taxonID	type	description	language	source
716B2D1C7B467B1B3CAA5219FAC4FA28.taxon	description	(Figs 7 – 32, 45, 46, 81)	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B467B1B3CAA5219FAC4FA28.taxon	materials_examined	Material examined Holotype: ♀, “ North Australia Damell [sic] 1863 / In BM unnamed / A [on reverse of deep blue card] / Synemon collecta Swinhoe type zf / 706 [catalogue number in Swinhoe (1892)] / Type Lep: no. 273 Synemon collecta Swinhoe 1 / 3 Hope Dept. Oxford ” (Fig. 11, OUM). Paratypes: 1 ♀, “ Synemon theresa var / Coll. Saunders [on reverse of red card] / B [on reverse of deep blue card] / 706 / Type Lep: no. 273 Synemon collecta Swinhoe 2 / 3 Hope Dept. Oxford ” (OUM); 1 ♀, “ NSW [pin holed and almost illegible] / Coll. Saunders [on reverse of red card] / B [on reverse of deep blue card] / 706 / Type Lep: no. 273 Synemon collecta Swinhoe Hope Dept. Oxford ” (OUM). Additional material. Victoria: 31 ♂, 10 ♀, Shelly, 760 m, 36 ° 11 ’ S 147 ° 33 ’ E, 27. xii. 1987, 28. xii. 1990, E. D. Edwards (slides 1959 ♂, 11820 ♂, 11879 ♀) (Figs 13 – 16, ANIC); 3 ♂, 2 ♀, Murray Valley Highway, 4 km E of Shelley, 36 ° 10.43 ’ S 147 ° 35.542 ’ E, 1. i. 2018, F. Douglas (CAK); 12 ♂, 2 ♀, same locality, 26. xii. 2018, A. Kallies (CAK); 1 M, Shelley, 31. xii. 1999, G. E. Wurtz (CAK); 7 specimens, Shelly area, - 36.180248 147.551171; - 36.180272 147.551106, 2. i. 2022 (iNaturalist 2025); 2 specimens, Shelly area, - 36.177306 147.587638, 5. i. 2021 (iNaturalist 2025); 1 ♂, Shelly area, Towong Shire, Burrowye, - 36.070225 147.489627, 28. xii. 2023 (iNaturalist 2025); 1 specimen, Lal Lal Falls, - 37.65459 144.035746, 29. xii. 2020 (iNaturalist 2025); 1 ♀, same location, 2. i. 2021, A. Kallies (CAK); 3 ♂, 1 ♀, Hamilton, 15. xii. 1904 (MVM); 1 specimen, Terrick Terrick NP, - 36.08603, 144.26531,. xii. 2024 (iNaturalist 2025); 1 ♂, 6 ♀, Terrick Terrick NP (eastern section), 13 km NNE of Mitiamo, E of Mitiamo-Kow Swamp Road, 36 ° 06 ' 09.56 " S 144 ° 17 ' 30.36 " E (1 ♂), 36 ° 05 ' 54.95 " S 144 ° 17 ' 17.22 " E, 36 ° 05 ' 54.78 " S 144 ° 17 ' 18.35 " E, 36 ° 06 ' 00.46 " S 144 ° 17 ' 41.30 " E, 36 ° 06 ' 09.90 " S 144 ° 17 ' 36.78 " E 36 ° 06 ' 08.76 " S 144 ° 17 ' 23.91 " E, 36 ° 06 ' 08.19 " S 144 ° 17 ' 17.33 " E (6 ♀), 12. xi. 2012, F. Douglas (photographic records); 14 ♂, Terrick Terrick NP (western section), 12.5 km NNE by N of Mitiamo, W of Mitiamo-Kow Swamp Road, 36 ° 05 ' 50.47 " S 144 ° 16 ' 20.17 " E (1), 36 ° 05 ' 51.58 " S 144 ° 16 ' 20.25 " E (8), 36 ° 05 ' 52.00 " S 144 ° 16 ' 20.40 " E (1), 36 ° 06 ' 00.99 " S 144 ° 16 ' 20.20 " E (4), 12. xi. 2012, F. Douglas (photographic records); 2 ♂, Stawell (MVM); 6 ♂, 3 ♀, Beremboke, 22. xii. 1907, P. Frichot (MVM); 1 ♂, Murrundini, 6. ii. 1918 (MVM); 1 ♂, “ Slaty Creek 16 / 9 / 1945 ” [NE of Ballarat?, date probably incorrect] (MVM); 2 ♂, Stanhope [WSW Shepparton], H. H. Griffith (MVM). Australia Capital Territory: 3 ♂, 3 ♀, 35 ° 27 ’ S 149 ° 05 ’ E, 0.5 km E Point Hut Crossing, 600 m, 16. xii. 2008 (Figs 17 – 20, ANIC); 1 specimen, ACT [location obscured], xii. 2023 (iNaturalist 2025). New South Wales: 1 ♀, 1 ♂, Glenn Ines, 28. xii. 1910 (♀), 25. iii. 1913 (♂) (ANIC); 1 ♀, Armidale, 14. i. 1960, C. W. Frazier (ANIC); 1 ♂, 4 ♀, Armidale, 20. xii. 1992 (♂, slide 11819), 22. i. 1993, 5. ii. 1993, 8. ii. 1993, 20. iii. 1993, M. & A. Coombs (ANIC); 4 ♂, Armidale, Lookout, 16. xii. 1992, A. I. Knight (Fig. 12, ANIC); 1 ♂, Armidale, 5. iv. 1948 (ANIC); 1 ♂, Armidale (MVM); 7 specimens, Armidale arboretum, 30 ° 31 ' 18 " S 151 ° 38 ' 58 " E, 30. i. 1999, D. R. Britton (AM); 2 specimens, same location, 4. i. 2001, D. R. Britton (AM); 1 specimen, Armidale, 30 ° 30 ' 30 ” S 151 ° 40 ' 16 ” E, 6. iii. 1999, D. R. Britton (AM); 1 ♂, Belltrees (MVM); 1 ♀, Tenterfield, 3. ii. 1918 (MVM); 1 ♀, Bolivia Hill [NNE of Glenn Ines], 13. iii. 1994, R. Eastwood (ANIC); 1 ♂, Barrington Tops, on road to Tubrabucca, 12. i. 1956, K. D. Fairly (ANIC); 2 ♂, 1 ♀, Tubrabucca, 18. i. 1948, A. N. Burns & R. T. M. P. (MVM); 1 ♂, Stonehenge [S of Glenn Ines], 6. i. 1971, M. S. Upton (ANIC); 2 ♂, 15 km SW of Singleton [NW of Newcastle], 3. xi. 2000, A. Atkins (ANIC); 1 ♀, Danthonia Bruderhof Community, near Elsmore, - 29.780556 151.348603, 14. x. 2023 (iNaturalist 2025), 1 ♂, same locality, - 29.779868, 151.350046, 15. xi. 2020 iNaturalist 2025); 1 ♂, same locality, - 29.779764 151.350354, 10. xii. 2023 (iNaturalist 2025); 3 specimens, same locality, - 29.778619, 151.350217, 22. i. 2024, 24. i. 2024, 2. ii. 2024 (iNaturalist 2025); 1 specimen, same locality, 25. x. 2024, 1 specimen, Greater Blue Mts, Piribil St, Jerrys Plains, - 32.501103 150.902806, 21. i. 2024 (iNaturalist 2025); 1 ♂, Settlers Rd, Royalla, - 35.50298 149.169846, 6. xii. 2018 (iNaturalist 2025). Queensland: 1 ♂, Mudlo N. P., 10 km N of Kilkivan, 23. x. 2007, A. Atkins (ANIC); 9 ♂, 3 ♀, The Beacon, 14 km, W of Imbil, 27. ix. 1987, R. Eastwood (ANIC); 4 ♂, 1 ♀, Leslie Dam nr Warwick, 28. i. 1991, L. Ring (ANIC, slide 11774); 1 ♂, Leslie Dam, 19. x. 1993, K. L. Dunn (Figs 25 – 28, ANIC); 1 ♂, 7 km SE of Warwick, 5. iii. 1994, K. L. Dunn (ANIC); 4 ♂, 2 ♀, 28 ° 11 ’ S 151 ° 10 ’ E, 28 k NNE of Inglewood, 20. x. 1995, E. D. Edwards (Figs 21 – 24, ANIC, slide 11775); 3 ♂, 26 km N of Canning Ck, Inglewood State Forest, grassland, 19. iii. 1994, K. L. Dunn (slide 11773) (ANIC); 6 ♂, 3 ♀, Hazelwood Gorge, 15 km SW Eungella, 18. ix. 1993, M. F. Braby & K. L. Dunn (ANIC); 7 ♂, 3 ♀, 10 km E of Mitchell, 26 ° 30 ’ S 148 ° 04 ’ E, E. D. Edwards & R. D. Edwards (ANIC); 3 ♂, 1 ♀, War Memorial, Stanthorpe, 20. xii. 1985, A. I. Knight (ANIC); 10 ♀, Millmeran, 12. ii. 1930, 14. ii. 1930, 3. x. 1928, 3. xi. 1928, 18. iii. 1928, 13. x. 1928, 22. i. 1928, 4. ii. 1928, 16. x. 1927, J. Macqueen (slide 1960) (ANIC); 1 ♀, Leyburn, 22. ii. 1986, D. P. Sands (ANIC); 1 ♂, SE of Leyton, Mt Gammie, 21. iii. 1994, K. L. Dunn (ANIC); 1 ♀, Carnarvon R., 8. xii. 1941, N. Geanu (ANIC); 1 ♀, Beaudesert, 6. i. 1921 (ANIC); 3 ♂, Esk, i. 1906, G. A. Waterhouse (MVM) (ANIC); 3 ♂, 1 ♀, Millmeran, 25. ii. 1928, 4. iii. 1928, 24. x. 1930 (MVM) (ANIC); 2 ♂, Westwood, 10. i. 1924, 24. i. 1925 (MVM) (ANIC); 1 ♂, Silver Spur, - 28.733043 151.32485, 19. ii. 2022 (iNaturalist 2025). Unclear or questionable locations: 1 ♂, Brisbane, J. A. Kershaw (ANIC); 2 ♀, Brisbane, 5. x. 1909, 25. x. 1909 (ANIC); 1 ♀, Midi, 9. ii. 1940 (ANIC), 1 ♂, Brighton (MVM); 1 ♂, Cairns, 23. xi. 1969, R. B. Lachlan (ANIC). Redescription	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B467B1B3CAA5219FAC4FA28.taxon	description	Male (Figs 13, 14, 17, 18, 21, 22, 25, 26). Alar expanse 36 – 38.5 mm. Head: vertex grey, thick piliform grey scales obscuring black lamellar scales, frons with dense white piliform scales margined by grey piliform scales and dense white lamellar scales beside eyes, labial palpi short, appressed to head, not reaching frons, white, haustellum vestigial, antenna grey above broadly annulated with white, white beneath, club white with some grey scales dorsally, expanding fairly abruptly, nudum 5 orange brown on anterior third of club, apiculus minute of a single annulus. Thorax: above dark grey of mixed dark grey piliform and black lamellar scales, two subdorsal rows of pale, almost white scales, beneath white, legs pale yellow or straw above, white beneath, epiphysis clothed in minute spinules, inserted at about half length of foretibia, long, spine-like, not reaching end of foretibia. Abdomen: dark grey above with distal half brown, T 2 – T 4 with numerous long grey scales, beneath white. Forewing: dark grey with markings of off-white or ash grey, whole wing dusted with off-white scales, a broad off-white patch at end of cell, a broad band of markings from near apex to 1 A + 2 A before tornus, markings made up of ellipses of dark grey between the veins and outlined both proximally and distally in off-white appearing as two series of lunate markings between the veins, costa dark grey with off-white streaks between veins towards apex, two basal streaks between veins below cell ash grey, a narrow dark grey terminal line. Cilia dark grey. Underside with costa pale yellow, basal third of wing brown irrorated with yellow, becoming more yellow distally and in cell, outer two thirds yellow, a trace of a paler spot at end of cell and paler terminal band from apex to CuA 1, narrow terminal line dark brown proximally and pale yellow distally. Cilia dark brown. Hindwing: basal half of wing dark grey, small brownish yellow dot at end of cell, outer half of wing from tip of Rs to tornus yellow to brownish yellow, the inner margin of this brownish yellow band lunate, sometimes traces of brown spots between the veins from M 1 to M 3, two conspicuous brown spots between CuA 2 and 1 A + 2 A, narrow terminal dark grey line, anal area dark brown at base becoming brownish yellow towards tornus. Cilia dark grey. Underside with costa pale brown, basal half of wing dark brown with a small spot at end of cell brownish yellow, outer half of wing yellow to brownish yellow, with inner margin of yellow band lunate, band with embedded subterminal bark brown spots between veins from Rs to M 3 and from CuA 2 to 1 A + 2 A, a narrow terminal line dark brown proximally and brownish yellow distally. Cilia dark brown. Genitalia (Figs 29 – 32): Valva wide at the base, narrower towards the apex, which is pointed upwards, dorsal edge with a low convex arch, with long simple setae, uncus wide and simple, with long setae; phallus relatively short, arched, with a long apical projection, phallobase wide; vinculum with two short projections. Female (Figs 11, 12, 15, 16, 19, 20, 23, 24, 27, 29). Alar expanse 35 – 42 mm. Similar to male, larger, forewing with off-white markings usually more extensive, hindwing with the dark brown spots in the brownish yellow band much larger and extending between the veins from Rs to 1 A + 2 A, brownish yellow spot at end of cell larger. Underside forewing costa pale yellow, remainder of forewing pale orange yellow, a pale-yellow spot at end of cell, a post median row of pale-yellow spots from R 4 to CuA 1, a subterminal row of black spots from R 4 to CuA 1 edged distally with pale yellow, a narrow terminal line brown. Cilia grey-white. Hindwing orange yellow, a pale-yellow spot at end of cell, a median line of pale-yellow lunate spots between the veins from Rs to 1 A + 2 A, a row of large black spots between veins from Rs to 1 A + 2 A, a narrow black terminal line. Cilia grey-white. Genitalia (Figs 45, 46): Ovipositor long, extendable and pointed, papillae anales covered in long setae, ductus bursae short and straight, corpus bursae ovoid and simple; apophyses posteriores long, reaching beyond corpus bursae.	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B467B1B3CAA5219FAC4FA28.taxon	diagnosis	Diagnosis. Synemon collecta is similar to S. theresa (Figs 2 – 4) but is larger; the forewings are much more streaked in appearance, the mark at the end of the cell is a bar rather than a spot and the colour on the hindwings is generally more extensive. Synemon kunama spec. nov. has a very similar forewing pattern to S. collecta but the white bar at the end of the cell is more angled and the white subapical streaks, which are of similar prominence in S. collecta, are smaller except for one very prominent streak in S. kunama spec. nov. In the female, the forewing of S. kunama is darker and less extensively streaked than in S. collecta. In the hindwing, the coloured spot at the end of the cell is much larger in S. kunama spec. nov., the colour is a much richer red orange and the black spots more prominent. Synemon collecta in Queensland occurs in similar areas to S. yimanorum spec. nov. and S. gunggariensis spec. nov. In S. yimanorum spec. nov. the wings are slightly narrower and the spots in the hindwing colour have been fused into a dark cloud. In the forewing, the spot at the end of the cell is more angled than in S. collecta and usually joined distally to a broad white streak extending nearly to the termen. Synemon gunggariensis spec. nov. differs from S. collecta in the forewings being much darker with much reduced streaks of pale scales. The cell bar is slightly more angled than in S. collecta. The hindwing in the male in S. gunggariensis spec. nov. is of a more earthyyellow colour than in S. collecta and the black spots are fused. Synemon collecta is also similar to S. septentrionalis spec. nov., which is about the same size but occurs further north in Queensland. In S. septentrionalis spec. nov. the forewings are slightly greyer, the bluish white median streak from the base is more prominent and the other white markings are much reduced. The spot at the end of the forewing cell is also more angled in S. septentrionalis spec. nov. In the hindwing of S. septentrionalis spec. nov., the orange areas are much restricted and crossed by black scales along the veins while in S. collecta the coloured areas are more extensive, and the black spots usually surrounded by colour and the coloured spot at the end of the cell is absent. Variability. This species is quite variable in size and the extent of the white forewing and dark hindwing marks. Specimens collected in Queensland differ somewhat from those coming from further south by their appearance. The discal spot in the hindwing is very small in females or lacking in males (well developed in southern populations), the dark spots in the terminal half of hindwing are poorly developed in males (well developed in southern populations), the row of dark subterminal spots between in hindwing of the female usually complete (usually lacking the central spot southern populations). However, at this point we do not consider these differences sufficient to treat these populations as belonging to a different species.	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B467B1B3CAA5219FAC4FA28.taxon	biology_ecology	Biology and distribution. Synemon collecta occurs in open grasslands and open areas in grassy woodlands in a range that extends from central Victoria to south-eastern Queensland (Fig. 81). In the southern part of its range, adults are on the wing from mid-December to early January, in the northern parts of its range it flies from October to March. Its hostplant is not known but it is suspected to develop in Rytidosperma Steud. 1854 (Wallaby grass, Poaceae) and / or Themeda Forssk. 1775 (Kangaroo grass, Poaceae). Conservation status. Although S. collecta occurs in a large range, it is clear that it would have lost most of its habitat. In Victoria, this species is currently known only from three populations, only two of which can be considered secure (Terrick Terrick and Shelly). Similar to Victoria, there are only few extant populations known from the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales and Queensland (Fig. 81). While more work is required to map its current distribution, S. collecta should be considered a flag ship species for grassland conservation.	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B497B1D3CAA5025FAD1FDD4.taxon	description	(Figs 33 – 36, 43, 47, 82)	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B497B1D3CAA5025FAD1FDD4.taxon	materials_examined	Material examined Holotype: 1 ♂, “ 36.21 S 148.35 E, 2 km W of Waste Point, Kosciusko Nat. Pk., NSW, 1040 m, 2 Jan 2002, E. D. Edwards ” (Figs 33, 34, ANIC). Paratypes: New South Wales: 1 ♂ “ Kos 6 – 1 – 11, G. M. Goldfinch ” (SAMA); 1 ♂ “ Snowy R, G. M. Goldfinch ” (SAMA); 2 ♂, 3 ♀, Kosciuszko N. P., 2 km W of Wastepoint, 36 ° 21 ’ S 148 ° 35 ’ E, 1040 m, 2. i. 2002, E. D. Edwards (Figs 35, 36, ANIC); 8 ♂, 3 ♀, Kosciuszko N. P., 2.5 km ESE of Headquarters, Sawpit Creek, 990 m, 36 ° 21 ’ S, 148 ° 35 ’ E, 6. i. 1988 (1 ♀), 8. i. 1988 (4 ♂, 2 ♀), 3. i. 1990 (3 ♂), E. D. Edwards (slides 11857, 11858, 11859, 11895) (Figs 43, 47, ANIC); 6 ♂, 2 ♀, Kosciuszko N. P., Wastepoint Rd, 1000 m, 23 – 25. xii. 2018, A. Kallies (CAK); 2 ♀, 1 km NE Jindabayne Dam, 36 ° 26 ’ S 148 ° 38 ’ E, 4. – 5. i. 2010, A. Kallies & E. D. Edwards (ANIC); 1 ♂, Kosciuszko N. P., below Sawpit Ck., 12. i. 1974, H. J. Banks (ANIC); 1 ♂, Jindabayne, 14. xii. 2007, G. Kusef (CAK). Description	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B497B1D3CAA5025FAD1FDD4.taxon	description	Male (holotype, Figs 33, 34). Wingspan 38 mm. Head: vertex grey, thick piliform grey scales obscuring black lamellar scales, frons with dense pale brown piliform scales margined by dense white lamellar scales beside eyes, labial palpi very short, appressed to head, not reaching frons, white, haustellum vestigial, antenna grey above broadly annulated with white, white beneath, club brownish white with some grey scales dorsally, expanding abruptly, nudum 7 orange brown on anterior third of club, apiculus minute of a single annulus. Thorax: above dark grey of mixed dark grey piliform and black lamellar scales, two subdorsal rows of pale, almost white scales, beneath white, legs pale yellow or straw above, white beneath, epiphysis clothed in minute spinules, inserted at about half length of foretibia, spine-like, not reaching end of foretibia. Abdomen: dark grey above with distal half orange-brown, T 2 – T 4 with numerous long grey scales, beneath white. Forewing: dark grey with markings of shining white or shining ash grey, whole wing dusted with ash grey scales, a broad white patch at end of cell, a broad band of markings from near apex to 1 A + 2 A before tornus, markings made up of ellipses of dark grey between the veins and outlined both proximally and distally in white appearing as two series of lunate markings between the veins, this band broken between M 3 and CuA 1 by a large white streak and the ellipses below CuA 1 displaced inwards, costa dark grey with white streaks between veins towards apex, two basal streaks between veins below cell and a small streak at base of cell ash grey, a narrow dark grey terminal line. Cilia dark grey. Underside with costa yellow, basal third of wing black irrorated with orange in base of cell, an orange spot at end of cell and black patch beyond, outer two thirds orange, a series of subapical brown spots between veins extending from R 4 to M 3, a narrow terminal line dark brown proximally and pale yellow distally. Cilia dark brown. Hindwing: basal half of wing dark grey, brownish orange patch at end of cell, outer half of wing from tip of Rs to tornus brownish orange, the inner margin of this brownish orange band lunate, this band enclosing black spots between the veins from M 1 to M 3, two conspicuous black spots between CuA 2 and 1 A + 2 A, narrow terminal dark grey line, anal area dark brown at base becoming brownish orange towards tornus. Cilia dark grey. Underside with costa yellow orange, basal half of wing dark brown heavily dusted with yellow with a spot at end of cell orange yellow, outer half of wing orange yellow, with inner margin of orange yellow band slightly lunate, band with embedded subterminal bark brown spots between veins from Rs to M 3 and from CuA 2 to 1 A + 2 A, a narrow terminal line dark brown proximally and brownish yellow distally. Cilia dark brown. Genitalia (Fig. 43): Valva wide at the base, distinctly narrower towards the apex, apex extended and pointed upwards, with long simple setae, uncus wide and simple, with long setae; phallus very short, arched, phallobase very wide; vinculum with two short projections very close to each other. Female (paratype, Figs 35, 36). Wingspan 40 mm. Similar to male on upperside, larger, forewing with white markings usually more extensive, hindwing with the orange spot near end of cell much larger and the dark brown spots in the brownish yellow band sometimes larger and extending between the veins from Rs to 1 A + 2 A and almost forming a band. Underside forewing costa pale yellow at base and brown towards apex, remainder of forewing pale orange yellow, a pale-yellow spot at end of cell, a subterminal row of black spots from R 4 to CuA 1, a narrow terminal line brown. Cilia grey-white. Hindwing orange yellow, a trace of a pale-yellow spot at end of cell with some brown scales proximally and distally, a row of black spots between veins from Rs to M 3 and from CuA 1 to 1 A + 2 A, a narrow black terminal line. Cilia grey-white. Genitalia (Fig. 47): Ovipositor long, extendable and pointed, papillae anales covered in long setae, ductus bursae short and straight, corpus bursae ovoid and simple; apophyses posteriores long.	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B497B1D3CAA5025FAD1FDD4.taxon	diagnosis	Diagnosis. Synemon kunama spec. nov. is similar to S. collecta in the forewing but the white bar at the end of the cell is more angled and one of the white subapical streaks is much more prominent than the others. The forewing of S. kunama spec. nov. is darker in the female and less extensively streaked than in S. collecta. In the hindwing of S. kunama spec. nov. the coloured spot at the end of the cell is much larger and the colour a richer reddish orange and the black spots in the coloured areas are more prominent. In the male genitalia, S. kunama spec. nov. differs from S. collecta by the longer and more slender apical extension of the valva and the shorter phallus with a wider phallobase. The ductus bursae is narrower and the corpus bursa extends beyond the tips of the apophyses, while the apophyses reach beyond the corpus bursae in S. collecta. Synemon kunama spec. nov. has a very restricted distribution where no other Synemon species occurs. Variability. Very limited variability has been observed in this species.	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B497B1D3CAA5025FAD1FDD4.taxon	etymology	Etymology. The name of this species derives from Kunama Namadgi, the name for the Snowy Mountains used by the local Ngarigo people.	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B497B1D3CAA5025FAD1FDD4.taxon	biology_ecology	Biology and distribution. Synemon kunama spec. nov. occurs in open areas in grassy woodlands at around 1000 m altitude where it has been observed between mid-December and early January. It is currently known only from a very small area around Jindabyne in and just outside Kosciuszko National Park (Fig. 82). It is important to study similar areas in southern New South Wales to map the full range of this species and understand its conservation status. Conservation status. S. kunama spec. nov. is currently known only from a small range in the foothills of Mt Kosciuszko. It is likely that it has occurred or may still occur in remnant populations in open woodland at similar altitudes. However, much of the surrounding areas have been cleared extensively and are now used for grazing or pine plantations. Thus, given the extremely limited range of this species, it should be considered vulnerable.	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B4F7B023CAA5089FBA3FE38.taxon	description	(Figs 37 – 42, 44, 48, 82) Synemon species B; Edwards 1997. New species Zoobank registration: DCB 99 AA 2 - 88 B 9 - 4 E 81 - BDAB-A 16 CC 840287 A	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B4F7B023CAA5089FBA3FE38.taxon	materials_examined	Material examined Holotype: ♂, “ 25.36 S 149.46 E, 5 km NW by N of Taroom, Q., 200 m, 29 Mar 1994, E. D. Edwards ” (Figs 37, 38, ANIC ANIC 31 011863). Paratypes: 8 ♂, 2 ♀, same data as holotype, 28. iii. 1994 (6 ♂, 1 ♀), 29. iii. 1994 (1 ♀, Fig. 39), 30. iii. 1994 (1 ♂), E. D. Edwards (slides 11862, 11861, 11887, 11886) (Figs 44, 48, ANIC); 2 ♀, 6 km N of Taroom, 31. iii. 1990, R. Eastwood (ANIC); 1 ♀, Taroom, 2. iii. 1991, L. Ring (ANIC); 3 ♂, 6 km N of Taroom, 25 ° 36 ’ S, 149 ° 46 ’ E, 1. x. 1991, 1. iii. 1991, 2. iii. 1991, G. Daniels (QM). 7 ♂, St Ruth, 10 km S of Dalby, 8. ii. 1995, C. Moran, R. Evans (slide 16597) (Figs 41, 42, ANIC). Description	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B4F7B023CAA5089FBA3FE38.taxon	description	Male (holotype, Figs 37, 38). Wingspan 40 mm. Head: vertex grey, thick piliform grey scales obscuring black lamellar scales, frons with dense white piliform scales margined by grey piliform scales and dense white lamellar scales beside eyes, labial palpi short, appressed to head, not reaching frons, white, haustellum vestigial, antenna grey above annulated with white, white beneath, club white with dark grey scales dorsally, expanding abruptly, nudum 7 orange brown on anterior third of club, apiculus minute of a single annulus. Thorax: above dark grey of mixed dark grey piliform and black lamellar scales, two subdorsal rows of pale, almost white scales, beneath white, legs pale yellow or straw above, white beneath, epiphysis clothed in minute spinules, inserted below half-length of foretibia, spine-like, reaching well short of end of foretibia. Abdomen: dark grey above with distal half brown, T 2 with numerous long grey scales, beneath white. Forewing: dark grey with markings of shining white or shining ash-grey, whole wing dusted with ash grey scales, a broad white patch at end of cell, a broad band of markings from near apex to 1 A + 2 A before tornus, markings made up of ellipses of dark grey between the veins and outlined both proximally and distally in white appearing as two series of lunate markings between the veins, this band broken between M 3 and CuA 1 by a large white streak and the ellipses below CuA 1 displaced inwards, costa dark grey with white streaks between veins towards apex, two basal streaks between veins below cell shining ash grey, a narrow dark grey terminal line. Cilia dark grey. Underside with costa pale yellow, basal third of wing brown irrorated with yellow in cell, brown area angled sharply at base of CuA 1, outer two thirds yellow, a dark brown spot beyond end of cell, and a distinct small brown spot subapically between R 4 and R 5, a pale terminal band from apex to CuA 1, narrow terminal line dark brown proximally and pale yellow distally. Cilia dark brown. Hindwing: basal half of wing dark grey, minute brownish yellow dot at end of cell, outer half of wing from M 1 to 1 A + 2 A brownish orange, the inner margin of this brownish orange band lunate, traces of large brown spots between the veins from M 1 to CuA 1, two large conspicuous rown spots between CuA 2 and 1 A + 2 A fused together obscuring half brownish orange band, narrow terminal dark grey line, anal area dark brown at base becoming brown towards tornus. Cilia dark grey, orange at tornus. Underside with costa yellow brown, basal half of wing dark brown with a minute spot at end of cell brownish orange, outer half of wing yellow to orange yellow, proximal edge narrowly white, with inner margin of yellow band slightly lunate, abruptly angled at M 3, band with embedded subterminal bark brown spots between veins from Rs to M 3 and from CuA 2 to 1 A + 2 A, a narrow terminal line dark brown proximally and brownish yellow distally. Cilia dark brown, orange at tornus. Genitalia (Fig. 44): Valva wide at the base, narrower towards the apex, apex pointed upwards, dorsal edge with a low convex arch, with long simple setae, uncus wide and simple, with long setae; phallus relatively long, arched, pointed apically, phallobase wide; vinculum without distinct projections. Female (paratype, Figs 39, 40). Wingspan 41.7 mm. Similar to male on upper side, larger, forewing narrower, termen slightly oblique below apex, with white markings sometimes more extensive, hindwing with the dark brown spots in the orange yellow band often smaller, orange yellow spot at end of cell larger. Underside forewing costa pale yellow, remainder of forewing orange yellow, a pale-yellow spot at end of cell, a post median row of pale-yellow spots from R 4 to CuA 1, a subterminal row of black spots from R 4 to CuA 1 edged distally with pale yellow, a narrow terminal line brown. Cilia grey-white. Hindwing orange yellow, a pale-yellow spot at end of cell, median area of wing with ill-defined black mark loosely surrounding the spot at end of cell, a median line of pale-yellow lunate spots between the veins from Rs to 1 A + 2 A, a row of large black spots between veins from Rs to 1 A + 2 A, a narrow black terminal line. Cilia greyish white. Genitalia (Fig. 48): Ovipositor long, extendable and pointed, papillae anales covered in long setae, ductus bursae short and straight, corpus bursae ovoid and simple; apophyses posteriores long, reaching beyond corpus bursae.	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B4F7B023CAA5089FBA3FE38.taxon	diagnosis	Diagnosis. Synemon yimanorum spec. nov. is known from a very restricted range where other species have not been found but it is most similar to S. collecta, S. gunggariensis spec. nov. and S. septentrionalis spec. nov., which also occur in the central to southern eastern Queensland. The wings of S. yimanorum spec. nov. are narrower than the other species. From S. collecta it is best distinguished by the more angled bar at the end of the cell in the forewing and in the hindwing the veins where they cross the coloured areas are black. In the forewing it has a less streaked appearance than S. collecta but a more streaked appearance than S. gunggariensis spec. nov. and S. septentrionalis. In S. gunggariensis spec. nov. the pale bluish white streak from the base of the forewing is more prominent and the bar at the end of the cell in the forewing is less angled and the elliptical spots on the forewing are reduced compared to S. yimanorum spec. nov. In S. gunggariensis spec. nov. the coloured areas on the hindwings of both sexes have some black along the veins but is not divided by them. Synemon septentrionalis spec. nov. differs in having the elliptical spots of the forewing absent but with developed subapical streaks and the bluish white streak from the base well developed. The coloured areas of the hindwing are less extensive and crossed by black veins in S. septentrionalis spec. nov. The genitalia of all four species, S. collecta, S. kunama spec. nov., S. yimanorum spec. nov. and S. gunggariensis spec. nov., are very similar. In male S. yimanorum spec. nov., however, the valva is somewhat shorter and the tip of the phallus more extended than in the related species. Variability. The specimens from St Ruth are somewhat larger and their hindwings have more sparse dark markings.	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B4F7B023CAA5089FBA3FE38.taxon	etymology	Etymology. The name of this species derives from the Yiman people, an Aboriginal Australian people living in the Upper Dawson River region around Taroom of eastern Central Queensland.	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B4F7B023CAA5089FBA3FE38.taxon	biology_ecology	Biology and distribution. Synemon yimanorum spec. nov. occurs in open grassland in a small range in inland south-eastern Queensland (Fig. 82). All records are from late summer to autumn (February to March). More work is required to map the current distribution of this species. Conservation status. Given the extremely limited range of this species and the small size of the remnant grasslands it is known to occur in, this species should be considered endangered.	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B507B043CAA5415FCA3FA77.taxon	description	(Figs 49 – 52, 63, 65, 82)	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B507B043CAA5415FCA3FA77.taxon	materials_examined	Material examined Holotype: 1 ♂ “ 26.28 S 147.37 E, Ooline Res., 9 km E Mungallala, Q., 10 Oct 1996, E. D. Edwards, R. D. Edwards ” (Figs 49, 50, ANIC 31 014724). Paratypes: 48 ♂, 10 ♀, Ooline Res., 9 km E Mungallala, 26 ° 28 ' S 147 ° 37 ' E, 9. x. 1996 (4 ♂, 1 ♀), 10. x. 1996 (43 ♂, 9 ♀, Figs 51, 52), E. D. Edwards, R. D. Edwards (ANIC, slides 11790, 11832, 11877); 3 ♂, 38 km E of Morven, 26 ° 26 ' S 147 ° 24 ' E, 31. iii. 1994 (1 x), 17. x. 1995 (2 x), E. D. Edwards (ANIC); 5 ♂, 1 ♀, 12 miles E of Morven, 26 ° 25 ' S 147 ° 19 ' E, 19. x. 1957, I. F. B. Common (ANIC). Description	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B507B043CAA5415FCA3FA77.taxon	description	Male (holotype, Figs 49, 50). Wingspan 36 mm. Head: vertex grey, thick piliform grey scales obscuring black lamellar scales, frons with dense grey piliform scales and dense white lamellar scales beside eyes, labial palpi short, appressed to head, not reaching frons, white, haustellum vestigial, antenna grey, above and beneath broadly annulated with white, club white with some grey scales dorsally, expanding fairly abruptly, nudum 5 orange brown on anterior third of club, apiculus minute of a single annulus. Thorax: above dark grey of mixed dark grey piliform and black lamellar scales, two subdorsal rows of pale, almost white scales hardly distinguishable, beneath white, legs pale yellow or straw above, white beneath, epiphysis clothed in minute spinules, inserted below about half length of foretibia, short, spine-like, not nearly reaching end of foretibia. Abdomen: dark grey above with distal two thirds brown, T 2 – T 3 with numerous long grey scales, beneath white. Forewing: dark grey with markings of off-white or ash grey, whole wing dusted with ash grey scales, an off-white patch at end of cell, an obscure band of markings from near apex to 1 A + 2 A before tornus, markings made up of ellipses of dark grey between the veins and outlined both proximally and distally in ash grey appearing as two series of lunate markings between the veins, this band broken between M 3 and CuA 1 and the ellipses below CuA 1 displaced inwards, costa dark grey with ash grey streaks between veins towards apex, one basal streak below cell ash grey, termen dark grey. Cilia dark grey. Underside with costa yellow, basal third of wing black irrorated with yellow in proximal half of cell, outer two thirds yellow, a yellow spot at end of cell and a black patch beyond which extends transversely to mid termen, apex pale yellow, narrow terminal line dark brown proximally and pale yellow distally. Cilia dark brown. Hindwing: basal half of wing dark grey, small pale yellow dot at end of cell, outer half of wing from tip of M 1 to tornus yellow to brownish yellow, the inner margin of this brownish yellow band lunate, black spots between the veins from M 1 to M 3, two conspicuous black spots between CuA 2 and 1 A + 2 A, narrow terminal dark grey line, anal area dark brown at base becoming brownish yellow towards tornus. Cilia dark grey, yellow at tornus. Underside with costa dark grey, remainder of wing dark grey, tornal area yellow with a light scattering of yellow scales surrounding tornal, a narrow terminal line brownish yellow. Cilia dark brown, yellow at tornus. Genitalia (Fig. 63): Valva wide at the base, remaining relatively wide distally, apex pointed upwards, dorsal edge relatively straight, with long simple setae, uncus wide and simple, with long setae; phallus relatively long, arched, widening towards the distal end, with a relatively wide apical projection, phallobase wide; vinculum with two very short projections. Female (paratype, Figs 51, 52). Wingspan 42 mm. Similar to male on upperside, larger, forewing with ash grey markings usually more extensive, sometimes with subapical white streaks between veins, hindwing with the black spots in the brownish yellow band much larger and extending between the veins from Rs to 1 A + 2 A often forming a broad black band, sometimes this band broken between M 3 and CuA 1, brownish yellow spot at end of cell larger. Underside forewing costa yellow, remainder of forewing orange yellow, a pale-yellow spot at end of cell, an obscure post median row of pale-yellow spots and streaks from R 3 to M 3, a subterminal row of black spots from R 4 to M 3, a narrow terminal line brown. Cilia grey-white. Hindwing orange yellow, a pale-yellow spot at end of cell surrounded by a diffuse area of black, a row of black spots between veins from Rs to M 3 and CuA 1 to 1 A + 2 A, a narrow black terminal line. Cilia grey-white. Genitalia (Fig. 65): Ovipositor long, extendable and pointed, papillae anales covered in long setae, ductus bursae very short and straight, corpus bursae ovoid and simple; apophyses posteriores long, reaching beyond corpus bursae.	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B507B043CAA5415FCA3FA77.taxon	diagnosis	Diagnosis. Synemon gunggariensis spec. nov. has a restricted distribution; it occurs in southern eastern Queensland where the similar S. collecta and S. yimanorum spec. nov. also occur, although they are not sympatric. Synemon gunggariensis spec. nov. has a much less streaked appearance than S. collecta and S. yimanorum spec. nov. The male forewings are similar in shape to those of S. collecta but in the female they tend to be narrower like in S. yimanorum spec. nov. The elliptical spots on the forewing are present but reduced in size and the forewings are greyer than in S. yimanorum spec. nov. and S. collecta. Synemon gunggariensis spec. nov. differs from S. septentrionalis spec. nov. by the presence of the elliptical spots on the forewing which are absent in S. septentrionalis which also has greyer forewings. The coloured areas of the hindwing are more extensive than in S. septentrionalis and while there are black on the veins, they do not cross the coloured patch on the hindwing as they do in S. yimanorum spec. nov. In the female the orange spot at the end of the cell of the hindwing is larger than in S. collecta and S. yimanorum spec. nov., and this spot is absent in S. septentrionalis spec. nov. The genitalia of all four species, S. collecta, S. kunama spec. nov., S. yimanorum spec. nov. and S. gunggariensis spec. nov., are very similar. In male S. gunggariensis spec. nov., however, the apical extension of the valva is much wider than in the related species. Synemon gunggariensis spec. nov. and S. yimanorum spec. nov., which occur in the same region, are usually separated by their time of appearance, with Synemon gunggariensis spec. nov. being on the wing mostly in spring (October) and S. yimanorum spec. nov. flying in late summer and autumn (February, March). Variability. Little variability has been observed in this species.	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B507B043CAA5415FCA3FA77.taxon	etymology	Etymology. The name of this species derives from the Gunggari country, home to the Gungari people, an Aboriginal Australian tribe who live in the Maranoa region of Queensland.	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B507B043CAA5415FCA3FA77.taxon	biology_ecology	Biology and distribution. Synemon gunggariensis spec. nov. occurs in open grassland in a small range in inland south-eastern Queensland (Fig. 82). All but one records are from spring (October). More work is required to map the current distribution of this species. Conservation status. Given its extremely limited range and the small size of the remnant grasslands it is known to occur in, this species should be considered endangered.	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B567B083CAA53C6FD90F947.taxon	description	(Figs 53 – 62, 64, 66, 83)	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B567B083CAA53C6FD90F947.taxon	materials_examined	Material examined Holotype: 1 ♂ “ Kelso, Townsville, Q., 18 Mar 1995, G. Wurtz ” (Figs 53, 54, ANIC 31 011917). Paratypes: Queensland: 3 ♂, Kelso, Townsville, 18. iii. 1995, G. Wurtz (ANIC); 4 specimens, Townsville, Peter Valentine Property, 22. iv. 1995, G. Wurtz (coll. Wurtz, 1 ♀ in coll. Douglas); 7 ♂, 1 ♀, The Bluff, 10 km E of Mingela, 19 ° 53 ’ S 146 ° 44 ’ E, 12. iv. 1993, M. F. Braby (ANIC); 2 ♂, Mitchell, 19. iii. 1933, 10. iii. 1933, E. O. E. Edwards (Goldfinch coll. in AM); 1 ♂, Cunnamulla, 25. iv. 1940, N. Geary (AM); 1 ♀, Clermont, K. K. Spencer (AM); 4 ♂, 1 ♀, Clermont, 16. iii. 1921 (3 ♂), 26. iii. 1921 (1 ♂), 20. iii. 1921 (1 ♀) (MVM); 4 specimens, Murrays Spring, 7 km W of Musselbrook Resource Centre, 18 ° 36 ’ 15 ” S 138 ° 04 ’ 28 ” E, 21. iv. 1995 (3 x), 29. iv. 1995 (1 x), G. Daniels & M. A. Schneider (QM); 1 ♂, Stockyard Camp, 19 km NE of Musselbrook Resource Centre, 18 ° 28 ’ 06 ” S 138 ° 14 ’ 54 ” E, 18. iv. 1995, G. Daniels & M. A. Schneider (QM); 1 ♂, Duaringa, 14. iv. 1918 (ANIC); 1 ♂, 2 ♀, Port Denison, (Chau Chak Wing Museum, Sydney); 10 ♂, 1 ♀, 9 km WSW of Torrens Creek, 20 ° 49 ’ S 144 ° 56 ’ E, 2. v. 1992, M. F. Braby (slide 11817, ♂) (Fig. 64, ANIC, 1 ♂ in coll. Douglas); 1 ♂, 1 ♀, Bowen, 30. iii. 1933, J. S. Mackay (MVM); 3 ♂, 12 km SW Bowen, 20 ° 06 ’ S 148 ° 10 ’ E, 25. iv. 1992, M. F. Braby (slide 11818) (Fig. 64, ANIC); 1 ♀, 3 ♂, Selwyn Mine, 160 km SE of Mt. Isa, 21 ° 45 ’ S 140 ° 35 ’ E, 3. iv. 1994 (1 ♀, Figs 55, 56), 10. iv. 1994 (3 ♂), T. Woodger (slide 11889) (ANIC); 3 ♂, 2 ♀, Amphitheatre Camp, 27 km N of Musselbrook Camp, 18 ° 21 ’ S 138 ° 10 ' E, 13. v. 1995, E. D. Edwards (slide 11888) (Fig. 66, ANIC); 1 ♂, Emerald, G. Barnard (ANIC); 35 ♂, Warang Camp, White Mts, 20 ° 27 ’ S 144 ° 50 ’ E, 5. iv. 2000, E. D. Edwards (ANIC, CAK); 1 ♂, 1 ♀, 4 km W of Greenvale, 500 m, 18.99705 ° S 144.94604 ° E, 2. iv. 2017, M. F. Braby & L. J. Atchison (ANIC); 1 ♂, Burra Range, White Mts, 20.72461 ° S 145.17805 ° E, 4. iv. 2017, M. F. Braby & L. J. Atchison (ANIC); 1 ♂, 1 ♀, 23.297 ° S 147.802 ° E, Kettle State Forest, 45 km NW of Emerald, Qld, 14. iv. 2021, B. Hacobian (CAK); 2 ♂, Youngs Block, Charters Towers, 20 ° 4 ’ 53.79 ” S 146 ° 18 ’ 14.97 ” E, 300 m, 17. iv. 2019, M. Hopkinson (coll. Herd). Description	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B567B083CAA53C6FD90F947.taxon	description	Male (holotype, Figs 53, 54). Wingspan 37.5 mm. Head: vertex grey, thick piliform grey scales obscuring black lamellar scales, frons with dense pale grey piliform scales and dense white lamellar scales beside eyes, labial palpi short, porrect, appressed to head, just reaching frons, white, haustellum vestigial, antenna grey, above and beneath broadly annulated with white, club grey above, white, grey and yellow beneath, expanding fairly abruptly, nudum 9 orange brown on anterior third of club, apiculus minute of a single annulus. Thorax: above dark grey of mixed dark grey piliform and black lamellar scales, beneath white, legs pale yellow or straw above, white or pale yellow beneath, epiphysis clothed in minute spinules, inserted below about half length of foretibia, long, spine-like, not reaching end of foretibia. Abdomen: dark grey above, distally grey-brown, T 2 – T 3 with numerous long grey scales, beneath white. Forewing: dark grey with markings of off-white or ash grey, whole wing dusted with ash grey scales, an off-white patch at end of cell, a series of white streaks from beyond cell almost to termen, placed between the veins, and the series extending from R 3 to CuP, costa dark grey, one large streak below cell ash grey, extending from base to beyond middle of wing, termen dark grey. Cilia dark grey. Underside with costa yellow, basal half of wing black, outer half yellow to orange yellow, a yellow spot at end of cell barely distinct, apical area pale yellow with some black scales along veins. Cilia pale grey. Hindwing: dark grey to black, dot at end of cell absent, a series of pale orange-brown ill-defined patches between veins forming an obscure band on outer third, patches between CuA 1 and 1 A + 2 A with obscure, ill-defined dark grey spots within band, tornus dark grey. Cilia dark grey, yellow at tornus. Underside with costa black, remainder of wing black, a broad marginal band of yellow or pale-yellow extending from Sc + R 1 to tornus, interrupted at veins by black streaks. Cilia brown, yellow at tornus, white on inner margin. Genitalia (Fig. 64): Valva wide at the base, abruptly narrower towards the apex, apex pointed upwards, dorsal edge with a low convex arch, with long simple setae, uncus wide and simple, with long setae; phallus relatively long, arched, widening towards distal end, with a short apical projection, phallobase wide; vinculum with two small projections. Female (paratype, Figs 55, 56). Wingspan 41.5 mm. Similar to male on upperside, larger, forewing with white markings less extensive, with a long white streak between R 5 and M 1 and much shorter streaks between M 3 and CuP aligned with cell spot, hindwing with outer orange-brown band paler, larger, more distinct, lunate on inner margin with the black spots between M 1 and M 3 and between CuA 1 and 1 A + 2 A larger than in male. Underside forewing costa yellow, basal third black irrorated with yellow, a pale-yellow spot at end of cell, an obscure post median row of pale-yellow streaks, a subterminal row of elongate black spots between the veins from R 4 to M 3, a narrow terminal line brown. Cilia grey-white. Hindwing inner half to two thirds black, yellow spot at end of cell small or absent, outer third yellow orange, a row of black submarginal spots between veins from Rs to M 3 and CuA 1 to 1 A + 2 A, tornus pale yellow, a narrow black terminal line. Cilia grey-white. Genitalia (Fig. 66): Ovipositor long, extendable and pointed, papillae anales covered in long setae, ductus bursae relatively long and straight, corpus bursae ovoid and simple; apophyses posteriores long, reaching beyond corpus bursae.	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B567B083CAA53C6FD90F947.taxon	diagnosis	Diagnosis. Synemon septentrionalis spec. nov. has greyer forewings than S. collecta and S. yimanorum spec. nov. and a much less streaked appearance than these species and S. gunggariensis spec. nov. It also differs from these three species in the absence of the elliptical spots on the forewing and in the absence of the coloured spot at the end of the cell in the hindwing but in these features, it is similar to S. striolata spec. nov. with which it also cooccurs. From S. striolata spec. nov. it is most easily distinguished by the bar at the end of the cell of the forewing which is angled and transverse in S. septentrionalis spec. nov. but is a longitudinal white streak in S. striolata spec. nov. extending halfway to the margin. The coloured areas of the hindwing are less extensive than in S. striolata spec. nov. Rarely are the elliptical patches visible on the forewing of S. striolata spec. nov. and never in S. septentrionalis spec. nov. The genitalia of S. collecta, S. kunama spec. nov., S. yimanorum spec. nov., S. gunggariensis spec. nov. and S. septentrionalis spec. nov. are very similar. In male S. septentrionalis spec. nov., however, the phallus is thinner, somewhat wider subapically before tapering into narrow extension. The valva has a well-developed apical extension, which is wider than in S. kunama spec. nov. and S. yimanorum spec. nov. but much narrower than in S. gunggariensis spec. nov. Variability. There is considerable variability in size and the extent of the white markings in this species.	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B567B083CAA53C6FD90F947.taxon	etymology	Etymology. The species’ name derives from the septentrional, meaning ‘ of the north’.	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B567B083CAA53C6FD90F947.taxon	biology_ecology	Biology and distribution. Synemon septentrionalis spec. nov. occurs in dry grassy woodland (Figs 57 – 62) from the inland of southern (Cunnamulla) to northern Queensland (Musselbrook Resource Centre) (Fig. 83). Undoubtedly, it also occurs in the east of the Northern Territory. The main flight period is in March and April but there are also records from early May. The hostplant of S. septentrionalis spec. nov. is thought to be Chrysopogon fallax S. T. Blake 1944 (Golden Beard Grass, Poaceae), a perennial tufted grass (M. Braby, personal communication). Conservation status. This species may be regionally endangered by grazing, but due to its large range, it can be considered secure at this stage.	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B5A7B0E3CAA50C3FF65FDF0.taxon	description	(Figs 67 – 80, 83) Synemon species 1; Edwards 1998 a: 130.	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B5A7B0E3CAA50C3FF65FDF0.taxon	materials_examined	Material examined Holotype: 1 ♂ (Figs 67, 68) “ 16.32 S 134.43 E, Microwave Repeater nr Tanumbirini, N. T., 12 May 1993, E. D. Edwards ” (ANIC 31 011928). Paratypes: Northern Territory: 1 ♀, “ Roper R., N. Territory, [14 ° 41 ’ S, 135 ° 17 ’ E], May 1921, N. B. Tindale ” (SAMA); 32 ♂, Microwave Repeater nr Tanumbirini, 16 ° 32 ’ S 134 ° 43 ’ E, 12. v. 1993, E. D. Edwards (ANIC); 18 ♂, Microwave Repeater nr Tanumbirini, 16 ° 32 ’ S 134 ° 43 ’ E, 11. v. 1993, E. D. Edwards (slide 11792) (Fig. 79, ANIC); 2 ♂, Border Waterhole, 15 km W of Musselbrook Resource Centre, 18 ° 36 ’ 44 ” S 137 ° 59 ’ 30 ” E, 2. v. 1995, G. Daniels & M. A. Schneider (QM); 1 ♂, McArthur River, 80 km SW Borroloola, 16 ° 39 ’ S 135 ° 51 ’ E, 13. v. 1973, E. D. Edwards & M. S. Upton (ANIC); 12 ♂, Ranken Rd, 1 km N of Barkly Hwy, 19.99759 ° S 137.21561 ° E, 8. v. 2013, M. F. Braby (ANIC); 1 ♂, 8 ♀, Limmen N. P., Nathan River Ranger Stn, 15.57681 ° S 135.42783 ° E, 12. v. 2009, M. F. Braby & N. Collier (NTM, 1 ♀ in ANIC); 12 ♂, 1 ♀, 3 exuvia (from Chrysopogon fallax), Limmen N. P., Nathan River Ranger Stn, 15.57954 ° S 135.42844 ° E, 14. v. 2009, M. F. Braby & N. Collier (NTM, 2 ♂, 1 ♀ and 3 exuvia in ANIC); 4 ♂, 7 ♀, 133 km W of Cape Crawford, 16 ° 26 ’ S 134 ° 34 ’ E, 14. v. 1973, E. D. Edwards, M. S. Upton (ANIC, slide 11975). Queensland: 5 ♂, 6 ♀, Murrays Spring, 8 km W by N of Musselbrook Camp, 18 ° 35 ’ S 138 ° 03 ’ E, 11. v. 1995, E. D. Edwards (slide 11875, Figs 69 – 72, 79 ANIC); 5 ♂, 1 ♀, 29 km S by W of Musselbrook Camp, 18 ° 51 ’ S, 138 ° 06 ’ E, 8. v. 1995, E. D. Edwards (slide 11793) (Fig. 80, ANIC); 2 ♂, 2 ♀, (+ 1 exuvia), 29 km S by W of Musselbrook Camp, 18 ° 51 ’ S 138 ° 06 ’ E, 13. v. 1995, E. D. Edwards (ANIC); 1 ♂, Musselbrook Camp, 18 ° 36 ’ S 138 ° 08 ’ E, 10. v. 1995, E. D. Edwards (ANIC); 3 ♂, 5 ♀, 8 km SE by E of Musselbrook Camp, 18 ° 38 ’ S 138 ° 11 ’ E, 15. v. 1995, E. D. Edwards (ANIC). Excludes from type series: Western Australia: 1 specimen, 10 miles SE Hall Creek [Halls Creek], 18 ° 20 ’ S 127 ° 46 ’ E, C. F. H. T., May 1944 (collection of the Western Australian Department of Agriculture and Food Collection) (Williams et al. 2016). This specimen was not examined by the authors and is therefore not included in the type series.	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B5A7B0E3CAA50C3FF65FDF0.taxon	description	Description Male (holotype, Figs 67, 68). Wingspan 35.7 mm. Head: vertex grey, thick piliform grey scales obscuring black lamellar scales, frons with dense pale grey piliform scales and dense white lamellar scales beside eyes, labial palpi short, porrect, appressed to head, just reaching frons, white, haustellum vestigial, antenna grey, above and beneath narrowly annulated with white, club grey above, white, beneath, expanding fairly abruptly, nudum 10 orange brown on anterior third of club, apiculus minute of a single annulus. Thorax: above dark grey of mixed dark grey piliform and black lamellar scales, two subdorsal rows of pale, almost white scales hardly distinguishable, beneath white to pale grey, legs pale yellow or straw above, white or pale grey beneath, epiphysis clothed in minute spinules, inserted below about half length of foretibia, long, spine-like, not reaching end of foretibia. Abdomen: dark grey above, distally grey-brown, T 2 – T 3 with numerous long grey scales, beneath grey with white scales at ends of segments, laterally white. Forewing: dark grey with markings of white or ash grey, whole wing dusted with ash grey scales, a white streak at end of cell extending into the post median band of white streaks, a series of post median white streaks beyond cell, placed between the veins, and the series extending from R 5 to CuP, white streak between CuA 2 and CuP broader and extending to base of wing, some white streaks with dark grey scales surrounding them, a subapical row of black elongate spots, between veins extending from R 5 to M 3, sometimes obsolete, costa dark grey, termen dark grey. Cilia dark grey. Underside with costa yellow, basal third of wing black, outer half yellow to orange yellow, a yellow spot at end of cell barely distinct, apical area pale yellow with some small subapical black spots from R 3 to M 2. Cilia pale yellow grey. Hindwing: dark grey to black, dot at end of cell usually absent, a series of pale orange brown patches between veins extending from Rs to 1 A + 2 A forming a band on outer two thirds of wing with inner margin lunate, black or dark grey spots between veins within band extending from M 1 or M 2 to 1 A + 2 A, sometimes all spots equal in size, sometimes spots below CuA 1 much larger, tornus dark grey. Cilia dark grey, yellow at tornus. Underside with costa black, basal half of wing black, a broad marginal ill-defined band of yellow or orange yellow extending from Sc + R 1 to tornus, interrupted at veins by black streaks, traces of poorly defined black spots within orange yellow band from M 2 to CuA 2. Cilia brown, yellow at tornus, white on inner margin. Genitalia (Fig. 79): Valva wide and short, almost square, with small apical projection pointing upwards, with long simple setae, uncus wide and simple, with long setae; phallus relatively short, arched, wider near proximal end, apically pointed; vinculum with two small projections. Female (paratype, Figs 71, 72). Wingspan 41.8 mm. Abdomen wholly grey above, pale yellow beneath. Similar to male on upperside, larger, hind wing with orange yellow band paler, more distinct and black spots within this band are larger and more distinct, sometimes forming a band of black, broken at veins, from Rs to 1 A + 2 A. Underside forewing costa pale yellow, basal third pale grey, distal two thirds pale yellow, a subapical row of elongate black spots between the veins from R 4 to M 3, a narrow terminal line black. Cilia grey-white. Hindwing inner half pale grey, yellow spot at end of cell small or absent, outer half pale yellow, a row of black submarginal spots between veins from Rs to M 3 and CuA 1 to 1 A + 2 A, tornus pale yellow, a narrow black terminal line. Cilia grey-white. Genitalia (Fig. 80): Ovipositor relatively short and wide, extendable and pointed, papillae anales covered in long setae, ductus bursae relatively long and straight, corpus bursae round and simple; apophyses posteriores long but not reaching beyond corpus bursae.	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B5A7B0E3CAA50C3FF65FDF0.taxon	diagnosis	Diagnosis. Synemon striolata spec. nov. is distributed across most of northern Australia. It has a more streaked appearance than the other species with which it may be confused. In both sexes it differs from S. septentrionalis spec. nov., Synemon wulwulam Angle, 1951 and S. phaeoptila in the spot at the end of the forewing cell being a long longitudinal streak extending halfway to the termen rather than a transverse bar as in S. septentrionalis spec. nov. or an oval white spot to a transverse bar as in S. phaeoptila or a broad white mark extending into a pattern of other markings as in S. wulwulam. Synemon striolata spec. nov. has broad earthy yellow to orange markings in the distal half of the hindwing which are present but less marked in S. septentrionalis spec. nov. but absent in S. wulwulam which may have uniformly black hindwings or have a marginal series of small orange spots or wedges. In S. phaeoptila the hindwing is almost black with a very poorly defined brownish bronze colouring towards the termen in some specimens, but in females extensive orange areas are present interrupted by black spots; however, the forewing of S. phaeoptila is black to brownish black rather than grey and the streaks on the outer half of the wing are much less well-defined than in S. striolata spec. nov. The underside of the hindwing in males of S. striolata spec. nov. is black on the basal half with white to orange between the veins on the outer half while in S. phaeoptila it is black to brown with cloudy patches of white scales. The forewing of S. wulwulam always has a distinct transverse line of postmedian white marks from just before the apex to CuP part of a complex well-defined pattern which is not found in S. striolata spec. nov. where any white spots are small, disconnected and subterminal but are usually absent. The genitalia of S. septentrionalis spec. nov. differ from the related species by the much shorter valva, which lack the apical extension but rather abruptly and in a short and pointed apex. The corpus bursae of in S. septentrionalis spec. nov. is round but elliptical in the related species. Variability. This species exhibits some variability in size and the extent of the light forewing markings. The white dis	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B5A7B0E3CAA50C3FF65FDF0.taxon	etymology	Etymology. The species’ name derives from the striolated appearance of its forewings.	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
716B2D1C7B5A7B0E3CAA50C3FF65FDF0.taxon	biology_ecology	Biology and distribution. This species inhabits tropical savannahs and open woodlands (Figs 73, 74) from northern Western Australia across the Northern Territory into the north-west of Queensland (Fig. 83). It favours flat open grassy areas with its hostplants Chrysopogon fallax (Golden Beard Grass, Poaceae) (Braby 2011) and Chrysopogon pallidus (R. Br.) Steud. 1840 (Ribbon Grass, Poaceae) (observation E. D. Edwards). The species appears to be well adapted to fire with specimens emerging from the ground and ovipositing in freshly burnt areas (Figs 75 – 78). Conservation status. Although it may be regionally endangered by grazing, this species can be considered secure.	en	Kallies, Axel, Edwards, Edward D. (2025): New and critically endangered Sun Moth species associated with Australian grasslands (Lepidoptera, Castniidae). Zootaxa 5689 (3): 505-537, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5689.3.5
