays. 1872 -SE Mexico (Yucatan).</p><p>White-tailed Deer have been introduced into Czech Republic, Finland, Serbia, New Zealand, and Cuba.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 120-190 cm for males (adult bucks) and 115-150 cm for fenales (does), tail 14-37 cm, shoulder height 60-105 cm (bucks) and 55-95 cm (does); weight 30-130 kg (adult bucks) and 25-85 kg (adult does). The heaviest animals occur in Canada and northern USA, with records of 180-230 kg weight for exceptional bucks and 115 kg for does. Sexual size dimorphism is very variable, with adult bucks on average 30-60% heavier than does. Generally a medium-sized deer, with a relatively long and broad tail, brown with a white fringe above, white below. The ears are large, around half the length of the face. The lacrimal fossa is shallow. The coat is mainly russet brown in summer, gray to grayish-brown in winter; the underparts and a throat patch are whitish. The rostrum is dark, with a white spot on the chin, a white band on the muzzle and a whitish eye ring. Molts in April-June and August-September. Newborn fawns flecked with around 300 white spots, which disappear after 3—4 months. Nasal, preorbital, forehead, metatarsal, tarsal, front and rear interdigital, and (in males) preputial glands are generally present. The metatarsal gland is relatively small; deer in part of the South American range may lack it. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Molars erupt at 6-18 months of age. Males have antlers. The main beam curves forward and slightly inward, and a few vertical tines arise directly from it; the subbasal snag is moderately long. Antlers of adults are on average 30-60 cm long, with two to four tines, but antler beams of 80 cm and antler pairs with 30-38 tines are known. The first antler set, small bony buttons, develops at 8-9 months of age. The second set, which grows in yearling bucks, generally consists of spikes. Maximum antler size is attained at 5-7 years of age. Antler casting of adults occurs in most of North America from late December to early February. Antler regrowth begins only in March-April, with velvet shedding in September. In northern Mexico antler casting is postponed to May and velvet cleaning to October. From southern Mexico to northern South America, at tropical and equatorial latitudes, antlers are usually cast all year. Hooves are elongated, 4-8 cm long.</p><p>Habitat. As a pioneer species, it is often associated with early successional habitats, and as an ecotone species, it takes advantage of the woodland-meadow interface. It is extremely adaptable, living from northern temperate woodlands to semi-arid scrubland to prairies, savannas, and tropical dry and rain forests. In North Americait prefers forest edges and open woodlands close to farms and fields. Where White-tailed Deer and Mule Deer ( O. hemionus)overlap, they tend to be ecologically separated; White-tailed Deer prefer the moister habitats, Mule Deer the drier ones. Up to 4500 m above sea level in the Andes.</p><p>Food and Feeding. As a flexible browser, it feeds on young leaves, buds,twigs,forbs, fruits, and seeds. It has occasionally been observed feeding on dead fish, birds, and insects.</p><p>Breeding. Females usually attain puberty at around 18 months of age, twelve at tropical latitudes. In high quality habitat some females may ovulate sooner and conceive at seven months of age. Males reach physiological maturity at about 18 months of age; even when adult bucks are present, a variable proportion of yearlings and two-year-old subadults have some opportunity to reproduce. At temperate latitudes rutis seasonal, occurring in November in most of North America, in January-March in northern Mexico. In tropical latitudes mating may occur year-round, with peaks locally variable. In Suriname mating activity is more frequent between April and October, in Colombia between February and August. One month before the rutting season subadult and adult males begin to perform sparring matches to establish a hierarchy. At the onset of the rut dominant adult males begin to rub antlers, fray saplings and bushes, scrape the ground, and rub-urinate. They adopt a tending bond mating system, in which they court individual receptive does. The buck initiates the courtship with a low-stretch approach followed by a long, fast chase in a large circle. Females are polyestrous, with cycles of 26 days. During estrus they are receptive for 18-24 hours. The gestation lenght is normally 194-202 days. In North America fawning season peaks in May-June. Parturient does become territorial, actively defending fawning grounds. At temperate latitudes primiparous does give birth to one fawn, and adult does usually produce twins; in tropical ranges does often give birth to singletons. Newborn fawns weigh 1.7-4 kg and are able to stand in a few hours. For the first three weeks they remain hidden, and then they begin to accompany their mothers. By two months of age they form new family groups. Fawns begin to ingest their first vegetation at 2-3 weeks of age. At one month they are functional ruminants and may feed more regularly on plants. Weaning occurs at four months. At tropical latitudes a postpartum estrus frequently occurs. Does have a long reproductive life span, of up to 14 years. Bucks reach their full body weight at 5-7 years of age; does attain adult size at 3—4 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 11-16 years, with records of 19-20. Maximum longevity in captivity is 23 years of age. In the wild, mean life expectancy is often only two or three years. Pumas (Puma concolor), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Coyotes (C. latrans), foxes, and Bobcats (Lynx rufus) are the main predators in North America. Pumas, Jaguars (Panthera onca), and Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) prey on the deer in Central and South America.</p><p>Activity patterns. Usually crepuscular, with peaks of activity at dusk andjust after dawn. Much of the day spent in the cover.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. It is a saltatorial runner, able to reach 60-65 km/h for a short distance. In flight it raises its conspicuous tail, exposing the white underside and rump. It is a good swimmer. Typically home range size is 1-3 km?, larger for adult males. In northern ranges, in response to cold weather and snow depth, White-tailed Deer may make relatively short migrations, 6-23 km long. It is a moderately social species. An adult doe, her fawn, and female offspring of previous years form a family or matriarchal group. Adult and subadult bucks form loose bachelor or fraternal groups. Bachelor groups are more common in winter after the antlers are shed, and disband some time after velvet cleaning. Family groups may form larger aggregations when feeding in rich pastures.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Populations of Guatemala CITES Appendix III. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Its global demographic trend is assessed as stable. Actually in Canada and USA, White-tailed Deer are overabundant, but from Mexico to northern South America the species is often declining due to hunting pressure, habitat loss, and predation by feral dogs. In North America, just after the establishment of the first European settlements, this deer was persecuted. Its decline become dramatic with the European expansion into the continent’s interior, especially from 1850 onward. Deer reached their minimum in the early 1900s, with a population assessed at 300,000-500,000 animals. Strict hunting rules and habitat changes that increased environmental diversity fostered a remarkable increase in the total number of deer, estimated in the late 1990s at around 28-5 million individuals. Annual harvest in North America was about six million animals and annual victims of car collisions are around 700,000. “Florida Key Deer” (clavium), which live in 25 islands of the Florida Keys. reached a minimum population of about 50 animals in late 1940s, then grew to 300-400 individuals in 1974 and to 700-800 in 2000; collisions with cars on highways represent the main cause of mortality. The introduced population in Finland was estimated for 2005 as 55,000 individuals.</p><p>Bibliography. Crete &amp; Daigle (1999), DelGiudice (2007), Demarais et al. (2000), Fuller et al. (1989), Geist (1998), Halls (1984), Hirth (1977), Lopez et al. (2004), McCullough (1979), Miller et al. (2003), Smith (1991).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFD9FFD9FF4FFE1BE372FE04	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFD8FFD9FF0FFDF3EF17FC54.text	03A087C4FFD8FFD9FF0FFDF3EF17FC54.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Odocoileus hemionus (Rafinesque 1817)	<div><p>37.</p><p>Mule Deer</p><p>Odocoileus hemionus</p><p>French: Cerf mulet / German: Maultierhirsch / Spanish: Ciervo mulo</p><p>Other common names: Black-tailed Deer (columbianus and sitkensis)</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus hemionus Rafinesque, 1817,</p><p>Big Sioux River, South Dakota (USA).</p><p>A study on mtDNA has confirmed that there are two distinct groups, a northern coastal one (“Black-tailed Deer”) and an eastern and south-western one (true Mule Deer). The large divergence between these two lineages seems to provide evidence for separate ice-free refugia during the last glacial maximum, about 18,000 years ago. Mule Deer persisted south of the ice sheet in multiple refugial populations. Black-tailed Deer probably survived in a single refugium in the Pacific Northwest, with a slow post-glacial recolonization, resulting in a loss of genetic diversity. Here eight subspecies are recognized.</p><p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p><p>O.h.hemionusRafinesque,1817—RockyMtsfromYukontoTexasandNewMexico.</p><p>O.h.californicusCaton,1876—CCalifornia.</p><p>O.h.cerrosensisMerriam,1898—NWMexico(CedrosI,BajaCalifornia).</p><p>O.h.columbianusRichardson,1829—coastalregionfromPortSimpsoninBritishColumbia(WCanada)toCCalifornia(WUSA).</p><p>O.h.eremicusMearns,1897—SWUSA(Arizona,NMexico).</p><p>O.h.fulbiginatusCowan,1933—SWUSA(SCalifornia)andNWMexico(NBajaCalifornia).</p><p>O.h.peninsulaeLydekker,1898—NWMexico(SBajaCalifornia).</p><p>O. h. sitkensis Merriam, 1898 — coastal S Alaska.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 150-180 cm for males (adult bucks) and 135-155 cm for females (does), tail 15-23 cm, shoulder height 85-105 cm (bucks) and 75-95 cm (does); weight 50-110 kg (adult bucks) and 35-65 kg (adult does). The heaviest animals occur in the northern Rocky Mountains, with records of 210-230 kg for exceptional bucks. Adult bucks average 50-70% heavier than does. Generally a mediumsized deer similar to the White-tailed Deer ( O. virginianus), but with a relatively shorter and narrower tail that is white to black above, or tipped with black. The ears are very large, around two thirds the length of the face. Males have antlers, with a main beam that grows upward and then bifurcates in equal-length forked tines (“dichotomous branching”); the subbasal snag is short. The lacrimal fossa is deep. The coat is reddishbrown in summer, grayish-yellow, gray, or dark brown in winter. The rostrum is pale and the forehead has a dark patch. Molts in May and September. Newborn fawns are spotted. Nasal, preorbital, metatarsal, tarsal, and front and rear interdigital and caudal glands are generally present. The metatarsal gland is large. There are two main phenotypes, the Black-tailed Deer of the north-west coast, which has a tail thatis black above and a moderately large metatarsal gland, and the true Mule Deer of the south-west coast and inland, which has a conspicuous white rump patch, a white tail with a black tip, and a very large metatarsal gland. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Molars erupt at 6-18 months of age. Males sprout antler pedicles at three months of age. The first antler set, small buttons, develops at 8-9 months of age. The second set, in yearling bucks, generally consists of spikes. Adult antlers are usually 45-65 cm in length but can be longer, up to 75 cm. Antler casting occurs from to late January to March. Regrowth begins in April-May, from two weeks to two months after antler casting. Velvet shedding occurs in September.</p><p>Habitat. It is an ecotone deer, preferring open forest and scrubland associated with steep and broken terrain. It also lives in coastal coniferous rain forests and on prairies and in semi-desert shrub habitats. Snow depth of 30 cm may impede movements, and depth more than 50 cm prevents the use of an area.</p><p>Food and Feeding. It is an opportunistic intermediate feeder, with a tendency to be selective on various types of browse.</p><p>Breeding. Puberty is generally reached by females at about 18 months of age, rarely at 6-7 months. Males attain physiological sexual maturity at 18 months, but their opportunities to mate are low up to 2-3 years of age. Rutting season peaks between November and January. Dominant bucks court and mate estrous does. The courtship is initiated by a low-stretch approach of the buck, followed by a slow pursuit in small circles. Females are seasonally polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 23-28 days and a receptive period of 24-36 hours. Mean pregnancy length is 203 days, with a birth peak between June and July. Primiparous does give birth to a single fawn; adults tend to produce twins. The spotted newborns weighs 2.7-4 kg and remain hidden for the first week. At three months of age they lose the spots, and at three or four months are weaned. Full weight is attained at 2-3 years of age by females, at 7-8 years by males. Maximum longevity is 19-20 years, but very few animals survive beyond 8-10 years. Main predators are Pumas (Puma concolor), Coyotes (Canis latrans), and Bobcats (Lynx rufus).</p><p>Activity patterns. Mule Deer are mainly active at dusk and dawn.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. It is a saltatorial runner with a specialized flight gait, the fourfooted bound known as “stotting.” For short durations it can reach 40 km /h. Generally home ranges are relatively small, 2-5-5 km?, larger in males. In northern latitudes and in montane areas, decreasing temperatures and snow fall prompt 15-30 km seasonal movements from higher to lower elevations. It is a moderately social deer. Females form matrilinear groups. Males are solitary orlive in small bands of unrelated individuals. Large temporary feeding aggregations in open ground are common in winter and early spring.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCNRed List. Persecution and habitat destruction were responsible for the dramatic decline in the 19" century. Predator control, law enforcement, and habitat diversification caused by human activities (logging, burning, livestock ranching) all improved the living conditions for Mule Deer, which increased in abundance and distribution to a peak population of 7-5 million in late 1950s. From 1980 on, the total population has seemed substantially stable at about five million animals. Annual harvest in late 1990s was 535,000 individuals.</p><p>Bibliography. Anderson et al. (1974), Anderson &amp; Wallmo (1984), Crete &amp; Daigle (1999), Geist (1998), Kie &amp; Czech (2000), Mackie et al. (2003), Martinez-Munoz et al. (2003), Wallmo (1981).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFD8FFD9FF0FFDF3EF17FC54	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFD8FFDAFA70FB75E7FFFE9B.text	03A087C4FFD8FFDAFA70FB75E7FFFE9B.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Blastocerus dichotomus (Illiger 1815)	<div><p>38.</p><p>Marsh Deer</p><p>Blastocerus dichotomus</p><p>French: Cerf des marais / German: Sumpfhirsch / Spanish: Ciervo de los pantanos</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus dichotomus Illiger, 1815,</p><p>Lake Ipoa, Paraguay.</p><p>This species is monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. E Peru, Bolivia, Brazil (S of Amazonia), Paraguay, and N Argentina.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 180 cm (males) and 165 cm (females), tail 13-15 cm, shoulder height 115-130 cm (males) and 100-115 cm (females); weight 110-130 kg (males) and 70-100 kg (females). Bucks are on average 30-50% heavier than does. Relatively large-sized deer, with a narrow face and long, thin legs; bushy tail. Legs black up to the radius. Muzzle black, white ring around eyes. Yellowish tail with black tip. Fawns unspotted. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Preorbital, nasal, rear interdigital, and tarsal glands are present. Antlers of adult males are typically fourto five-tined, 40-45 cm long, with radial branching; the main beam bifurcates not far from the base and each tine tends to bifurcate. Yearling males have simple spikes; two-year-old subadults have forked beams. Antler casting occurs in almost every month of the year, with a peak in September. Hooves are elongated; the pads of the hoof are connected by a strong membrane and can be spread up to 10 cm apart.</p><p>Habitat. It occurs in several kinds of wetlands, including marshy habitats and seasonally flooded areas. It avoids forests and selects areas with a water depth of 30-60 cm.</p><p>Food and Feeding. It is an intermediate feeder with a tendency to browse easily-digestible food. The diet consists mainly of semi-aquatic and aquatic plants.</p><p>Breeding. It is not yet known at what age females attain puberty. They have an estrous cycle of 24 days. The mean length of gestation is 271 days. In captivity there is no clear seasonality in reproduction. In the Pantanal of Brazil, the main fawning season is in April-August, with a higher frequency of births in May-July, when the water level is declining. In Argentina births are mainly in December—March. Does give birth to a singleton, weighing on average 4-5 kg. The fawn is relatively precocious and at five days of age it begins to follow its mother. Jaguars (Panthera onca), Pumas (Puma concolor), caimans and anacondas may prey on full-grown Marsh Deer; Maned Wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus) may prey on fawns.</p><p>Activity patterns. It is mostly diurnal, but it may become nocturnal when persecuted. It avoids eating during the hottest hours of the day.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Its large haunches and long limbs make it a saltatorial deer. Its movements follow the advance and recession of the water level. Males have home ranges of 800-5000 ha, females of 300-2400 ha. It is quite adept at swimming. It is a weakly gregarious species. Females form small family groups and males are mostly solitary.</p><p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. Overhunting and habitat loss have drastically decreased the original distribution, creating small isolated populations. It was extinct in Uruguay by the late 1950s. The largest population lives in the Pantanal wetland, in Brazil, where in 1991-1992 a large scale survey estimated it at around 44,000 animals. In Argentina, estimates for Ibera marshes are around 1100-2000 animals, and other important populations are known from Formosa Natural Reserve and the Parana River Delta. In Bolivia, several populations are known from the Beni savannas and Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, and in Pampas del Heath, north of Madidi National Park, a recent survey gives an estimate of around 700 Marsh Deer. The main population in Paraguayis in the Yacyreta region where density is low. Hydroelectric dams and drainage for agriculture continue to reduce its range. Poaching and diseases transmitted by introduced livestock contribute to its decline. Pollution of water associated with gold mining is an additional threat in Pantanal, Brazil.</p><p>Bibliography. Duarte et al. (2008), Pinder &amp; Grosse (1991), Piovezan et al. (2010), Schaller &amp; Vasconcelos (1978), Tomas &amp; Salis (2000).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFD8FFDAFA70FB75E7FFFE9B	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFDBFFDAFAB6FE19EF78F7BE.text	03A087C4FFDBFFDAFAB6FE19EF78F7BE.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Hippocamelus antisensis (d'Orbigny 1834)	<div><p>40.</p><p>North Andean Huemul</p><p>Hippocamelus antisensis</p><p>French: Taruca / German: Nordlicher Andenhirsch / Spanish: Huemul septentrional</p><p>Other common names: Northern Huemul, Peruvian Heumul, Taruca</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus antisensis d’Orbigny, 1834,</p><p>Bolivian Andes.</p><p>This species is monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. The Andes in Peru, Bolivia, and NW Argentina.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 140-145 cm, tail 11-12 cm, shoulder height 75-80 cm (males) and 70-75 cm (females); weight 55-60 kg (males) and 45-55 kg (females). Medium-sized deer, with a stocky, short-legged body. Tail relatively short. Ears long and pointed. The coat is sandy-gray to grayish-brown, with a white rump-patch, a dark band over eyes, a whitish patch around the muzzle, and a pale throat. The hairs are coarse, long, and brittle. Fawns are unspotted. Permanent dentition of 34 teeth. Preorbital, tarsal, and interdigital glands are present; the preorbital gland is very large. Antlers of adults are forked and 22-25 cm long. Antler cycle is highly synchronized, with antler casting around September and velvet cleaning around January.</p><p>Habitat. It lives at high elevations, up to 5000 m above sea level, in open landscapes near rock outcrops, in alpine grasslands and scrublands. It seems to prefer rocky areas of sparse vegetation with nearby water sources, usually a small ravine, lagoon or marsh.</p><p>Food and Feeding. It is an intermediate feeder with a tendency to select more digestible plants. Its diet mainly consists of small forbs and young grasses.</p><p>Breeding. Females likely reach puberty at about 18 months of age. Reproduction is markedly seasonal, with a rutting season around June-July, during the driest period of the year. The mean length of pregnancy is about 240 days. The peak of births is in February-March, in the middle of or towards the end of the rainy season. Females usually give birth to a singleton, but twins are recorded in particularly productive habitats.</p><p>Activity patterns. Mainly diurnal; most active in early morning and afternoon.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. It is very agile on steep slopes and rocks. During the day it makes elevational movements, ascending toward noon and descending in late afternoon and night. It forms small, fluid, mixed groups led by a dominant female. These open groups, of three to six animals, which continuously change composition, are part of local cohesive population units.</p><p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. The total population is around 12,000-17,000 individuals, of which 9000-13,000 are in Peru. Habitatloss, competition with livestock, and predation by dogs are the main threats.</p><p>Bibliography. Barrio (2010), Barrio &amp; Ferreyra (2008), Merkt (1987), Roe &amp; Rees (1976).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFDBFFDAFAB6FE19EF78F7BE	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFDBFFDAFF4CFDD9E4A5F27A.text	03A087C4FFDBFFDAFF4CFDD9E4A5F27A.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Ozotoceros bezoarticus (Linnaeus 1758)	<div><p>39.</p><p>Pampas Deer</p><p>Ozotoceros bezoarticus</p><p>French: Cerf des pampas / German: Pampashirsch / Spanish: Ciervo de la pampa</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus bezoarcticus Linnaeus, 1758,</p><p>Pernanbuco (Brazil).</p><p>The scientific name of the species originates from bezoar stone, a calcareous mass allegedly found in the stomachs of this deer. Five subspecies are recognized.</p><p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p><p>O.b.bezoarcticusLinnaeus,1758—CBrazil(SofAmazonia).</p><p>O.b.arerunguaensisGonzalezetal.,2002—WUruguay.</p><p>O.b.celerCabrera,1943—ArgentinePampas(SanLuis&amp;BuenosAiresprovinces).</p><p>O.b.leucogasterGoldfuss,1817—Bolivia,WBrazil,Paraguay,NArgentineChaco(SantaFe&amp;Corrientesprovinces).</p><p>O. b. uruguayensis Gonzalez et al., 2002 — E Uruguay.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 90-120 cm (males) and 85-90 cm (females), tail 10-14 cm, shoulder height 65-70 cm (males) and 60-65 cm (females); weight of males 24-34 kg (up to 40 kg) and of females 22-29 kg. Bucks are on average 15-20% heavier than females. Medium-sized, lightly built deer. The main color of the coat goes from pale reddish-brown or tawny-brown in the north to bay in the south. Whitish areas around the eyes, lips, throat, chest, and tarsal tuft. Females have two small white spots on the forehead. Fawns are spotted for three months. Preorbital, nasal, tarsal, and rear interdigital glands are always present. Metatarsal glands are sometimes lacking. Permanent dentition is 32 teeth. Antlers of adults are about 30 cm long and typically have three tines, a well-developed brow tine, and a terminal fork. Pedicles begin to grow at five months of age; the first antlers are buttons or short spikes. Antler cycles are seasonal and locally synchronized, but with variable timing according to latitude. Antler casting occurs in autumn (Brazil) or in winter (Argentina and Uruguay). Regrowth starts immediately and lasts about 100 days. Velvet shedding peaks in winter or spring. At six years of age antlers attain their full size.</p><p>Habitat. It prefers grassland (pampas, savanna, also seasonally flooded grassland). In Argentina it is able to tolerate winter temperatures as low as —15°C and a summer shade temperature of 42°C.</p><p>Food and Feeding. As a mixed feeder,it is able to eat grass but often selects forbs and can browse shrubs.</p><p>Breeding. Does generally attain puberty at around 14 months of age. Bucks reach sexual maturity at about twelve months but normally begin to reproduce later. Conceptions may occur year-round, but the mating season has often one main peak in summer-early autumn. Does have an estrous cycle of 21 days. Bucks may follow receptive does with long pursuits and approach them in a low stretch posture, uttering soft buzzing sounds, possibly an imitation ofthe distress call of the fawn. The mean length of gestation is around 220 days. Does give birth to one fawn, weighing on average 2 kg. Fawns stand up and start to suckle 30-60 minutes after birth. By 2-3 weeks of age they begin to run and play. At four weeks they start to graze and by eight weeks they feed with their mother and other deer. Jaguars (Panthera onca), Pumas (Puma concolor), and Maned Wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus) are the main predators; Pampas Foxes (Pseudalopex gymnocercus) and Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) may kill fawns.</p><p>Activity patterns. It is active all day, with recurrent feeding and resting bouts.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Pampas Deer are mostly sedentary, with home ranges that can vary from 5 km? to 170 km?. They are weakly social, forming small fluid groups. Even when the species was abundant, groups rarely exceeded five or six individuals. Males mix with females all year, moving from one family group to another. Aggregations of over 50 animals are temporary associations on feeding grounds.</p><p>Status and Conservation. CITES Annex I. Classified as Near Threatened on The [UCN Red List and decreasing. Habitat destruction and habitat conversion to cropland and cattle ranching continue to be significant threats. Poaching and predation by dogs contribute to its decline. The main populations are in Brazil, in Pantanal with 20,000-40,000 individuals and in Cerrado with 2000 animals; small populations have been recently rediscovered in the Brazilian states of Parana, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul. Around 1100 deer live in Uruguay (El Tapado in the north-west with 800 individuals and Los Ajos in the southeast with 300 deer). In Argentina, where originally Pampas Deer had half a million square kilometers of available grassland, now only four small populationssurvive, for a total of 1200-1400 individuals. A small population may still exist in northern Bolivia and small pockets still live in the Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, in north-eastern Bolivia.</p><p>Bibliography. Gonzalez, Alvarez &amp; Maldonado (2002), Gonzalez, Cosse et al. (2010), Gonzalez, Maldonado et al. (1998), Jackson (1986, 1987), Jackson &amp; Langguth (1987), Redford (1987), Rodrigues &amp; Monteiro Filho (2000), Tomas (1995), Ungerfeld, Bielli et al. (2008), Ungerfeld, Gonzélez-Pensado et al. (2008), Ungerfeld, Gonzélez-Sierra &amp; Bielli (2008), Vila et al. (2008).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFDBFFDAFF4CFDD9E4A5F27A	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFDBFFDBFA48F727E294FB40.text	03A087C4FFDBFFDBFA48F727E294FB40.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Hippocamelus bisulcus (Molina 1782)	<div><p>41.</p><p>South Andean Huemul</p><p>Hippocamelus bisulcus</p><p>French: Guémal / German: Sidlicher Andenhirsch / Spanish: Huemul meridional</p><p>Other common names: Chilean Huemul, Southern Huemul, Patagonian Huemul</p><p>Taxonomy. Equus bisulcus Molina, 1782,</p><p>Colchagua Province, Chile.</p><p>This species is monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. The Andes in S Chile and S Argentina.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 155-165 cm (males), tail 13-15 cm, shoulder height 85-90 cm (males) and 80-85 cm (females); weight 70-75 kg (males) and 60-70 kg (females). Medium-sized deer, very similar to the North Andean Huemul, butslightly larger, darker, and with a more uniform coloration. The coat is rusty brown in summer and grayish-yellow in winter. Bucks have a dark chevron along the face and muzzle. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Preorbital, tarsal, and front and rear interdigital glands are present. Antlers of adults are forked and about 25 cm long. The pedicle begins to grow at six months; the first antlers are short spikes. The antler cycle is highly synchronized, with antler casting in early winter (late June-July) and velvet shedding in late spring (November).</p><p>Habitat. It lives on bare rocks, alpine meadows, and at elevations from sea level to 3000 m. Forests, especially of southern beech (Nothofagus), may become more important in winter. In the past, it occurred also in completely treeless areas of the Patagonian grasslands.</p><p>Food and Feeding. It mainly eats highly digestible plants, forbs, buds, young twigs, and young grass. More than 145 plant species have been identified in six different study areas.</p><p>Breeding. Females attain puberty at about 18 months of age. Males are weakly polygynous, with a tending bond mating system. Rutting season peaks in February—-May. The gestation is about 240 days long. Births are mostly in mid-spring to early summer. Females usually give birth on bare cliffs, to a single fawn weighing 3-6 kg. Fawns remain hidden for the first days. At two months of age they consume vegetation frequently. Weaning occurs at four months of age. Pumas (Puma concolor), Culpeos (Pseudalopex culpaeus), and dogs are the main predators.</p><p>Activity patterns. It is mainly crepuscular. During midday it spends most of the time ruminating and resting.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. It is particularly adapted to moving on rugged terrain. Home ranges are relatively stable, small (40-80 ha) or medium sized (300-500 ha). The huemuls tend to move down during winter and up during summer, without long-distance migrations. They are weakly gregarious, forming small groups, generally consisting of a pair of adults (male and female) with offspring. Sexual segregation occurs only during the fawning season. In the past feeding aggregations of over 100 animals were observed in winter.</p><p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. The total population is probably around 1500 animals, of which 1000 are in Chile and 500 in Argentina. It is the rarest deer in South America. The present range is extremely fragmented, with about one hundred subpopulations, of which 63 are outside protected areas. The northernmost subpopulation (Nevados de Chillan-Laguna del Laja, in the Chilean Andes, 36° S) possibly amounts to less than 50 individuals dispersed in more than 2000 km *. Overhunting, introduction of livestock, competition with exotic deer and habitat conversion to agriculture have produced a dramatic decrease in range and abundance.</p><p>Bibliography. Corti, Shaffer et al. (2011), Corti, Wittmer &amp; Festa-Bianchet (2010), Diaz (1993), Frid (1994, 1999, 2001), Gill et al. (2007), Povilitis (1985, 1998), Saucedo &amp; Gill (2004), Vila et al. (2010).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFDBFFDBFA48F727E294FB40	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFDAFFDBFF74FA76EFFBFC29.text	03A087C4FFDAFFDBFF74FA76EFFBFC29.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Pudu mephistophiles De Winton 1896	<div><p>42.</p><p>Northern Pudu</p><p>Pudu mephistophiles</p><p>French: Poudou de I'Equateur / German: Nordpudu / Spanish: Pudu chico</p><p>Taxonomy. Pudua mephistophiles De Winton, 1896,</p><p>Papallacta, Napo-Pastaza (Ecuador).</p><p>This species is monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. It ranges through temperate zone forests and paramos from the Cordillera Central in C Colombia through the Cordillera Oriental of Ecuador to the eastern Andean cloud forests in Peru, southward to Junin department. The exact range is unknown and there are obvious distributional gaps. One major natural gap is the dry forest south of the Huancabamba depression, which separates the northern population from the main Peruvian population.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 75 cm, tail 3 cm, shoulder height 25-38 cm; weight 5-6 kg. Very small-sized deer, the smallest species of the family. The legs are short, the rostrum and the neck are shortened; the ears are rounded. The rhinarium is bulbous. The tail is rudimentary. Males and females are of similar size. The coatis rufous with dark brown on the back. The face is black; the legs are dark brown. Fawns are unspotted. Preorbital glands are very small or absent. Tarsal and metatarsal glands are lacking. There are small interdigital glands. Permanent dentition of 32-34 teeth. Antlers of adults are spikes about 6 cm long (up to 9 cm). Pedicles begin to grow at about three months. Hooves are narrow and pointed.</p><p>Habitat. It mainly occurs in mountain forests and high elevation grasslands, from 1700 m to 4500 m above sea level. Throughoutits range, the Northern Pudu uses several habitat types, especially high altitude montane forests and the humid paramo grasslands above the tree-line. Montane forests occupied are humid rainforests such as elfin and cloud forests, frequently close to paramo grasslands, which are primarily used by populations in the northern part of the range. The main altitude used by Northern Pudus is 2000-4000 m, with records as high as 4500 m in Ecuador. Paramo can be characterized as a humid grassland mixed with short, flowering vegetation such as terrestrial bromeliads, mosses, lichens, tree-ferns, and various other bushes. Throughout its distribution, this species endures low temperatures, with frequent night-time frost in the higher altitudes. Precipitation is high in all habitat types used, and includes rain, snow, and fog.</p><p>Food and Feeding. The Northern Pudu is assumed to be a browser feeding mainly on leaves and fruits. According to the observations of local people in Peru,it climbs trees to forage on fruit. The species is known to encroach on agriculturalfields to feed on crops in areas of higher human habitation.</p><p>Breeding. It is not known at what age females attain puberty. Since the climate and the environment are less seasonal than in the southern Andes, reproduction is probably less seasonal. There are probably two main peaks of rutting activity, one in August— September and one in March-April. After a gestation of about seven months, a single fawn is born, weighing about 0-4 kg. Females experience a postpartum estrus. Fawns are precocious and at six months of age reach adult size.</p><p>Activity patterns. It is crepuscular and nocturnal, but given the lack of good observational data on this species, it may have more complicated patterns of foraging and resting throughout the day.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. It is a saltatorial, duiker-like deer, able to flee zig-zagging in dense cover. Pudus are mostly solitary but are sometimes seen in pairs. They are probably territorial, but no long term studies are available.</p><p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. Overhunting from the 1950s through the early 1980s and habitat loss have fragmented the distribution range and decreased the population size. The expansion of human settlements, with consequent habitat conversion and persecution by dogs are important current threats.</p><p>Bibliography. Barrio &amp; Tirira (2008), Czernay (1987), Escamilo et al. (2010), Hershkovitz (1982).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFDAFFDBFF74FA76EFFBFC29	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFDAFFDBFA73FBAEEE34F3BB.text	03A087C4FFDAFFDBFA73FBAEEE34F3BB.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Pudu puda (Molina 1782)	<div><p>43.</p><p>Southern Pudu</p><p>Pudu puda</p><p>French: Poudou austral / German: Siidpudu / Spanish: Pudu</p><p>Other common names: Chilean Pudu</p><p>Taxonomy. Capra puda Molina, 1782,</p><p>Chiloé Province (Chile).</p><p>This species is monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. It is found in S Chile between 35° S (Mataquito River) and 47° S (Lake Buenos Aires, Peninsula Esmeralda &amp; Laguna San Rafael) and in adjacent W Argentina from SW Neuquén Province, southward along the foothills of the Andes to Los Alerces National Park in Chubut Province.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 80 cm, tail 4 cm, shoulder height 30-40 cm; weight 9-10 kg (up to 14 kg). Small-sized deer,slightly larger than the Northern Pudu. The coat is rufous in summer, dark brown in winter; the legs are paler. Fawns are spotted until they are three months of age. A large preorbital gland and a small interdigital gland are present. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth. Antlers of adults are spikes 5-9 cm long (up to 10 cm). Thefirst true set of antlers develops at 9-12 months of age. Antler cycle is synchronized: antler casting is in June—July, velvet cleaning in October. Hooves are short.</p><p>Habitat. It lives in temperate pristine rain forests, from sea level to 1700 m above sea level, more frequently at high elevations. It also occurs in secondary forests. It feeds along forest edges.</p><p>Food and Feeding. As a browser,it eats young leaves, sprouts of trees and shrubs, forbs, and fruits.</p><p>Breeding. Females attain puberty at 12-18 months of age, sometimes at 5—6 months. Males are able to reproduce at two or three years of age. Breeding is markedly seasonal, with a rut mainly in March-April and a fawning season in November-December. In the courtship approach males lower their body in an exaggerated crouched posture with belly almost touching the ground. Females have an estrous cycle of eleven days. The length of pregnancy is about 195 days. Females give birth to a single fawn weighing about 0.7-0. 9 kg. The first solid food is eaten at twelve days of age. Weaning occurs very early, possibly at two months of age. Maximum longevity in captivity is 17-18 years. Main predators are Pumas (Puma concolor), Kodkods (Leopardus guigna), foxes and Magellanic horned owls (Bubo magellanicus). On Chiloé Island, pudus comprise 3-7% of the diet of Darwin’s Fox (Pseudalopexfulvipes).</p><p>Activity patterns. It is mainly crepuscular, but can be active both day and night as well.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Its small and compact body enables it to move in the thick understory of the forest. It occupies home ranges of 15-25 ha, sometimes larger, which it defends actively. Fighting includes jumping at the rival, biting, and thrashing him with the front legs. Marking includes depositing feces in latrines. It lives solitarily or in temporary pairs.</p><p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List and decreasing. Total population is thought to be less than 10,000 animals. Poaching and habitat loss and fragmentation have caused a rapid decline in recent decades. Over 90% ofits former habitat in Chile has been lost. Predation by domestic dogs and competition with domestic livestock and exotic wildlife are important additional threats.</p><p>Bibliography. Blainvillain et al. (1997), Eldridge et al. (1987), Feer (1984), Hershkovitz (1982), Jimenez (2010), MacNamara &amp; Eldridge (1987), Meier &amp; Merino (2007).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFDAFFDBFA73FBAEEE34F3BB	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFE7FFE6FF4FFE1EE42DF711.text	03A087C4FFE7FFE6FF4FFE1EE42DF711.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mazama gouazoubira (G. Fischer [von Waldheim 1814) Fischer 1814	<div><p>44.</p><p>Common Brown Brocket</p><p>Mazama gouazoubira</p><p>French: Cariacou brun / German: Graumazama / Spanish: Corzuela</p><p>Other common names: Brown Brocket, Gray Brocket</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus gouazoubira Fischer, 1814,</p><p>Asuncion region (Paraguay).</p><p>Genetic studies have ascertained that M. gouazoubira and M. nemorwvaga form a clade distinct from red and dwarf brockets. M. gouazoubira is replaced by M. nemorivaga in Amazonia. The genus Mazama should be therefore revised. The scientific name refers to a word used by Guarani Indians for this deer. Up to six subspecies of Common Brown Brocket have been described, but recent authors tend to consider this species as monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. E &amp; S Brazil, C &amp; E Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, N Argentina.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 85-105 cm, tail 8-9 cm, shoulder height 50-65 cm; weight 11-25 kg. Small to medium-sized brocket with relatively long rounded ears. The coat is mainly grayish-brown. The rump and the dorsal side of the tail are orange. Newborn fawns are spotted for 3-4 months. Preorbital, nasal, forehead, tarsal, and front and rear interdigital glands are present. Males also have a preputial gland. Antlers are 6~ 12 cm long. In Brazil hard antlers are mainly observed in May-July. In Argentina antler casting occurs between August and December. The diploid number of chromosomes is 70.</p><p>Habitat. It usually lives in bushy vegetation, forest edges, and small woods, and tends to avoid both open grassland without cover and dense forests.</p><p>Food and Feeding. It is a generalist, eating forbs, leaves, buds, and twigs; fruits are usually not important in its diet.</p><p>Breeding. Females attain puberty before one year of age. They are polyestrous, with a mean estrous cycle of 25 days and a receptive period of 48 hours. After 208-210 days of pregnancy, does give birth to a single fawn weighing 0.5-1. 3 kg. Births may occur in most months of the year. There is a postpartum estrus. Weaning occurs at around six months of age. Jaguars (Panthera onca) and Pumas (Puma concolor) are the main predators.</p><p>Activity patterns. It is active all day, with variable peaks in different areas. They are more likely to be found in dense cover during the day but emerge into the open to feed at night.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Home ranges are 30-300 ha. Itis a territorial and basically solitary species. Males defend the whole home range, females the core area. They scent-mark by depositing three to five piles of dung in latrines.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, due to its relatively large distribution range and its occurrence in several protected areas. It is globally declining because of habitat loss and high hunting pressure. In Brazil it remains the most abundant brocket species. In Argentina it is decreasing.</p><p>Bibliography. Ajmat et al. (2004), Black &amp; Vogliotti (2008), Black-Cécima et al. (2010), Pereira et al. (2006), Rivero et al. (2005), Stallings (1986).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFE7FFE6FF4FFE1EE42DF711	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFE7FFE6FAB6FD0DEF95F747.text	03A087C4FFE7FFE6FAB6FD0DEF95F747.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mazama nemorivaga Rafinesque 1817	<div><p>46.</p><p>Amazonian Brown Brocket</p><p>Mazama nemorivaga</p><p>French: Cariacou de Cayenne / German: Amazonien-Mazama / Spanish: Corzuela amazénica</p><p>Other common names: Amazonian Gray Brocket</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus nemorivagus F. Cuvier, 1817,</p><p>Cayenne (French Guiana).</p><p>Long considered a subspecies of M. gouazoubira, it is now considered a distinct species. Monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. From N &amp; E Colombia, Venezuela, and the Guianas to E Ecuador, E Peru, Amazonian Brazil, and N Bolivia; an isolated population in San José I (Panama).</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 75-100 cm, tail 6-11 cm, shoulder height 50 cm; weight 14-16 kg. Small to medium-sized brocket, with relatively small rounded ears. Large eyes and orbital cavities. The coat is dark brown dorsally, including the rump and tail. The flanks are faded brown. Antlers are 3-11 cm long. The diploid number of chromosomes is 66-70.</p><p>Habitat. It inhabits the tropical broadleaf moist forests of Amazonia, avoiding the flooded forests. Up to 1500 m in Peru. Most localities for Amazonian Brown Brockets are from tropical and subtropical broadleaf moist forests of the Amazon Basin. In addition, there are a few records from the desert and xeric scrubland biomes. They occur in non-flooded forests and are rare or absent in seasonally flooded forests.</p><p>Food and Feeding. It is mainly a fruit-eater, but also feeds on a variety of leaves and shoots.</p><p>Breeding. Mating occurs year-round. In Peru births have two peaks, January-April and July-October. In Venezuela births are mainly in July-August and November. There is a postpartum estrus. No twinning was observed and half of the females were pregnant at any given time. Most pregnant females were adults between one and two years old.</p><p>Activity patterns. It is active throughout the day, although perhaps more nocturnal than some other species of Mazama .</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. It is a solitary species. They are found foraging alone or in mated pairs within their own small territory, the boundaries of which are usually marked with urine or feces, or secretions from the eye glands.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List forits relatively large distribution range. Hunting pressure and habitat destruction for cattle ranching and agriculture are major threats.</p><p>Bibliography. Branan et al. (1985), Gayot et al. (2004), Rossi &amp; Duarte (2008), Rossi et al. (2010).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFE7FFE6FAB6FD0DEF95F747	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFE7FFE6FF43F69BEF32FD88.text	03A087C4FFE7FFE6FF43F69BEF32FD88.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mazama pandora Merriam 1901	<div><p>45.</p><p>Yucatan Brown Brocket</p><p>Mazama pandora</p><p>French: Cariacou du Yucatan / German: Yucatan-Mazama / Spanish: Corzuela de Yucatan</p><p>Taxonomy. Mazama pandora Merriam, 1901,</p><p>Tunkas, Yucatan (Mexico).</p><p>It has been considered a subspecies of M. gouazoubira and of M. americana . Monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico); possibly also in N Guatemala and N Belize.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Few measuremets available. Shoulder height 70 cm; weight 17-21 kg. Medium-sized brocket, slightly larger than the sympatric Mexican Red Brocket (M. temama). The main color of the coatis gray-brown, with pale brown to whitish underparts. A tuft of stiff hairs grows on the forehead. Relatively long antlers, longitudinally furrowed; antler tips may curve inward.</p><p>Habitat. It is a generalist, able to live in wet and dry forests as well as shrublands, with a preference for tall and medium semi-evergreen forests. It also occurs in mangrove forests, above high tide level. In populated areas,it will sometimes enter into agricultural plantations to feed.</p><p>Food and Feeding. It is mainly frugivorous, but feeds on a wide range of plants. The diet is richer in species during the wet season.</p><p>Breeding. It seems to breed during most of the year.</p><p>Activity patterns. Nothing is known of the daily activity patterns, but almost surely crepuscular. In addition, it may be active at other times of the day and night, depending on hunting pressure.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. It lives in small home ranges and is basically solitary.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. It is globally declining. Overhunting and habitat loss are the main threats.</p><p>Bibliography. Medellin et al. (1998), Weber &amp; Medellin (2010), Weber et al. (2008).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFE7FFE6FF43F69BEF32FD88	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFE7FFE7FA4BF6B1E50AFC78.text	03A087C4FFE7FFE7FA4BF6B1E50AFC78.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mazama americana (Erxleben 1777) Clinton 1822	<div><p>47.</p><p>Common Red Brocket</p><p>Mazama americana</p><p>French: Mazame roux / German: GrolRmazama / Spanish: Corzuela roja</p><p>Other common names: Red Brocket</p><p>Taxonomy. Moschus americanus Erxleben, 1777,</p><p>Cayenne (French Guiana).</p><p>It is possibly a superspecies or a species complex. Although quite uniform morphologically, Common Red Brockets exhibit an extensive karyotype variation. A recent analysis of karyotypes and mtDNA has allowed recognition of at least two clearly separated lineages, a West Amazonian and an East Amazonian one. Monotypic, pending revision.</p><p>Distribution. From Colombia and Venezuela to S Brazil, Paraguay, and N Argentina;it also occurs on Trinidad I, and previously was found on Tobago I, but has been extirpated from there recently.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 90-145 cm, tail 12-16 cm, shoulder height 60-80 cm; weight 30-35 kg (up to 65 kg). Males and females are of similar size. It is the largest brocket. The coat is reddish brown; the face and neck are gray. Newborn fawns are spotted. Antlers are about 10 cm long. The diploid number of chromosomes is 42-54.</p><p>Habitat. It lives in tropical and subtropical forests, sometimes in savanna close to the forest edge. Dense humid forests are preferred.</p><p>Food and Feeding. It feeds mostly on fruits and seeds, but also eats leaves and flowers. In Suriname it is mainly frugivorous during rainy season and it becomes folivorous during dry season.</p><p>53 Common Dwarf Brocket (Muamu chunyl</p><p>Breeding. Puberty is attained at eleven months of age. Mating occurs between April and June in Venezuela, between April and October in Suriname, in June-August in Peru. After a gestation of 240 days, females give birth to a single fawn weighing around 1-8 kg. There is a postpartum estrus.</p><p>Activity patterns. It is mainly crepuscular and nocturnal. It becomes more nocturnal in hunted areas.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. It is a good swimmer. Almost always solitary and home ranges are probably around 50-100 ha. It is territorial and marks the boundaries by defecating in latrines.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. When not hunted it is fairly common. Hunting and the conversion of forest into cropland remain important threats.</p><p>Bibliography. Abril, Carnelessi et al. (2010), Branan &amp; Marchinton (1987), Di Bitetti et al. (2008), MacNamara &amp; Eldridge (1987), Rivero et al. (2005), Varela et al. (2010).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFE7FFE7FA4BF6B1E50AFC78	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFE6FFE7FF75F500EF6CFD61.text	03A087C4FFE6FFE7FF75F500EF6CFD61.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mazama bororo Duarte 1996	<div><p>49.</p><p>Small Red Brocket</p><p>Mazama bororo</p><p>French: Mazame de Sao Paulo / German: Kiistenwald-Mazama / Spanish: Corzuela bororo</p><p>Taxonomy. Mazama bororo Duarte, 1996,</p><p>Capao Bonito, Sao Paulo (Brazil).</p><p>This species is monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. E Brazil (SE Sao Paulo State &amp; NE Parana State), the smallest distribution of any Neotropical deer species.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 85 cm, tail estimated 11-14 cm, shoulder height 50-60 cm; weight 25 kg. It is a mediumsized brocket. The coat is mainly reddish, with a grayish neck. The base of the ear, the chin, the throat, and the belly are whitish. The hindlegs are blackish from the calcaneus to the hoof. The diploid number of chromosomes is 32.</p><p>Habitat. It lives in the remaining fragments of the Serra do Mar coastal Atlantic forest, from the coast up to 1200 m above sea level.</p><p>Food and Feeding. It feeds mainly on fruits, leaves, and sprouts.</p><p>Breeding. Mating may occur throughout the year. Most births occur between August and September, at the end of winter.</p><p>Activity patterns. It is crepuscular and nocturnal.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Females seem to have home ranges of 10-50 ha. It is a solitary deer.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Habitat fragmentation and destruction are the main threats. The total population has been assessed at about 4500 individuals.</p><p>Bibliography. Duarte &amp; Jorge (2003), Duarte et al. (2008), Vogliotti &amp; Duarte (2010).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFE6FFE7FF75F500EF6CFD61	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFE6FFE7FA73FD52EF18F7E6.text	03A087C4FFE6FFE7FA73FD52EF18F7E6.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mazama nanus Rafinesque 1817	<div><p>50.</p><p>Lesser Brocket</p><p>Mazama nanus</p><p>French: Mazame nain / German: Kleinmazama / Spanish: Corzuela menor</p><p>Other common names: Brazilian Dwarf Brocket, Dwarf Red Brocket, Pigmy Brocket</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus nanus Hensel, 1872,</p><p>Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil).</p><p>Originally it was included in M. rufina . It is closely related to M. bororo . Although the name appears frequently as M. nana, the original nanus is a noun and must remain unchanged. Monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. SE Brazil, SE Paraguay, and N Argentina.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 70 cm, tail estimated 9-12 cm, shoulder height 45-50 cm; weight 14-16 kg. Small-sized brocket with small ears; forelegs shorter than hindlegs. The coat is reddish-chestnut. There is evidence of an annual cycle of antler growth and casting in the captive animals in Argentina. In Brazil this cycle apparently does not exist. The diploid number of chromosomesis 36.</p><p>Habitat. It is associated with mixed wet forests and southern pine (Awracaria) woodlands. It mainly lives in mountainous regions covered with dense vegetation. The habitat in eastern Paraguay is moist forest with an understory of bamboo thickets.</p><p>Food and Feeding. Nothing is known, but surely a browser on fruits, leaves, and shoots of various plants, like other species of Mazama .</p><p>Breeding. Birth have been observed between September and February. Females give birth to a single fawn weighing 1.1-3 kg.</p><p>Activity patterns. Their behavior is almost unknown but they appear to be active both by day and at night.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Basically solitary, but no field studies available.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. It is considered the most threatened deer of Brazil. It is probably declining, due to habitat loss (timber exploitation, expansion of agriculture) and range fragmentation.</p><p>Bibliography. Abril &amp; Duarte (2008), Abril, Vogliotti et al. (2010), Czernay (1987).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFE6FFE7FA73FD52EF18F7E6	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFE6FFE7FF0AFC79E563F592.text	03A087C4FFE6FFE7FF0AFC79E563F592.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mazama temama (Kerr 1792)	<div><p>48.</p><p>Mexican Red Brocket</p><p>Mazama temama</p><p>French: Mazame de Hernandez / German: Mexico-GroRmazama / Spanish: Corzuela temama</p><p>Other common names: Central American Red Brocket</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus temama Kerr, 1792,</p><p>Mirador, Veracruz (Mexico).</p><p>For decades this species was considered part of M. americana . The scientific name refers to an animal the explorer and naturalist F. Hernandez called “temamacame” in 1651. Three subspecies are recognized.</p><p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p><p>M.t.temamaKerr,1792—SMexico.</p><p>M.t.cerasinaHollister,1914—PanamaandNWColombia.</p><p>M. t. reperticia Goldman, 1913 — from Guatemala and Belize to Costa Rica.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 80-110 cm, tail 10-14 cm, shoulder height 60-70 cm; weight 12-32 kg. The back is reddish, the head and throat are brown or reddish, the underparts are white. The forelegs are shorter than the hindlegs.</p><p>Habitat. It is more common in well-preserved forests, especially humid ones. It can be found up to 2800 m above sea level. It is a species that seems to prefer primary tropical rainforest areas but has been recorded in areas of secondary vegetation as well.</p><p>Food and Feeding. Although it is mainly frugivorous, the diet includes fallen fruits and seeds, grasses, shoots, vines, and crops such as beans where available.</p><p>Breeding. Mating occurs throughout the year. After a gestation of 225 days females give birth to a single fawn weighing 0.5-1. 4 kg; occasionally twins are born. The young remain with the mother through the first year. Females can breed at about one year, but the age of sexual maturity of males is unknown. One captive lived almost 14 years.</p><p>Activity patterns. Reported by different authorities as being diurnal, nocturnal, or crepuscular. Seldom seen and little known because of extreme shyness and wariness. Often remains motionless when danger is sensed. Lacks endurance compared to other deer, and can be run down and killed by an ordinary dog. Excellent swimmer, easily crossing large rivers.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Relatively sedentary, with a small home range, and adult males are territorial. The Mexican Red Brocket is basically solitary or a female may travel with her young. Males and females come together only briefly to mate.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Race cerasina CITES Appendix III. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List since its taxonomic status is unclear and the information on distribution and abundance are scant. Hunting and habitat loss and degradation are the main threats.</p><p>Bibliography. Bello et al. (2008), Bello-Gutiérrez et al. (2010).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFE6FFE7FF0AFC79E563F592	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFE6FFE0FA7DF7D0E6F6FCCE.text	03A087C4FFE6FFE0FA7DF7D0E6F6FCCE.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mazama rufina (Bourcier & Pucheran 1852)	<div><p>51.</p><p>Little Red Brocket</p><p>Mazama rufina</p><p>French: Mazame de I'Equateu / German: Roter Kleinmazama / Spanish: Corzuela roja pequena</p><p>Other common names: Ecuador Red Brocket</p><p>Taxonomy. Cervus rufinus Pucheran, 1851,</p><p>Lloa Valley, Pichincha (Ecuador).</p><p>This species is monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. Andes from C Colombia to Ecuador and NW Peru.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 85-90 cm, tail 8 cm, shoulder height 45 cm; weight 10-15 kg. Small-sized brocket. The coat is reddish with black head and legs. The lacrimal fossa is deep. Antlers are up to 8 cm long.</p><p>Habitat. It prefers tropical montane cloud forests from 1400 m above sea level to alpine grasslands (paramos) up to 3600 m. The main habitat of the Little Red Brocket is paramo and tropical montane cloud forests above 1500 m. These paramos are highaltitude grasslands dominated by Calamagrostis spp. and gigantic Andean rosette plants of the genus Espeletia, among others. The tropical montane cloud forestis a type of vegetation that has special climatic conditions allowing clouds and mist to be regularly in contact with the forest. These forests support an ecosystem of distinctive vegetation with lower canopy and thicker understory than lowland forests.</p><p>Food and Feeding. The Little Red Brocket feeds mainly on forbs, but it may also eat leaves, buds, and fruits. It is expected to be a browser/frugivore in the forest understorey, but they are shy and secretive animals, rarely seen because of their nocturnal habits. They are frequent visitors to salt licks. In the Central Andes of Colombia the diet is composed of 40 species of plants, most of which are herbs, and they prefer Solanum spp. and Begonia umbellata, among others. Oxalis sp. has been identified among other plant species eaten by this species.</p><p>Breeding. Females attain puberty at about one year of age. After a gestation of 200-220 days they give birth to a single fawn. The main predators are Pumas (Puma concolor and dogs.</p><p>Activity patterns. Although it is often nocturnal, it seems to be active by day as well as at night, but details of its ecology are unknown.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. They are shy and secretive animals, rarely seen because of their nocturnal habits. It seems to be a territorial species with a small home range. Animals defecate in latrines to scent-mark. It is basically solitary, with most individuals observed alone or in pairs. Its density is low ranging from 0-06 ind/km? in mature forest to 0-3 ind/km?* in paramo-montane forest ecotone. They rely on small size and knowledge of the habitat in which they live to escape predators, diving into thick vegetation when threatened. Occasionally they freeze before escaping.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Hunting and habitat loss and conversion to agriculture and cattle ranching are the main threats.</p><p>Bibliography. Bello et al. (2008), Bello-Gutiérrez et al. (2010), Eisenberg &amp; Redford (1999), Lizcaino &amp; Alvarez (2008b).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFE6FFE0FA7DF7D0E6F6FCCE	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFE1FFE0FFBDFC35EF4FFE29.text	03A087C4FFE1FFE0FFBDFC35EF4FFE29.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mazama bricenii Thomas 1908	<div><p>52.</p><p>Merida Brocket</p><p>Mazama bricenii</p><p>French: Mazame du Merida / German: Nordlicher Zwergmazama / Spanish: Corzuela de Mérida</p><p>Other common names: Meroia Brocket</p><p>Taxonomy. Mazama briceni Thomas, 1908,</p><p>Paramo de La Culata, Mérida (Venezuela). This species and M. chuny: have been considered subspecies of M. rufina . Collected for the first time by S. Briceno in 1907. Monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. NE Colombia and W Venezuela.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 80-95 cm, tail 8-9 cm, shoulder height 45-50 cm; weight 8-13 kg. Small-sized brocket with a long-haired coat. The coatis basically reddish, with dark head and legs, orange throat. Antler spikes are short, up to 6 cm in length. Deep cavity in the lacrimal bone.</p><p>Habitat. It occurs in tropical montane cloud forests and alpine grasslands from 800 m to 3500 m above sea level.</p><p>Food and Feeding. Nothing is known, but presumably this speciesis a browser on understory leaves, shoots, and fruits, like other brockets.</p><p>Breeding. Puberty is attained at twelve months of age. Births have mainly been observed in December. After a pregnancy of about 210 days, females give birth to a single fawn. Weaning occurs at six months of age.</p><p>Activity patterns. No studies to date, butlikely to be active both day and night, based on its closest relatives.</p><p>Movements. Home range and Social organization. Very shy and mostly solitary, but no data available.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Habitat loss and poaching continue to be the main threats.</p><p>Bibliography. Czernay (1987), Lizcano &amp; Alvarez (2008a), Linares (1998), Lizcano et al. (2010).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFE1FFE0FFBDFC35EF4FFE29	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
03A087C4FFE1FFE0FAA6FDAEEE1BF886.text	03A087C4FFE1FFE0FAA6FDAEEE1BF886.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mazama chunyi Hershkovitz 1959	<div><p>53.</p><p>Common Dwarf Brocket</p><p>Mazama chunyi</p><p>French: Mazame pygmée / German: Sudlicher Zwergmazama / Spanish: Corzuela enana</p><p>Other common names: Peruvian Dwarf Brocket, Andean Brocket</p><p>Taxonomy. Mazama chunyi Hershkovitz, 1959,</p><p>Cocapunco, Cordillera Real (Bolivia).</p><p>It has been confused for decades with the sympatric Pudu mephistophiles . Its scientific name, chunyi, is from “chuni,” the Bolivian name for this species. Monotypic.</p><p>Distribution. Andes of S Peru and N Bolivia.</p><p>Descriptive notes. Few measurements available. Head-body 70-75 cm, shoulder height 38 cm; weight 11 kg. Small-sized brocket, with a dark coat, round ears, and a visible tail. The general color of the coat is brown, with reddish mid-back and flanks, blackish neck, head, and legs; the throat, chest, and belly are orange. White markings on ear margins and on the tip of the muzzle.</p><p>Habitat. It occurs in montane forests and summit grasslands and scrublands, from 1000 m to 3500-4000 m above sea level.</p><p>Food and Feeding. Itis frugivorous and folivorous, foraging for leaves and fruits in the lowerlayers of the forest.</p><p>Breeding. Fairly little is known about the biology ofthis shy and seldom seen deer. Although almost nothing is known about reproduction in the Common Dwarf Brocket, it is likely to be similar to that of other brocket species. Brockets usually reproduce year-round, giving birth to a single calf after a fairly long gestation of 218-228 days. Young brocket deer mature rapidly, and females can breed before they are one year old in many species.</p><p>Activity patterns. It is believed to be a solitary species thatis active during the day and night, but is mostly crepuscular.</p><p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. It is very secretive and is basically solitary.</p><p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Forest cutting and burning and small scale agriculture and cattle ranching are the primary threats.</p><p>Bibliography. Rumiz &amp; Pardo (2008, 2010), Rumiz et al. (2007).</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03A087C4FFE1FFE0FAA6FDAEEE1BF886	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Cervidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 350-443, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6514377
